1
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INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE
STUDIES AND REPORTS
Series B (Economic Conditions) No. 17
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
IN EUROPE
By
PAUL DEVINAT
GENEVA
1927
PREFACE
With the publication of the present volume on scientific management, the International Labour Office is breaking new ground, and
it is therefore necessary at the outset to determine exactly what is
meant by the term scientific management.
Although the idea of scientific management is nowadays à la
mode, or rather, has greatly attracted public attention in all countries,
it may nevertheless be questioned whether it is the better defined
for that. The fact is, that under the various current formules for
scientific management or industrial rationalisation, there may be
found a vast welter of conceptions involving questions of various
kinds.
As Mr. Paul Devinât, the author of the present volume, points
out in his admirable introduction, three distinct groups of questions
are often included under this term, viz. :
(1) Scientific management in its American and now classic
sense of obtaining the optimum output from the human factor,
e.g. industrial physiology (fatigue study, study of the effects of
monotonous or repetition work, etc.) ; industrial psychology and
individual and collective psycho-technology ; vocational selection and
guidance; questions which the Americans are including more and
more in their study of industrial relations, such as different methods
of remuneration, hours of work, wage fixing on the basis of scientific
job analysis.
(2) Scientific management in the workshop and in the various
services (sales and purchasing departments, etc.) of industrial
undertakings, with a view to increasing the general output, e.g. the
application of scientific methods of organisation, management and
administration.
(3) Scientific management in the wider field of an entire industry
or of national economy as a whole, e.g. standardisation, elimination
of waste, industrial and commercial concentration, mass production
and distribution, etc.
VI
It will thus be seen that the question of scientific management
embodies three branches of research of a different character, but
inspired by the same spirit of experimental method and systematic
organisation.
Truth to tell, these problems have existed for a number of years,
but only during the present generation have they developed and
come to the front.
If the writer of these few lines may be allowed to give his personal
reminiscences, he would recall the initial attempts made in France
during the years 1907-1908 to introduce time-study methods and
Taylorism—attempts which were accompanied by errors and abuses,
by an excessive imitation of American systems and inadequate
preparation, by a violent commotion in the minds of the working
classes, and by the whole struggle against what was called
"systematised sweating". He remembers the burning controversies
of that period. Could organised industry, conceived on Socialist
or even on Communist grounds, afford to reject improvements in
method? Must Taylorism of necessity result in overtaxing the
worker's strength? Might not the new methods for which it stood
be expected rather to ease the worker's toil by the very fact of calculating it out on an improved plan?
Later, during the war, it became essential in France to devise
methods to ensure the fullest possible utilisation of the depleted
staffs of the factories engaged in war work, and this led French
factories to introduce, in many cases for the first time, methods of
mechanical transport, to make the first attempt at "chain work",
and even, in certain powder mills, to undertake regular motion
studies of women workers with a view to increasing output and
reducing fatigue.
The author of these lines was thus in a position in 1922 and 1923
to understand and appreciate the construction of motor-cars or
tractors in the Ford works, the intelligent vocational selection
practised in the Dennison works, and the ingenious devices introduced
in the immense emporiums of Edward Filene.
Nor can there be many people interested in social problems who
have not, during the last twenty odd years, had the opportunity, or
been compelled, to learn from one source or another somewhat about
scientific management.
An entirely new factor, however, and one that goes back only a
few years, is the realisation by American business men of the
enormous power which the systematic and rational practice of the
— VII —
new methods has given them. Intuition has told them that these
are the methods required, not merely to reintroduce intimacy . in
the relations between workers and employers and to imbue industry
with a fresh spirit of development, but also to reconstruct the older
European society disorganised by the war, or, in a word, to promote
the happiness and advancement of civilisation.
In short, the new element is the realisation by many persons in
Europe that the economic progress of the United States threatens
disaster to the older continent, and\ that the only way to salvation
lies in the rationalisation of production.
.,* * *
The International Labour Office could not remain either aloof
from or indifferent to a movement of this character, even in its infancy.
Scientific management in its earliest form, that is to say, the study
of physiological conditions of labour, fatigue, vocational selection, etc., was well within the competence of the Office. It is a
recognised duty of the Office to protect the worker against the distresses
and sufferings to which he may be exposed. Its mission is to
lighten his labour and to sweeten his task. Although, during the
last seven years, the Office has not considered these questions as
though they formed a single separate problem, it has never at any
moment ceased to give them its closest attention in the work carried
out in its Industrial Health Service, in its Industrial Safety Service,
in the study of vocational guidance which it has undertaken, sometimes single-handed and sometimes in collaboration with the Jean
Jacques Rousseau Institute, and in its research work, in connection
with the enquiry into production, on hours of work, and the workers'
output. Moreover, from its earliest days the. Office has always
considered the question of the organisation of undertakings
with
a view to improved output to be of great importance for it. The
original scheme for the internal organisation of the Office, which
was submitted to the Governing Body in 1920, provided for a special
technical service to deal with questions of production, which would
naturally
have studied the various problems connected with
scientific management in industry.
Force of circumstances necessitated the postponement of this
projecL But it is impossible to imagine that the daily work of the
Office could remain unaffected by so important a question as industrial
efficiency. Is it not perfectly obvious that only a flourishing industry
Vili
can meet heavy charges? Is not the maintenance of the eight-hour
day indissolubly bound up, under modern conditions, with the
technical improvement of workshops and increased output of human
strength?
It must, however, be recognised that these problems were only
indirectly dealt with during the first year's activity of the Office.
It is all to the honour of one of the Office officials that he discerned
and, so to speak, foresaw the first signs of the movement which,
during the last two or three years, has brought the question of scientific
management so prominently before public notice. Mr. Paul
Devinât, chief of the Employers' Organisation Service of the Office,
had been called upon by the very nature of his duties to make a
detailed study of the new ideas and measures adopted by American
industry. He accompanied me on my mission to the United States
in 1922-1923. During that period Mr. Devinât threw himself
wholeheartedly into the study of industrial relations and internal
organisation of factories. He got into close touch with Mr. E. Filene,
Mr. H. Dennison, and their friends of the XXth Century Fund, a
body of men firmlytoonvincedthat the only remedy for the world-wide
economic chaos is the systematic reorganisation of industrial methods.
Those industrial employers with whom we came into contact were
captivated by the eager and enquiring mind of Mr. Devinât, as well
as by his broad knowledge and comprehension of social movements.
When, some time later, our American friends, conscious of the
results which they had achieved and interested in the general situation
of Europe, crossed the ocean in their turn, they found in Mr. Devinât
the best guide and the person most competent to grasp their ideas,
and to explain the actual position of things in our older European
civilisation.
Thus, little by little the idea arose that regular co-operation could
be established between this group of pioneers and the International
Labour Organisation, and this culminated in a proposal to found
an international institution for the study of questions connected
with the scientific organisation of production. Once this proposal
had taken root, the first care of our friends was to ascertain what
support could be counted on. What exactly were the chances of
success of such an institution? What exactly was to be its plan
of action? The only way to obtain answers to these queries was to
—
IX
—
learn what steps had already been taken, what institutions of similar
character already existed, how far the system of scientific management
had been applied up to then, and what was the state of public opinion
in the different strata of society. It was at this stage that I granted
Mr. Devinât leave of absence from the Office, and authorised him to
undertake an enquiry on behalf of the XXth Century Fund; the
results of this enquiry go to form the present volume.
I consider it no more than my duty to take this opportunity of
expressing my thanks to the trustees of the Fund for having so
kindly afforded our collaborator the means of carrying out the enquiry,
and for allowing the Office to publish the results in its Studies and
Reports. Of the volume itself I shall say nothing. Every reader
will appreciate its merits. Mr. Devinât has managed to embody,
in what might well have been a simple and somewhat dry bibliography, the whole soul of the new movement described by him
with all the sentiment and enthusiasm which sustain it.
At the moment of going to press the International Management
Institute has just been founded by a decision of the Thirty-fifth
Session of the Governing Body of the International Labour Office.
The Institute will be managed by a board of twelve members, viz.
three representatives of the XXth Century Fund, three representatives
of the Governing Body of the International Labour Office (representing the Governments, employers and workers respectively), a representative of the International Committee for Scientific Management,
and five experts nominated by the first seven founder members of
the Institute. Mr. Devinât has been appointed Director of the
Institute. The International Labour Office has agreed to place at
the disposal of the Institute certain material facilities, especially
accommodation, and the services of several of its officials, while the
XXth Century Fund has guaranteed to pay an annual contribution
of §25.000 for a period of three years.
Logically these few introductory remarks should end here. May
we, however, be permitted to say, in wishing Godspeed to the new
institution, with what deep feelings of faith and hope we will follow
this effort to rationalise industry.
Perhaps some of its admirers have exaggerated its importance.
Miracles have been mentioned; industrial revolution has been
hinted at. Mr. H. B. Butler, the Deputy-Director of the Office,
— X —
who has recently returned from the United States, and whose
report will shortly be published, has sounded a note of warning
against undue exaggeration. Far-seeing and critical, he has
pointed out that scientific management is at bottom nothing more
than a minute attention to detail and an intelligent application of
the ordinary rules of common-sense. His is an opinion which is
not to be challenged lightly. But if, as Descartes has it, commonsense is the best distributed commodity in the world, it is not at all
so certain that in the course of ordinary human affairs it is always
applied systematically and with regularity. To bring commonsense to bear on daily industrial questions requires much method
and will-power, and also, perhaps, some little audacity.
However strange it may appear, it is really only through bold
action that success would appear to be obtained. Witness the
audacity of Ford in cutting the price of motor-cars when all his
most lively competitors were thinking of increasing it! Witness
the temerity of Citroen in introducing apparently costly and dangerous
methods of rationalisation into his newly-constructed works when
the war was at its height! Witness again the collective daring of
the Germans in embarking on a plan for the concentration and
rationalisation of industry immediately the stabilisation of the mark
allowed them, and on a scale which it did not seem to justify!
A
new faith requires audacity. Who, therefore, among us would
cavil at it?
There is, moreover, another side to the doctrine of rationalisation
which calls for respect. It claims that its purpose is not to increase
the employers'' profits.
In accordance ivith the American ideal
of "service" it aims at serving the interests of the consumers as a
whole. It holds up the material prosperity of all members of society
as one of the goals of civilisation. To reduce the cost of production
to a minimum, and thus to secure the ample satisfaction of all
requirements, to be of service to the consuming masses, these are its
aims. Some may object that this is pure materialism. But it is
very difficult to imagine progress in any branch of intellectual life
if the elementary necessities do not first receive satisfaction.
Much has been written on this subject. Eminent minds, have
studied the question. I still have a vivid recollection of the real
emotion with which President Harding spoke to me early in 1923
of his views on the subject. After all, can "chain work" be considered more nerve-racking or more mechanical than work performed
in the spinning mills, or than machine tool work in a modern
—
XI
—
factory? My friend Debreuil, a working mechanic by trade and
one who has devoted much thought to his condition as a worker, once
pointed out that the essential difference between chain work and
ordinary work lay in the fact that all the implements necessary for
the worker lay at hand at the right moment, and that the disorder
connected with certain manufacturing
processes was abolished.
It would indeed be vain, and even dangerous, to endeavour to
reintroduce intelligence and initiative in workshops where the output
depends entirely on automatic machinery.
Rationalisation
presupposes a great intellectual effort on the part of the "brain" of the
factory—the central offices and the research departments.
It is not
simply to the individual trade or machine-tool that this effort must
be directed. If the work to be done becomes more trying or more
exacting, compensation must be found in the increased leisure and
in the shorter working hours which the new methods make possible.
This has been understood by the workers. It is a characteristic
fact in all countries that, after a certain amount of legitimate opposition, and on loyal guarantees being offered, the workers have
become warm adherents of the doctrine of rationalisation.
The letter addressed to the International Labour Office by Mr.
Oudegeest, Secretary-General of the Amsterdam Federation, the
declarations and manifestoes of the American Federation of Labor,
the Allgemeiner Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund and the French
General Confederation of Labour, all bear witness to the trust
placed in the new scheme, which must result in more extensive
production and in conditions of labour becoming ever more humane.
It is with a just sense of realities that these organisations have
also come to associate shorter hours of work with the rationalisation
of industry.
Further, the introduction into the workshop of scientific
improvements, both visible and tangible, stimulates the inventive
genius of every producer, and provides the most immediate and best
of opportunities to share in the management and prosperity of
industry.
There are doubtless employers who make the mistake of
trying to utilise scientific management to set up "industrial relations"
in opposition to trade unionism, but in rationalisation the trade
union movement in Europe may find the most magnificent opportunity of showing how legitimate are its aspirations to take part in
the development and prosperity of production.
Who can imagine
the future of such a scheme?
Finally, may not scientific management be considered to a certain
extent as final aim of the "industrial revolution" of modern times?
\
XII
From the very beginning of this revolution its leaders apparently
seem to have been carried away and dominated by it. Have they
not been obsessed by a strange sense of fatalism?
At the outset
were they not resigned to the suffering and distress which the use of
machinery brought upon industrial communities?
Did they not
believe that a price had to be paid for progress, and that that price
had to be met by the working classes? Later, did they not talk of
the inevitability of competition, and do they not at present regard
the periodical cyclical depressions affecting industry at regular
intervals as unavoidable
contingencies?
It may be that the prophets of scientific management have overestimated the importance of the movement. But when all is considered,
is it not a noble gospel to proclaim that work can be organised in
such a way that the individual shall be subject to less fatigue and
shall enjoy more ample leisure, that factories can be run so as to
avoid the waste of natural resources and to lessen human toil, that
trades and industries can be organised on lines that will secure a
more plenteous supply of commodities to the consumer, and that the
national economic systems, and even the international
economic
system, based on the co-operation of peoples, can also be so organised
that the whole of humanity will be guaranteed that stability of
employment and a standard of life zvhich are the tokens of a higher
civilisation?
A L B E R T THOMAS
J u n e 1927.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE
v
INTRODUCTION
1
Origin and Object of the Enquiry
General Characteristics of the Subject
The Method of Conducting the Enquiry
General Arrangement of the Report
I.
II.
T H E G R O W T H AND
MENT
1
2
5
7
PROGRESS OF THE
MOVE9
Preliminary Observations
•
Importance, General Characteristics and Value of the Published
Material
The General Lines of Development of the Movement
The War and its Immediate Consequences as a Factor in
the Development of Scientific Management
First or Introductory Phase
•
Second Phase: Adaptation
Third Phase: Adjustment
Conclusions
18
22
27
37
41
INSTITUTIONS
46
'.
General Remarks
Rough Classification of Institutions
Institutions and Laboratories for Study and Research
Institutions for the Application of Scientific Management
Methods
Institutions for Publicity Purposes; Congresses
1. General Publicity
2. Congresses
Educational Institutions
1. Higher Education
2. 'Technical Schools
<
3. Schools for Apprentices and Foremen
9
11
16
46
48
50
55
61
62
65
70
71
72
73
—
XIV
.—
PAGE
III.
IV.
V.
General Survey of Institutions by Countries
Austria
Belgium
,
Czechoslovakia
Finland
France
Germany
Great Britain
Italy
The Netherlands
Poland
Russia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Conclusions
74
75
75
76
77
78
80
83
84
85
85
86
88
88
89
90
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
91
General
Industrial Technique
Conditions Governing the Introduction and Extension of
Methods of Scientific Management
Special Aspects of the Application of Scientific Management
Application to Commercial and Administrative Activities.
Application in Relation to the Human Factor
General Organisation of Production
General Results of Applications
91
93
100
Ill
115
120
123
OPINIONS
MENT
127
CONCERNING
SCIENTIFIC
95
MANAGE-
General
Employers
Technicians
Workers
Public Opinion
127
129
139
148
156
CONCLUSION
164
— XV •—
APPENDICES
PAGE
APPENDIX
I:
Definition and Aims of Scientific Management
APPENDIX
II:
A. Systematic Bibliography of Works and Articles Recently
Published in German on Scientific Management
B. Short Summary of French Literature on Scientific Management
APPENDIX
169
172
211
III:
A. Table of the Principal Institutions of Scientific Management. 216
JS. Notes on the Constitution and Activity of the Various
Institutions of Scientific Management
223
1. The International Committee for Scientific Management
223
2. Reichskuratorium für Wirtschaftlichkeit
225
3. The Council of Scientific Organisation (Sovnot)
227
4. The Masaryk Academy of Labour and the National
Committee for Scientific Organisation
229
5. The Italian National Committee for the Scientific
Organisation of Labour
231
6. The National Institute of Industrial Psychology
232
APPENDIX
IV:
A. Technical Application in France
B. Psycho-Technology and its Application in Germany
1. Vocational Guidance
2. Psycho-Technical Application in State Undertakings.
3. Private Industry
C. Standardisation
1. Standardisation Institutions in the Various Industrial Countries of Europe
2. Standardisation from an International Standpoint..
APPENDIX
233
246
246
249
251
252
253
256
V:
Constitution and Rules of the International Management Institute
ADDENDUM AND COKBIGENDUM
257
261
INTRODUCTION
O R I G I N AND O B J E C T OF T H E E N Q U I R Y
The origin of this enquiry dates back to the spring of 1925.
The author has followed the development of the movement in
favour of scientific management in Europe and the United States
since the war. Having been struck by the various economic
and social repercussions of t h a t movement, he had conceived the
plan of an International Institute for the study of problems of
scientific management which should be attached to the International Labour Office a t Geneva. During the course of a visit
to the United States he had an opportunity of submitting this
scheme to the X X t h Century Fund, of Boston. The latter
decided t o give him its support and to grant a subsidy of
20,000 dollars to the proposed Institute, provided t h a t the
remainder of the funds necessary for its establishment were
found elsewhere.
I n September 1925, as the negotiations which were being
conducted concerning the m a t t e r had not yet taken a positive
shape, Messrs. E. Filene, H . Dennison, J . Fahey, and J . MacDonald, members of the Board of Trustees of the X X t h Century
Fund, met at Geneva and decided, in agreement with the
author, t h a t it was essential, before coming to any decision,
to ascertain as accurately as possible the extent t o which the
movement for scientific management had developed in the chief
industrial countries, in order t o determine the chances of success
and the programme of work of the proposed Institute.
They
agreed t h a t an enquiry into the m a t t e r was all the more desirable
in t h a t , apart from its immediate object, it might be of interest
t o the public on the eve of the International Economic Conference
t o be held a t Geneva. The Board of Trustees of the X X t h
Century Fund accepted this view, and decided in October 1925
2
— 2 —
to place the sum of 11,200 dollars at the disposal of the author
for the purposes of the enquiry. In order to simplify his task it
was arranged that his researches should be confined to Europe.
The Taylor Society of New York agreed to be responsible for
conducting the enquiry as far as the United States were
concerned.
Mr. Albert Thomas, Director of the International Labour
Office, who had followed the negotiations with the XXth Century
Fund with interest and sympathy, agreed to grant the
author of the plan leave of absence during the time necessary
for the enquiry, and to give him any assistance that lay in his
power.
In accordance with the decision of the Board of Trustees of
the XXth Century Fund, the essential object of the enquiry
was to be to study the existing position of the scientific management movement in the different European countries, and to
endeavour to determine the various forces and circumstances
favourable to the establishment of an International Institution
for the study and encouragment of scientific management.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUBJECT
Before setting to work on the enquiry, the author and his
assistants had to take into account certain general characteristics
of the subject with which they were to deal :
(a) The term "scientific management" does not cover exactly
the same group of questions in the various European countries
or in the different milieux in any one of those countries. Some
uncertainty exists, not only as regards the extent and nature of
the problems under examination, but also as regards the terms
employed, these being interpreted differently according to the
country, the professional class, or the individual who employs
them x . The first task of those engaged in the enquiry was,
therefore, to determine exactly what they themselves meant by
scientific management. This preliminary work was facilitated
1
To meet this situation, a number of institutions in various countries
have embarked on the publication of dictionaries or glossaries of scientific
management. Cf. especially the Dictionnaire de Vorganisation et de la science
du travail, published in card-index form by the CONFÉRENCE D E L'ORGANI-
SATION FRANÇAISE, 144 rue de Rennes, Paris.
— 3 —
by the fact t h a t American conceptions on the subject are generally regarded throughout Europe as authoritative 1 . These conceptions made it possible for the workers on the enquiry, while
taking account of various European extensions or modifications
of them, to determine the exact scope of their researches, as
convening three groups of questions:
(1) Scientific management as understood in its most technical
and most restricted sense, i.e. the systematic application t o the workshop and to the various services (sales
and purchasing departments, etc.) of industrial undertakings, and also to special departments in banking, commerce, and agriculture for the purposes of increasing output, of the principles of experimental research established
by Taylor and subsequently extended and developed by
his successors, e.g. the preparation of work, systematic job
analysis, routing, supervision, and costings; and the
application to all undertakings, private or public, of
methods of organisation, management, and administration
based upon those principles.
(2) Scientific management in relation to the " h u m a n
factor," as understood and practised in Europe, viz.:
(i) industrial psychology and psycho-technology, individual
and collective (determination of individual aptitude,
training of managers, technicians, foremen, and manual
and non-manual workers; vocational guidance and
selection), and industrial physiology (fatigue study,
industrial hygiene, study of effects of monotonous or
repetitive work, etc.); and (ii) industrial relations, in so
far as they effect o u t p u t ; fixing of wages on the basis
of scientific job analysis; different methods of remuneration; hours of work; and methods of collaboration
between the various classes engaged in production.
(3) Scientific management as applied in accordance with
the same guiding principles, but on a wider scale, to
general industrial problems, e.g. standardisation, elimination of waste, industrial and commercial concentration,
1
The reader may be interested to refer to the definition supplied in
a memorandum on scientific management submitted to the Preparatory
Committee for the International Economic Conference(see Appendix I, p.169).
— 4 —
mass production and distribution, activities of professional
and Government organisations "with a view t o improving
production or distribution, etc.
( b) The original nature of the enquiry, for which there was no
international or even national precedent* in Europe, necessarily
impeded and delayed investigations. I t has, in fact, proved
necessary to take account of a number of special difficulties, due
chiefly to the fragmentary and, in some cases, undiscriminating
character of the existing documentary material, to the scattered,
inchoate and sometimes almost unrecognisable form in which
the methods under consideration are applied, to the immaturity
and incoherence of the specialist institutions, and to the varied
character of individual conceptions and applications, arising
from the lack of mutual understanding and the numerous
prejudices existing in the minds both of employers and of
workers
I t is all the more gratifying, in view of these difficulties, to be
able to record t h a t the enquiry aroused the keenest interest in
every country and in the most varied quarter—not only among
technicians and economists, but among numerous employers,
among the workers even, and, in some countries, among representative public men, politicians, civil servants, etc. This
interest would appear to indicate t h a t the enquiry, irrespective
of the specific object for which it was undertaken, came a t a
most opportune moment.
Readers of this Report will find in it an account of efforts made
to understand and apply the principles of scientific management
sufficient to prove t h a t the movement is no longer, at all events
in the chief industrial countries of Europe, in the preliminary or
trial stage, b u t t h a t it is certain in the near future to make very
considerable progress.
I t is indisputable t h a t , under the pressure of economic circumstances and the efforts for the post-war restoration of Europe,
scientific management, in spite of considerable ignorance and
misunderstanding, is recognised as constituting an important
1
In June 1926, some months after the author's enquiry had begun, the
Ausschuss zur Untersuchung der Erzeugungs- und Absatzbedingungen der
deutschen Wirtschaft, set up by the German Government, and presided
over by Dr. C. Lammers, undertook a similar enquiry for Germany.
— 5—
factor in economic reconstruction \ Moreover, t h e fact t h a t
scientific management originated in America, and h a s been
largely instrumental in producing t h e extraordinary wave of
industrial prosperity in t h e United States, would appear t o lend
it an ever-increasing prominence among the questions of the day.
The above circumstances necessarily tend t o make t h e results
of this enquiry incomplete in character. Even now, when t h e
work is practically completed, we discover fresh publications and
fresh cases of application every day. We hope, however, t h a t
nothing of prime importance has been omitted from this report.
And though as a scientific study t h e report is necessarily imperfect, the conclusions t o be derived from it will hardly admit
of dispute.
For t h e same reasons we have been obliged t o submit our
results in a somewhat over-simplified form. This was inevitable
in a first attempt to analyse on international lines a movement
which is still in process of development. We trust t h a t we may
be pardoned for having attempted t o confine within a logical
framework so rich, varied and complex a body of material as is
represented by t h e group of ideas and facts with which we h a d
to deal.
T H E M E T H O D O F CONDUCTING T H E E N Q U I R Y
Given t h e circumstances described above, t h e investigators
were obliged t o plan their work according t o t h e means and time
at their disposal.
I n particular, they were obliged t o resist t h e temptation t o
carry o u t a complete a n d exhaustive enquiry for every country.
The results of their studies m a y subsequently be gradually
supplemented so as t o form a basis for a series of national monographs. They agreed, however, for t h e purposes of t h e present
report, t o keep within t h e limits of t h e following programme:
(1) To collect for each country the essential data concerning:
the bibliography and documentary material of all kinds
bearing on t h e subjects falling within t h e general scheme
of t h e enquiry ;
1
Cf. the chapter on Scientific Management initie Enquiry into Production,
published (in French only) by the INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE.
— 6 —
the institutions in each country which have devoted
themselves, more or less, to problems of scientific management whether their object was research, or education, or
propaganda and particularly the various congresses which
have dealt with the subject;
as far as information was available, any practical
applications of the methods covered by the enquiry in
industry, in other branches of production or distribution,
and in the public services.
For this purpose a brief questionnaire was sent at the beginning
of our enquiry to all our National Correspondents and to other
persons capable of supplying useful information.
(2) Once this preliminary information was collected, it was
essential, in order to determine its real value and the general
tendencies which it indicated, to check it with the assistance,
wherever possible, of the bodies or individuals competent to
express an opinion.
For this purpose a second questionnaire, less didactic in
character than the first, was drawn up. Its object was to discover
what criticisms had been passed on scientific management in the
different countries and the various professional categories, and
what claims had been made on it. This questionnaire served
as a basis for the various consultations, visits of inspection and
negotiations carried out personally or by correspondence during
the course of the enquiry.
In the light of the information acquired by these means
the investigators endeavoured to draw such conclusions as
would enable them to attain the immediate purposes of the
enquiry.
The enquiry was held at Geneva, where all the information
and documents were collected, sorted, and utilised by a small
staff specially qualified to classify the material and to estimate its
value.
In most of the European countries the questionnaires were
sent to National Correspondents, who were asked to carry out
local researches. An effort was made to select these Correspondents in such a manner as to obtain the expression of different
points of view. Thus, they included engineers (in France,
Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Norway), professors specialising in the teaching of scientific management (in
— 7 —
Belgium and Austria), and specialists in industrial psychology
(in England and Germany) and in social questions (in Switzerland
and Poland) 1 .
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE REPORT
The results of the enquiry are given below, in the following
order:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
The Growth and Progress of the Movement.
Institutions.
Practical Application and its Results.
State of Opinion.
Conclusions.
1
The author takes this opportunity of expressing his indebtedness to
the following persons who have assisted him in the enquiry : Messrs. O. Stein,
D. H. Blelloch, and G. S. Rabinovitch, of the International Labour Office,
Geneva; Mr. J e a n Milhaud, Engineer, of the Franch Ecole Polytechnique,
for France; Mr. F. Mauro, President of the Association of Italian Engineers
and of the Italian National Committee for Scientific Management, for
Italy; Miss L. Rabinovitch, for Germany; Mrs. Turynowie, for Poland;
Mr. Rotta, Engineer, for Czechoslovakia; Prof. De Leener, Engineer, of
the Solvay Institute, President of the Belgian National Committee for
Scientific Management, for Belgium; Mr. R. de Madariaga, for Spain;
Mr. N. Rogstad, Engineer, for Norway; Mr. H. Hising, Engineer, for Sweden;
Messrs. van Gogh and Hymans, Consulting Engineers, for the Netherlands;
Messrs. de Vallières, Engineer and Member of the Taylor Society, and
A. Hentsch, for Switzerland; and Messrs. O.Sheldon, W. R. Dunlop, and
J. C. Rea Price, for Great Britain.
Thanks are also due to Correspondents in a number of countries who have
given valuable assistance in the form of suggestions or replies t o the questionnaires.
Mr. Milhaud and Miss Rabinovitch are responsible for a number of the
Appendices. Miss Rabinovitch has also very kindly helped in the final
preparation of the Report.
I
THE
GROWTH AND PROGRESS
OF T H E M O V E M E N T
P R E L I M I N A R Y OBSERVATIONS
I t may at first sight appear somewhat ambitious to a t t e m p t to
describe the development of a movement, the origin of which is
so recent, which differs so much from country to country, and in
which the 'complexity common to most industrial phenomena is
fully reflected. The only really effective method of research in
each case must be the study with all possible thoroughness of the
existing literature and documentary material. Moreover, such
a study must be supplemented by enquiry concerning various
points of detail with a view t o describing and explaining special
features peculiar to different countries or different branches of
industry \
I t would have been impossible, within the limited time
available, to undertake a systematic analysis—which would
necessarily have been summary and incomplete—of the literature
published in each country. I t has, however, been possible, by
carefully collecting and sifting the bibliographical information—
an attempt to provide a systematic bibliography for Germany,
by way of an example, will be found annexed hereto—on international lines to obtain information of a general character
1
A study of this kind has already been undertaken in a most competent
manner for all countries by the Archiv der Fortschritte Betriebswissenschaftlicher Forschung und Lehre, published, under the direction of Professor
NICKLICH, at Berlin, by Poeschel at Stuttgart from 1925 onwards.
In this publication all important works or articles published concerning
scientific management in various countries are studied for each year separately. A special study has been made of the period prior to 1925, and will
shortly be published also under Professor Nicklich's direction.
o
— 10
-
concerning the evolution of scientific management in Europe,
which will, it is hoped, be found useful. It is in fact, sufficient
to determine the main lines of that evolution in order to realise
the present strength of the movement, its value from the international point of view, and its possibilities of development in
the near future. Studies, on a national basis, of the movement's
history are in preparation in a number of countries. There will
be found, in a second Appendix to the present Report, a rapid
survey of the information furnished by the most recent bibliographical data in France, Germany, and Great Britain.
It is a relatively simple matter to obtain bibliographical
information as regards most of the published material. Most of
the works on scientific management published down to 1920 are
mentioned by Cannons 1. A bibliographical review of the works
published since that date in most of the European countries is
to be found in certain technical reviews or specialist periodicals 2.
Two preliminary observations may be made.
In the first place, the bibliographical material is of a most
universal character. There is no country in Europe in which
studies have not been published on problems of industrial organisation; even in the Tartar language such studies are found.
This in itself is an argument for the international treatment of
the question.
Secondly, it is difficult to differentiate between purely theoretical studies and studies dealing with the practical application of
scientific methods. It is safe to say, however—a statement
which can be verified later—that scientific management has
hitherto been extremely technical in character. Without this
preliminary observation, the division of the subject into theoretical and practical examples, for the purposes of logical presentation, might arouse some confusion in the mind of the reader.
1
H. CANNONS : Bibliography of Industrial Efficiency and Factory Management.
London, 1920.
2
Cf. especially Mon Bureau (for France) ; Betriebstechnik, Betriebsführung,
Betrieb und Organisation (for Germany); L'Organizzazione Scientifica del
Lavoro (for Italy); Nova Prace (for Czechoslovakia); Przeglad Kaukowej
Organizacji (for Poland) ; Die Taylor Zeitschrift (for Austria), etc.
On 1 September 1926 the first number of a periodical published by the
AUSCHUSS FÜR WIRTSCHAFTLICHE VERWALTUNG of the REICHSKURATORIUM
FÜR WIRTSCHAFTLICHKEIT wast. ssued in Berlin. This periodical, which
bears the title Das Betriebswissenschaftlicher Schrifttum, contains a detailed
bibliography, which will be kept up to date in succeeding numbers of all the
literature which has appeared in the course of 1926 on questions connected
with scientific management.
<
— 11 —
The pragmatic character of scientific management, as reflected
in the specialist literature, no doubt offers great advantages from
the point of view of technical experts. On the other hand, it
represents a difficulty for theorists and propagandists : it makes
their descriptions fragmentary and confused, and renders it
more difficult for them t o cope with the complex mass of questions
covered by the subject, to arrive a t definite conclusions and to
present them to public opinion in a coherent and attractive
form.
IMPORTANCE, G E N E R A L CHARACTERISTICS AND V A L U E
OF THE P U B L I S H E D MATERIAL
Although it is most difficult to draw u p an exhaustive list of
works or articles dealing with scientific management, and although,
owing to the complexity of the subject-matter, it is necessary to
take into account a relatively large number of works which deal
a t the same time with allied subjects, the literature is certainly
extremely abundant. This is the case not merely for Germany,
where a considerable mass of material is published concerning
all technical and economic questions, and for which the investigators in J u n e 1926 had noted more t h a n 1,000 works or articles
on the subject, without venturing t o claim t h a t their list was
exhaustive. The material is relatively no less abundant for
other countries. Thus, in Russia, it was possible, a t the end
of 1924, to cite close upon 400 works or pamphlets on scientific
management, in addition to magazine and newspaper articles.
I n Poland and Czechoslovakia, where the interest in t h e subject
dates only a few years back, a considerable mass of literature
already exists. France stands out from other countries as
possessing comparatively important literature dating from the
pre-war period. Even in England, although American works
are directly accessible t o the public, an abundant national
literature has nevertheless been produced.
Generally speaking, it is in the Anglo-Saxon, Germanic, and
Slav countries, and—among the Latin countries—in France
t h a t the greatest number of publications on scientific management
are t o be found in Europe.
A glance at this literature makes it immediately evident t h a t
its volume exceeds its intrinsic worth. The existing mass of
— 12 —
documentary material is, in fact, of very unequal value. Many
works are totally lacking in originality, especially as far • as
the theory of the subject is concerned. A certain proportion,
which varies according to the country, consists of translations
or adaptations of foreign, and more particularly American,
works. I t is possible, however, at once to discern a preference
for particular subjects in the different countries. I n England
and Germany special attention is devoted t o problems of
industrial psychology and physiology. In France a peculiar
concern is periodically displayed in certain social aspects of the
questions ; the same is true of England. The political and economic situation in Russia has obviously been responsible for the
special orientation of the original literature on scientific management in t h a t country.
The literature, taken as a whole, is almost exclusively
technical in character. The investigators have endeavoured
in the case of certain countries to classify the authors
according to professions. The great majority are engineers
and teachers of technical subjects. The next largest class,
no less specialist in character, consists of doctors and
university professors interested in psycho-physiological problems.
There is a much smaller number of industrialists, who give the
results of their personal experiences or make original suggestions,
and of military men who during the war and post-war periods
were called upon to direct technical services and thus t o apply
the principles of scientific management. The smallest class
consists of a few who have made occasional contributions t o
scientific management literature. Apart from, certain rare
exceptions, neither politicians nor labour leaders have written
on the subject.
The technical character of the literature is accentuated by
the obvious influence of American authors. There is no doubt
that, notwithstanding the existence of a certain amount of
original work by pioneers in different countries, the Americans,
and particularly Taylor, are responsible for initiating the movement for scientific management in Europe. Proof of this is
to be found in the important p a r t played b y translations of
American works in the European literature on the subject. I n
the new countries, where the introduction of the principles of
scientific management is still proceeding, propaganda generally
takes the form of translations of American works.
— 13 <—
Taylor's own works have been translated into practically all
languages, and the chief part of the discussions on scientific
management seems in most countries to have centred round
them.
Some specialists, more particularly t h a t eminent
authority, Mr. Le Châtelier, consider t h a t no better method of
popularising the subject exists even to-day t h a n to broadcast
translations of Principles of Scientific Management.
Moreover,
it is by the name of " Taylorism " t h a t scientific management
was long known and is in some cases still known in Europe.
I t is very doubtful, however, whether Taylor's works have
always been rightly understood or his principles properly applied.
Attemps have frequently been made to modify or simplify them
before presenting them t o the public in the various countries, in
order to make them more readily comprehensible and to derive
from them lessons better calculated to strike the imagination.
Mention should be made, in addition to Taylor, among those
American authors whose works have been most widely translated,
of Mr. and Mrs. Gilbreth, who are perhaps more popular in
Germany and Russia than Taylor himself and have sometimes
been quoted in labour circles against him, and of Gantt, Emerson,
Hathaway, Hartness, and Wallace Clark.
Side by side with these authors, who are regarded in Europe
as disciples of Taylor, mention should also be made of Hugo
Münsterberg and Link, who are held in special repute in Germany
in regard to problems of industrial psycho-physiology.
Another American work which has attracted considerable
attention at all events in certain countries (e.g. Czechoslovakia,
Germany, and Russia), is the report, Waste in Industry, with
which Mr. Hoover's name is closely associated. This work
undoubtedly contributed very largely to the promotion of
scientific management in Czechoslovakia.
Mention should also be made of Henry Ford's two books,
My Life and Work and To-Day and To-Morrow, although questions
relating to scientific management are mentioned in them only
incidentally. Owing to their author's popularity, Ford's works
have been widely translated, and have caught the attention of
even the least well-informed sections of the public. They have
caused many people to reflect on American industrial methods,
and consequently of scientific organisation, which is one of the
essential characteristics of those methods. The publication in
French and German of E. Filene's last book, The Way Out, which,
— 14 —
v/
though based on personal experiences quite different from those
of Henry Ford, is nevertheless spiritually akin to his works, has
led to similar results 1 .
American influence, both in introducing and in developing
scientific management in Europe, has thus, t o judge b y t h e
bibliography, been very considerable. The latter, however, points
to the conclusion t h a t while the revolution introduced by Taylor
in the development of modern industry has been fully grasped,
the evolution of his principles in America has not been so well
understood. Few a u t h o r s 2 have adequately emphasised the
growing importance which is being attached in American circles
to the human factor in scientific management. The fact is t h a t
it is the more technical improvements which have generally been
the first to attract attention in the competent quarters, owing to
the prospect which they held out of increased profits. Taylorism
has generally been regarded as one factor, like mechanisation,
in American technical superiority in the industrial sphere. I t is
only quite recently 3 t h a t , in England and Germany more particularly, people have begun to realise, though very imperfectly,
the part played by scientific management as understood to-day
in the United States, in the whole structure of American prosperity, and its intimate connection with a systematic policy of
high wages and continual reduction in the costs of production.
If, however, Europe has hitherto devoted little attention t o
the growing importance which is attached in America, in connection with scientific management questions, to economic and
social factors, this is because she has herself inherited a mass of
ancient and honourable social traditions. These traditions had
for many years past assumed a pronounced political character.
They had formed t h e subject of exhaustive theoretical researches,
tending in practice to stimulate the movement for the protection
of the workers by the State. These traditional conceptions have
1
The publication in Germany, where the labour movement is particularly
well organised, of translations of the works of F R E Y and DRURY, with the
obvious aim of giving labour opinion objective information concerning the
development of American scientific management, should also be mentioned.
2
One of these, deserving of special mention, is Prof. C. CESTRE, of the
Sorbonne, author of several widely-known works on American industrial
methods and particularly of Production industrielle et Justice sociale aux
Etats-Unis, Paris, 1921.
3
This point of view has been stressed in two recent works, which have had
considerable success in Germany and England respectively, viz. S. HIRSCH :
Der Amerikanische Wirtschaftswunder, Berlin, 1925, and B. AUSTIN and
F. LLOYD : The Secret of High Wages, London, 1926.
— 15 —
nothing in common with American views on social questions.
This difference of standpoint largely accounts for the lack of
interest and, in some cases, the suspicion displayed in certain
quarters as regards the possible effects of scientific management
on the workers' standards.
The above considerations make it possible to form an approximate estimate of the theoretical value of the existing literature.
In order to form an opinion concerning its significance for practical purposes, in accordance with t h e object of the enquiry, it
will be necessary to establish, at least approximately, the relationship between the number of works published and the interest
which they have actually aroused. An a t t e m p t t o do this in
detail will be made at a later stage, in dealing with practical
experiments and the effect on public opinion of the theory and
practice of scientific management. For the moment it m a y
simply be noted t h a t the real influence of this abundant literature
on the general movement for scientific management, though
varying from one country to another, is not, generally speaking,
as great as might at first glance be imagined.
The reasons for this are readily comprehensible. Publications
dealing with scientific management, being for the most p a r t
written by specialists or based on a severely technical standpoint,
are usually inaccessible to the general public, and in the majority
of eases are scarcely of a nature to exercise a powerful influence
on public opinion. Moreover, the foreign origin of the movement
is a hindrance to its spread. European authors have not always
found it easy to adapt the theories and methods on which scientific management is based to suit the mentality of their public.
The movement has therefore for a long time had to contend with
a good deal of prejudice, and it is only very recently t h a t political
teachers have decided definitely to support it.
While, however, the literature on the subject has not hitherto
had as much effect as might hàVe been expected from its volume,
it nevertheless already constitutes a sufficiently solid and extensive mass to form the basis, given favourable circumstances, for
the development and rapid progress of a general movement.
This is proved by the examples of Germany and Russia, where
the necessary conditions are already found. I t will probably
also be realised before long in the case of all the other European
industrial countries.
— 16 —
THE
GENERAL LINES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE
MOVEMENT
Generally speaking, the movement would appear to have
followed practically the same course everywhere \ In every
country (either before or after the war, as the case may be) an
initial phase may be observed. The progress made in this phase
varies, but it is everywhere characterised by the fact that certain
persons, won over to Taylor's principies and convinced of the
superiority of American industrial methods, have tried to introduce into their respective countries the material and social
benefits which such principles and methods were calculated to
ensure. Their propaganda gradually arouses interest, and leads,
at all events in the case of the technicians, to a number of detailed
researches and to sporadic experiments. But this propaganda
is, generally speaking, confined to small groups and attracts the
attention only of a few enterprising industrialists.
This first phase is followed by a second which might be called
that of adaptation. This second phase generally takes the form
of an attempt to utilise the methods studied and diffused during
the preceding period for a rapid economic reconstruction after
the war and post-war dislocation. Such attempts are in every
case prompted by national considerations. This fact lends
added importance to scientific management from the point of
view of the community, and helps to make it better known.
Their success, however, remains in each country conditional on
the state of political opinion, the social policy pursued, and the
existing economic situation. Thus, during this phase the
original characteristics of the movement are modified, by local
and temporary conditions, to such an extent as to become in
some cases quite unrecognisable.
The second phase, which is punctuated by moments of enthusiasm and disillusionment, is succeeded by the final phase, the
one which is nearest to us in date, and which may be called the
phase of final adjustment. During this last stage of evolution,
we find opinion becoming more coherent as regards scientific
1
Cf. for this chapter the articles by Mr. D E FRÉMINVILLE on the Revue
de Métallurgie (April-May 1926), entitled : "Évolution de l'organisation
scientifique du travail, à propos du Congrès international de Bruxelles."
— 17 —
nvanagement, propaganda becoming better co-ordinated and
instruction more methodical, while discussions are narrowed
down and concrete application takes a more practical turn and
forms the subject of more systematic efforts under the guidance
of centralised organisations. I t is during the latter p a r t of this
last phase t h a t we see the beginnings of a tendency towards a
co-ordination of the various national movements and conceptions, and the beginnings of international co-operation.
In so far as it is possible in practice to distinguish between
these three phases, each one would appear to have contributed
towards the development of studies and experiments in various
directions. Thus, during the first phase attention appears to
have been directed chiefly to problems of technical organisation
—a natural consequence of increasing mechanisation. During
the second phase a closer study is made of questions connected
with the human factor. During the third phase the necessity
for finding a solution for the general problems of industry calls
for special efforts, and these efforts tend, under the influence of
scientific management methods, to pass beyond t h e scope of
private economic questions to the sphere of professional activities,
both national and international.
Such a division is necessarily somewhat arbitrary. The three
phases above defined may appear somewhat artificial in the case
of a number of countries. They overlap to such an extent t h a t
it is difficult in most cases to determine at what point one finishes
and the next begins. I t would, moreover, be going too far
definitely to assign to these several phases, in each particular
country, one or other of the three categories of questions mentioned above. Subject to these reservations, however, this
method of subdivision would seem to correspond fairly closely, in
general, to the outlines of the movement's development, and in
any case it facilitates the historical study of the subject.
I t should be noted t h a t as regards the development of these
three phases the actual periods do not correspond in t h e different
countries. In some countries—for example, in France and
England—the initial phase is almost simultaneous with the
development of Taylorism in America; in others, and more
particularly in those countries which owe their political and
economic independence to the Peace Treaties, it only began after
the war. Some countries appear to have completed the evolution
outlined above; others are still in the second phase; while others
3
— 18 —
again have as yet scarcely, if a t all, entered on t h e initial phase.
Everything depends, for each State, on t h e circumstances calculated t o promote and encourage, or t o retard, the development of
this process of evolution. Some of t h e more important of those
circumstances are: t h e fluctuation of exchanges, which is a factor
in the increase or decrease of national production; wage variations,
which m a y affect consumption and, hence, production; t h e
greater or less abundance of t h e labour supply;.customs tariffs;
transport facilities; and even political influences, which have
proved so decisive in a country like Russia. W e shall have
occasion, when making a closer study of t h e various phases of
evolution of t h e movement, t o note in passing t h e importance of
a number of these circumstances in the different countries. There
is one circumstance, however, which overshadows all t h e others,
both in itself and in virtue of its consequences, namely, t h e war.
I t seems desirable, before proceeding further, to consider rapidly
the influence of this factor on t h e scientific management
movement.
The War and its Immediate Consequences as a Factor
in the Development of Scientific
Management
The time is no doubt not yet ripe t o estimate t h e exact influence
exercised by t h e war on t h e development of scientific management. Many of t h e necessary data are still missing, and could
only be obtained as a result of long and exhaustive researches 1.
I t is, however, immediately evident t h a t certain circumstances
were favourable towards this development, whilst others obviously
hindered it. Among t h e favourable circumstances most easily
discernible m a y be noted: (1) t h e shortage of labour, as t h e
claims of t h e recruiting authorities became more and more
pressing; (2) t h e establishment of numbers of undertakings for
war requirements, and t h e extraordinary development of mass
production; and (3) t h e necessity of employing unskilled workers,
especially women.
I t should also be born in mind t h a t during the war the manage1
Cf. especially on this question The Economic and Social History of the
World War, published by the CARNEGIE ENDOWMENT FOB INTERNATIONAL
PEACE.
— 19 —
ment and control of all branches of manufacture were increasingly centralised, and t h a t supervision became stricter; t h a t , as
was only natural in what was practically a state of siege, t h e
workers' organisations tended t o abandon any resistance they
might have offered to the introduction and spread of American
methods; and t h a t closer relations than had formerly existed
were established between army, workshop, and laboratory, with
the result t h a t attention was drawn to the advantages to be
derived from the application of Taylor's principles 1.
On the other hand, among the unfavourable factors, may be
noted the following: t he uselessness, and in many cases t h e
impossibility, of determining the costs of production ; the necessity,
particularly noticeable in the early days of the war, for rapid
production under difficulties, which were slowly remedied as the
probability of a long struggle became generally realised; and
above all the shortage or total lack of clear-sighted experts
capable of preventing certain mistakes the memory of which was
still vivid—a factor which made its presence particularly felt a t
the end of the war, when the need for a more scientific organisation of production began t o be realised.
Thus, while in certain countries remarkable examples are t o
be found of the application of scientific management methods
during the w a r 2 , the origin of the movement or the commencement of its development can hardly be traced back to t h a t
period, as has sometimes been suggested. I t is, however, a fact
beyond dispute t h a t the war created in every country an
atmosphere favourable t o the subsequent development of the
movement.
Further, the successes recorded during this period were all
the more striking as examples in t h a t they were not the result of
a mere reproduction of American practices. Such successes were
sufficiently numerous to arouse, in technical circles, an interest
which was all the keener by reason of the fact t h a t the technical
experts or industrialists under mobilisation were in a b e t t e r
position t o judge them closely, and were tempted subsequently
to adopt the same methods during the post-war period with a
1
In the neutral countries the intensification of production in order tosupply the growing needs of the belligerents frequently produced similar
effects.
a
Cf. the results obtained in France by an engineer, Mr. Nussbaumer, a t
the Ripault Explosives Factory.
— 20 —
view to their own advantage. This interest is shown, a t all
events in certain countries, by the abundant literature published
during the period 1917-1921, on the eve of the great economic
crisis which swept over the whole of Europe.
The war was also responsible for the rapid progress of a new
system which was in some respects closely allied t o scientific
management, namely, the administrative system of Henri Fayol,
to which reference is made below. Moreover, their solicitude
for the workers' health led the belligerent Governments t o devote
the closest attention to conditions of life and labour, with a
view to the maintenance or improvement of output. I n the.
domain of psycho-technology, certain experiments, carried out
with a view to meeting military requirements in munition factories,
transport services, and particularly aviation, drew attention t o a
science which had already been carried t o considerable lengths in
Europe b u t of which little practical use had as yet been made,
namely, industrial psycho-physiology. Development of this
science was further promoted directly after the war by the
necessity for the rehabilitation of disabled men and for placing
them in industrial employment 1 .
During the same period similar circumstances led in England
to the rapid development of the "Welfare" movement, which
aimed a t furthering the physical and general welfare of the
workers, and which was in this country closely bound u p from
the outset with the application, after adequate study, of scientific
management methods.
Finally, the experiments made in every direction during the
war with a view to accelerating the production of war material
or to maintaining the food supply drew attention to the question
'•of systematically organising national production, by means of
increased industrial concentration, under the direction of the
State, and by the standardisation not only of the products
necessary for national defence b u t also of the commonest articles
of food consumption. The belligerent Powers on both sides
were obliged, in the face of keen opposition from certain quarters,
t o adopt, in the allocation of raw material and in regard to
transport, an economic policy of an international character in
accordance with the principles and the circumstances which
1
Cf. in England the work of Professor Stanley Kent for the Health of
Munitions Workers' Committee.
— 21 —
form the subject of the third p a r t of the plan of investigation
adopted for the purposes of this enquiry.
The immediate consequences of the war, again, had an influence
on the movement in favour of scientific management which was
almost as great as the war itself. Moreover, they introduced
some fresh factors. In view of the events which took place in
Russia, and of the claims p u t forward by the trade unions which
resulted in 1919 in the drafting of P a r t X I I I of the Treaty of
Versailles, providing for the establishment of the International
Labour Organisation, supporters of scientific management began
to devote more attention than hitherto to the claims of the
workers.
The manner in which scientific management is presented
in a certain number of works dating from this period bears
evidence of the authors' anxiety to pacify and even t o win
over the workers. Scientific management is represented by a
number of workers, belonging to various milieux, as the most
efficacious means of obtaining the reduction in hours which was
a t t h a t time the workers' chief objective. I t is represented by
others as the capital article in the programme of industrial
democracy^ Among the workers we find, moreover, a change of
attitude in regard to the movement, which they had hitherto
almost unreservedly condemned, and a tendency to agree, at
least in part, to the adoption of scientific management methods,
while some labour leaders even go so far as to view the application
of such methods as a suitable point for inclusion in the party
I programme.
On the other hand, other circumstances, arising immediately
out of the war, tended rather to paralyse the development of
the movement for scientific management. All the belligerents,''
and more particularly for the Central Empires or Succession
States, had to change over so rapidly from a war to a peace footing
t h a t efforts to effect a general organisation of production were
not given sufficient time to develop. The fact t h a t industrialists
now had at their disposal an enormous mass of labour which
was released for civilian occupations, and the further fact of
the over-intensification of production, which no longer seemed to
be governed by any consideration for the cost of production,
hardly allowed of the introduction of scientific methods requiring
delicate handling and long preparation. Thus, owing to the
general crisis of over-production which followed the armistice,
—22
—
the results anticipated by a certain number of enthusiastic
writers were considerably reduced.
To sum up, the war which in some countries suspended the
development of the movement for scientific organisation and in
others served as its starting point, exercised a decisive influence
on the movement, hastening or retarding it as the case might be,
but in any case playing in Europe as a whole a t least as important
a p a r t as in America. Many observers consider t h a t scientific
management has been an influential factor in the change over
from a state of war to a state of peace ; it is certain t h a t the change
over has contributed most effectively t o the spread of scientific
management.
First or Introductory
Phase
This phase is fairly simple and calls for little comment. From
t h e bibliographical point of view it is represented principally by
the translation and publication of the works of Taylor and his
chief disciples. This does not mean t h a t even before the publication of Taylor's works, original works were not t o be found in
Europe concerning industrial management. The work of Captain
Ply and of Henri Fayol in France, of Professor Adamiecki in
Russia, of Schlesinger in Germany, of Nicholson and Schloss
concerning methods of remuneration in England, as well as the
psycho-technical experiments to which we shall have occasion
to refer later, all deserve special mention. I n every country
a t t e m p t s have been made to bring t o light the national originators
of the scientific management movement. I t remains true, nevert h e l e s s , t h a t the general character and tendencies of t h e specialist
literature as a whole have in practice been determined by American influences.
The persons who played the principal part in the original
diffusion of the new methods were nearly all in direct touch with
Taylor, knew of his experiments, and had studied his books.
The cases of the Finnish Professor Sederholm and the Belgian
employer Bollinkx, of Le Châtellier 1 (a scientist) and de Fréminville (an engineer) in France, illustrate the t r u t h of this
1
Cf. L E CHATELIER'S article on " L'introduction du système Taylor
en France " in the Bulletin du Comité international de VOrganisation
scientifique, September 1926.
— 23 —
assertion. I t was largely owing to the personal influence and
propaganda of such men as these t h a t "Taylorism", of which
they were the firm supporters, began to be known in their respective countries. The curiosity which they aroused was from t h e
outset increased by the interest which the general public began
to take in Taylor's outstanding personality, in his struggles and
his successes, and perhaps to an even greater degree, as far as
technicians and employers are concerned, by the glamour of the
considerable wealth which his methods brought to him. The
example of Taylor's personal success led, in a number of industrial
undertakings, to the making of rash experiments which frequently
ended in failure owing to lack of technical preparation and psychological knowledge. The memory of these failures remained very
vivid in certain cases as, for example, in France, where it provided
material for controversies so violent as to create prejudices in the
minds of numbers of people which it has subsequently proved
quite impossible to overcome. I t must not be forgotten t h a t
side by side with Taylor's ideas, the hostile attitude of _the_
American workers had also crossed the Atlantic. A latent
hostility t h u s grew u p from the outset in the minds of the workers,
and a number of prejudices were instilled into public opinion
in almost all European countries, which still hinder the development of the movement.
Taylor's works, however, would probably not have been
sufficient to awaken and sustain interest in scientific management
had the remarkable industrial progress effected in the United
States not made a considerable impression on public opinion,
at any rate, in technical circles, even before the war. From then
until now, the best-argument for scientific management has beeij
the fact t h a t it appears to be closely bound u p with American
industrial progress and prosperity^.
A study of the literature shows how scientific management
began t o acquire the support of public opinion in countries where
the introductory phase occurred before the war. I n the majority
of cases the movement was regarded as identical with the principles pronounced by Taylor, and the name "Taylorism" was in
fact generally applied t o it. The basis and essential object_of
Taylorism, both as a theory and as a technical system, consists
iïi scïentific_jofcaiiSy^IZ With a few rare exceptions such
analysis had never previously been systematically practised—far
less represented as the principal object of study for the factory
— 24 —
manager. I t provides, however, t h e only means of resolving
each particular job into its most elementary movements and of
discovering how such movements are performed and what
time should be allowed for each of them, with a view to fixing
t h e exact cost of any manufacturing process. Moreover, once a
job has been accurately analysed it becomes possible t o make
detailed and exact preparations for its performance and to check
such performance systematically. Thus output is improved and
considerable economies are made possible.
A certain number of technicians realised from the very beginning
t h a t scientific job analysis might revolutionise industry. Generally speaking, however, attention was concentrated less on job
•analysis as a whole than on two particular aspects of its application, namely, the use of the stop watch and scientific methods
of remuneration, particularly the premium bonus system in its
various forms. This misdirection of attention m a y have been in
p a r t responsible for the failures to which reference has already
been made. To judge, however, from the literature the various
principles, for the enunciation of which Taylor became famous,
had been in general adequately and correctly understood even
before the war. A scientist like Le Châtelier regarded t h e m
from the start as representing a most promising a t t e m p t to
apply t o industry t h e experimental methods of t h e laboratory.
Some of the early supporters of Taylorism, e.g. de Fréminville
in France, were also alive to the social consequences to which
the application of the new methods might lead. The last named
expressed the opinion before t h e war t h a t Taylorism, b y bringing
about a just use of human strength, b y ensuring the selection of
the right man for the right work, and by avoiding useless expenditure of energy, might make t h e various classes engaged in production more conscious of their mutual inter-dependence, eliminate causes of friction, and promote a spirit of co-operation which
hitherto can hardly be called characteristic of modern industry.
Such favourable impressions as these, however, hardly appear
at first to have been general, as public opinion was distracted
by the echos which reached Europe of the controversy in America,
between Taylor and his followers on the one side and the labour
leaders on the other, with regard t o the social consequences of
scientific management *.
1
For the story of Taylor's difficulties with the American labour unions, see
— 25 —
I n connection with the introductory phase, special mention
must be made of the development of industrial psychophysiology. This was at first regarded as a distinct science, not
t o be confounded with the scientific management movement, then
understood as meaning only "Taylorism" in its more technical
aspects. This movement, the origin of which dates from long
before the introduction of Taylorism in Europe, appears, in
England, France, Germany and Italy alike, to have been from
the beginning largely inspired by considerations of a social
nature. Like the movement for the protection of workers by
legislative means (to which in certain respects it is closely related)
it appears always to have been partly philanthropic and partly
scientific in character. For a long time now industrial hygiene,
industrial safety, and the prevention of occupational diseases
have in fact formed a single field of action in the more important
industrial countries of Europe. The principal object of the
originators of industrial psycho-physiology was t o protect the
worker from over-exertion and to enable him to look forward
to a normal and healthy old age, or t o protect the race against
the risks involved in bad factory conditions. Fatigue and motion
study, on which a considerable and important volume of literature
had already been published in France, Germany, and Italy before
the war, were based on these considerations 1.
The close connection between Taylorism and industrial psychophysiology was not at first realised ; indeed, it frequently happened
t h a t the latter science supplied arguments against the introduction of Taylorism in the workshop. Nevertheless, even in
the earliest period both sciences were stressing identical considerations. Both contemplated and encouraged the application
of experimental methods in regard to production. Both claimed
COPLEY : F. W. Taylor, Father of Scientific Management, New York, Harper
Bros., 1924. See also article "The American Labour Movement and
Scientific Managment " in the International Labour Review, April 1926.
1
An extremely complete bibliography is published in the first issue of
the Journal of Industrial Hygiene (May, 1919). In this bibliography special
attention is devoted to questions of industrial fatigue, but a valuable list
of books and articles on questions of psycho-physiology is also given. For
the subsequent period down to 1924 some very useful bibliographical information in regard to material published in Europe is contained in Les Tests de
Fatigue, by Dr. V. DHBRS. For contemporary literature the Bibliography
of Industrial Hygiene, published quarterly by the INTERNATIONAL LABOUR
OFFICE, may usefully be consulted. Cf. also the Handbuch der Gewerbehygien and the article on "Gewerbehygien" in the Handwörterbuch der
Beiriebswissenschafl.
— 26 —
t h a t labour should be regulated by means of an exact study of
human effort. I t is t h u s clear t h a t the two movements were
destined to become complementary to each other so soon as the
leaders of the scientific management movement, under presame
of social considerations and of _the necessity for winning the.
support of the organised workers, provided adequate jjuarante^s.
against abuses..
I n countries where the introductory phase has occurred since
the war the development of scientific management has been
facilitated, if not necessitated, by the economic situation. At
the end of the war there was no longer any question of holding
academic discussions, under conditions of economic stability,
with regard to the exact importance of principles and practices,
the superior practical value of which was still, in pre-war days,
debatable even in the country in which they had originated.
I n the post-war period American technical methods were universally recognised as being the most advanced, and the question
was how such methods could most rapidly be adapted so as t o
enable various national economic systems, founded on the somewhat arbitrary pro visons of the Peace Treaties, to survive and
progress. This was the case in countries like Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Austria, in which Taylorism was introduced under
the spur of necessity and was even regarded in some instances as
indispensable for the public safety. I t was the case also in Russia,
ruined by the war and revolution, and requiring, if irremediable
disaster was to be avoided, an immediate economic reconstruction.
I n such countries the introductory phase proceeds with great
rapidity, so much so t h a t it is difficult to say where introduction
ends and adaptation begins. Every effort is made to convince
all engaged in production of the value of scientific management
and American methods. Social considerations are relegated to
the background and appear t o be forgotten in face of the necessity
for reconstructing or consolidating a tottering economic structure.
In some cases it appears t o the outside observer t h a t scientific
management is imposed as an item in the programme of a political
party, as in Czechoslovakia, or by the Government, as in Russia.
Even here, however, the guiding influence of individuals whose
experience of American methods brings them into prominence,
and the desire to follow the example of the United States as
rapidly as possible, are plainly evident.
Thus it may probably be truthfully asserted t h a t during the
•
— 27 —
introductory phase it was more especially the technicians whose
interest, was aroused, though many of them have accepted
Taylor's principles as factors in industrial progress without
always realising their economic or social consequences. Many
attempts, however, to proceed from theory to practice have been
rendered abortive by the unconcealed resistance of the organised
labour movement. A number of writers have therefore been
moved to wonder whether the industrial progress which such
methods represent would have sufficed, without the help of the
special circumstances arising out of the war or the post-war
period, to dissolve established traditions and overcome hostility
so as to enable scientific management to take its place as a
question of general interest and everyday practice. The part
played by the war in the development of the scientific
management movement in Europe has, however, already been
described above.
Second Phase :
Adaptation
As soon as the war was over private industry, having recovered
its freedom of action, found itself obliged, in order to meet
the feverish anxiety of consumers for commodities during the
inevitable period of disorganisation following on demobilisation,
to study the possibility of applying the most modern methods
of production. Thus, scientific management became one of the
urgent questions of the hour. A considerable number of writers
in all countries immediately endeavoured to popularise scientific
management principles and practices. I t is to be noted t h a t
many of them, under the influence of the war and its immediate
consequences, frequently distorted Taylor's teachings. Reference
has already been made to this tendency. I t may, however, be
advisable a t this point to make an a t t e m p t to explain the very
variable rate of progress of the movement in the various European
countries.
"In the period immediately after the end of the war attention
was particularly concentrated, especially in the belligerent
countries, on the possibility of securing economic independence.
The war had shown t h a t victory depended less on the number
and bravery of the troops t h a n on economic resources. Knowledge of this fact considerably aided the progress of the scientific
— 28 —
management movement. The majority of publications dating
from this period p u t forward the argument t h a t as t h e S t a t e
should not allow any manufacturing processes which might be
of importance from the point of view of national defence t o be
sacrificed, it was the duty of industrialists to protect themselves
to the greatest possible extent by means of adopting the best
available methods of production against the threat of foreign
competition. Unfortunately, the most effective means of
securing this end was generally thought t o lie in protective
tariffs.
I t is further to be noted t h a t the literature dating from this
period reveals the influence t o some extent of the military mentality. During the war technicians and professional soldiers
found themselves working side by side, both in the munition
factories and on the general staff. I t was, therefore, natural
t h a t the modern methods of industrial production, on the.one
hand, and the a r t of war developed by several years of fighting,
on the other, should mutually influence each other. Thus there
were generals who enthusiastically adopted Taylor's principles
and endeavoured to apply them in the various departments of
the army, and there were technicians who were induced by their
experience in the technical services during t h e war t o reflect on
scientific methods of industrial management. As regards France,
in particular, a bibliography of the post-war literature should
contain a section devoted to the works of a number of professional
soldiers who wrote out of a conviction t h a t the scientific principles
which had led t o victory in the field should be applied t o peacetime requirements.
Moreover, the entry of the United States into the war exercised
a considerable influence on the progress of the movement both
because of the attention attracted in Europe by various examples
of American superiority in technical matters and as a result of
direct contact between the Americans and the Allies. The various
military and technical missions sent t o the United States returned
with an account of actual cases where scientific management
had been applied.
Thus the movement was bound t o develop differently in t h e
belligerent and neutral countries and in the Allied nations and
the Central Powers respectively. Nevertheless, t h e general
characteristics of what we have ventured to call the phase of
adaptation remain the same for all countries.
The most
— 29 —
important of these characteristics consists in a desire to present
scientific management to the public in a form more directly
accessible to the respective national temperaments and more
immediately capable of being practically applied. A glance at
the voluminous literature which appeared in t h e post-war period
is sufficient to show the general desire to simplify—even to oversimplify— the newly-discovered methods of organisation and to
bring a knowledge and understanding of them within the reach
of everybody.
One of the principal objections raised to Taylorism had been
the fact t h a t a considerable expenditure of time and energy was
required in order to analyse a job scientifically. This was a
prospect hardly calculated t o a t t r a c t employers and managers,
who were anxious to take advantage with the least possible
delay of the sudden enormous increase in demand. The writers
of this period therefore endeavour to present scientific management in a more elastic form with greater possibility of variation
and less strictness. The result in the case of a good many of
them is t h a t the scientific character of their writings suffers.
A controversy therefore arose, as in the United States, between
the strict and what one might call the liberal school of Taylorists.
For the former salvation lay and could only lie in the strict
application of Taylor's principles and methods; while the latter
regarded such principles and methods as representing merely an
individual contribution to a much vaster group of conceptions—
of essential value no doubt, b u t already partly superseded. The
attitude of the liberal school is based on a realisation of the
necessity for extending Taylor's methods and principles to all
departments of manufacture, to all branches of industrial life,
to commerce and to distribution. Representatives of this school
recommend the application of scientific management in a simplified and more elastic form to all branches of industrial activity
—to building, public works, mines and the textile industries—
whereas previously it had been applied almost exclusively in the
particular branch in which Taylor had himself introduced it,
namely, engineering.
A number of the writers belonging to this period appear either
deliberately to avoid mentioning Taylor or to desire to devote
only a very limited amount of space to his ideas, either with the
object, of lending a more national character to their arguments or
from fear of offending various obstinate prejudices which existed
— 30 —
in the minds of the workers or in public opinion. A certain
amount of solicitude in regard to this latter point was natural
enough during the months which immediately followed the war,
when the labour movement exercised a very considerable political
influence in all countries. A great effort was therefore made, of
which abundant evidence is provided by the literature, to induce
the workers themselves t o accept the principles of scientific
management for the purpose of increasing production. The
general introduction of the eight-hour day throughout Europe
provided an occasion for such an attempt. This reform had
been won by means of the pressure brought to bear by the trade
unions at a time when an increase in output appeared indispensable, and it was therefore possible to induce the workers to
consider an acceptance in principle of the employment of methods
by which production could be increased as a quid pro quo. I t
would seem t h a t provided Taylor's name were not pronounced
too loud an understanding between labour leaders and managers
might have been possible a t this juncture in regard to the
advisability of applying scientific management principles in the
factory. The desire to reach such an agreement may have been
the reason why during this period special emphasis was laid on
Taylor's teaching in regard to the preparation of work, which
did not arouse any marked opposition on the part of the workers,
and why the use of the stop watch, scientific methods of
remuneration, and functional foremanship were relegated to the
background. Although, however, a number of writers show great
caution in dealing with these latter of Taylor's principles, they
were in practice applied to a considerable extent, in particular
under the supervision of consulting engineer-specialists of the
American type.
A further striking characteristic of this second phase consists
in the emphasis universally laid upon the necessity of modernising
methods of administration and factory management. This
tendency at first appeared more or less independently of the
scientific management movement, b u t the two soon coalesced.
The memory of recent war-time experiences lent special prominence to the p a r t played by management in industry. A special
literature grew u p around this idea, and a number of a t t e m p t s
were made to apply it, to which further reference will be made
below; indeed, in France, it became embodied in a regular school
of thought known as the doctrine administrative, the originator
— 31 —
of which was Henri Fayol, an engineer and a well-known
employer 1 .
Fayol's theories were suggested to him by half a century's
experience in industry, and by a long study of industrial processes.
His object was to lay down the fundamental rules on which the
management or direction of any undertaking should be based.
H e came to the conclusion t h a t side by side with the normally
recognised functions (i.e., technical organisation, commercial
services, finance, safety, accounting) a new function which he
styled the "administrative function", covering the following
definite subjects : forecasting, organisation, direction, co-ordination, and supervision, should be recognised. At the same time he
endeavoured to decide how far each grade in the official hierarchy,
whether administrative or industrial, necessitated the possession
of t h e qualities required for the fulfilment of each of the essential
functions: administration, technique, etc. He was thus led to
stress the capital importance of the possession by the person a t
the head of any undertaking of capacities for administration.
His work Administration
industrielle et genérale may thus be
regarded as a serious contribution t o the scientific management
movement.
A considerable amount was written in France around these
ideas, particularly during the period of post-war reconstruction 2 .
1
Henri Fayol (1841-1925) was educated at the St. Pierre Mining School.
He qualified as an engineer at twenty years of age and entered the service
of the Commentry-Fourchambault Company, in which he remained for the
whole of his professional life and of which he became general manager
in 1888, at a time when the company's position was extremely critical.
He succeeded in restoring it to prosperity. When in 1918 he handed the
company over to his successor its financial position was extremely sound
and its staff exceptionally efficient. Fayol's doctrine administrative was
based on his experience in management. In 1900 he began to publish his
views in regard to the rôle of the manager and the management methods
which he had himself employed. In 1916 he published his book Administration industrielle et générale. For the propagation of his ideas he founded
a Centre d'études administratives of which, since his death, his son has been
director. At the end of the war Fayol devoted special attention t o the
reorganisation of the French Post Office and to the establishment of a
Prime Minister's Department with a view to the co-ordination of the
activities of the different members of the Cabinet.
Fayol's activities in regard to scientific questions also deserve mention,
particularly his researches in regard to the coal seams of Commentry and
his "delta" theory of the formation of coal seams. Charles Guillaume
owed the success of his researches concerning special steels to the help
given him by Fayol.
2
The principal works of Fayol and his fellow-workers are as follows :
Exposé des principes généraux d'administration,
1908;
Administration
— 32 —
Fayol continued until the day of his death to exercise a profound
influence on the development of opinion in this direction, and
his influence was increased by the fidelity with which a small
group of fellow-workers and pupils followed his lead. His ideas
have had a considerable effect on opinion in France, and have
also had some influence in other European countries, particularly
in Belgium and Poland.
"Fayolism" has sometimes been regarded as opposed to
Taylorism, owing to the emphasis which Fayol laid on the
principle of unified direction and to the lack of interest which
Taylor is thought to have shown in regard to this subject. I n
reality, however, it is not easy to see any serious divergence
between the two theories. The differences between the two men's
education and outlook, and especially the fact t h a t the attention
of the one was concentrated on the internal organisation of t h e
workshop, whilst t h a t of the other was devoted more t o the
general working and liaison between the various departments of
a large undertaking, make it difficult to compare the two systems.
I t would be truer to say t h a t they do not mutually conflict b u t
are complementary to each other. The interest aroused by
"Fayolism" has, in fact, had the effect of drawing the attention
of a number of industrial employers to scientific management.
I t has not infrequently happened, in France at any rate, t h a t
Administration
industrielle et genérale, easier to read and more
attractively expounded from the point of view of the Latin mind,
has served as an introduction to the more technical writings of
Taylor.
I t is even more difficult to estimate the direct influence of
Fayol's ideas than Taylor's as he does not claim t h a t the application of his principles would involve radical alteration in the
working methods of the various grades or departments of an
industrielle et générale, prévoyance, organisation, commandement, coordination, contrôle, 1916; Importance de la fonction administrative dans le gouvernement des affaires, 1918 ; L'incapacité administrative de l'Etat : les P. T. T.,
1921. — On H. Fayol : H. VERNEY : Le fondateur de la doctrine administrative, H. Fayol, 1925; R. MAZERAT : La doctrine administrative, 1924; L. D E
CROUZET : Les développements actuels de la doctrine administrative, 1925.
Fayol's principal collaborator, S. CARLIOZ, published in 1921 : Le gouvernement des entreprises commerciales et industrielles, an important work
consisting of lectures delivered at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes commerciales
at Paris. "Fayolism" is at present taught at the above-mentioned school,
at the Ecole de guerre, the Ecole de l'intendance, and the Ecole du commissariat
de la marine, at Paris.
— 33 —
undertaking, though it might result in giving a new orientation
t o the organisation as a whole. Nevertheless, if one may judge
from the number of editions which have appeared of the single
small book in which Fayol's theories were summarised, and
from the mass of reviews, commentaries and articles which have
been devoted to it, the interest universally aroused among technicians and industrial employers could hardly be over-estimated.
The remark is frequently made in France t h a t Fayol's detailed
analysis of the rôle and responsibility of the head of the modern
undertaking, the emphasis which he lays on the problems connected with the co-ordination of different departments, and still
more the fact t h a t his ideas were easily applied in the public
services, have contributed considerably to the spread of scientific
management methods.
A contribution no less important is represented by the reconciliation which occurred during the same period between Taylorism
in its wider aspects and psycho-physiology. During the war the
attention of the public and the employers had been drawn in
various countries t o the question of occupational fatigue and the
bad effects of too prolonged or inadequately supervised work on
t h e health of the worker. I n view of the increased effort required
for purposes of national defence, governments and employers had
in all countries been compelled to require of the workers, both
male and female, t o work with much greater intensity, and a t
the same time to stimulate them to do so by offering the inducement of higher pay. I t was soon realised t h a t the efforts involved
could only be continued over a considerable time a t the expense
of the workers' health, and t h a t if it was desired to make the
increase in output permanent, it would be necessary to limit the
expenditure of energy. The work carried out by Muscio, Kent
and Vernon in England, by Frois and Caubet in France during
the war years yielded extremely interesting experimental results
in regard to the bad effects of fatigue and unduly long hours of
work. Moreover, the laboratory experiments which had already
been in progress before t h e war were continued in the various
countries, particularly in England, France, Germany, and Italy.
During the period of adaptation following the restoration of
peace the industrial psychologists appear to have abandoned
their attitude of opposition to the spread of scientific management
principles; on the contrary, they provided the supporters of
4
— 34 —
those principles with valuable material for the scientific calculation of human effort and individual output. They continued
to devote their attention particularly to the study of fatigue and
its effects on the muscular and nervous systems both by means
of laboratory experiments carried out with t h e aid of the ergograph or other devices for the measurement of effort (cf. the work
in France of Amar and Imbert, in Germany of Schumburg and
Atzler, etc.), and by the study of statistics based on observations,
carried out in the factory, of working conditions (cf. work of
Lahy in France, R o t h and Moede in Germany, Stanley Kent in
England, etc.). Such studies led them, generally speaking, t o
adopt conclusions closely akin to those of Gantt and Gilbreth, on
which the strict application of the Taylor system is based. The
final result of all such studies is to make it possible t o determine
the best means of securing the maximum output with a minimum
of fatigue.
Further researches were carried out during the same period
in regard to the relative output of workers on day and night
shifts, the causes of lost time, the physiological effect of incentives,
the value of rest pauses, the effect of industrial fatigue on t h e
rate of accidents, etc. At the same time the physiologists were
continuing their researches in regard t o t h e crucial question of
hours of labour with a view to discovering the optimum length
of the working day for each trade. The results of such researches
were embodied in a large mass of literature published both during
the war and after it.
Along with more purely physiological work of this kind, psychological studies were also being made in regard to professional
aptitude, the maintenance of attention, and the effects of monotony. The study bf professional aptitude and the devising of
tests was pursued with the greatest rapidity in Germany. In
all other countries the literature published on these questions
possesses more theoretical than practical value, and the possibility of immediately utilising their results in industry has only
quite recently been demonstrated.
The definitive orientation of the scientific management
movement in Europe appears t o date from t h e coalescence of
Taylorism and industrial psycho-physiology, of which the
foundations were laid during this phase. The physiologists, who
hitherto had specialised to an excessive extent, or had been mainly
preoccupied by purely technical considerations, began to realise
— 35 —
t h a t the application of Taylor's principles provided a means of
turning the results of their studies to immediate use. On t h e
other hand, the followers of Taylor were enabled t o appeal t o
the results of experiments carried out for some time past in Europe
in support of their advocacy of a system of overseas origin.
The effect of the agreement which t h u s came into being on
the opinion of the workers was particularly fortunate. Once
the physiologists abandoned their attitude of hostility t o
Taylor's principles and realised the fundamental identity in
the methods and object which both schools were pursuing, t h e
workers automatically acquired a guarantee against the abuses
which a number of labour leaders had feared would result from
the adoption of Taylorism. Little by little the old objection
t h a t Taylorism meant speeding up ceased to be heard. Thus,
in England, where the strength of the labour movement is considerable, scientific management methods were introduced t o
public opinion and defended before it by the industrial psychologists, and have been approved by the workers to the extent
t h a t their adoption was recommended by the psychologists and
subject to the safeguards which the latter recommended 1 .
The coalescence of the two movements is represented in the
literature by a number of studies in which the problems dealt
with by both are described and examined simultaneously.
Although no specifically original contribution is made in these
studies, and although they can scarcely be said to p u t forward
an entirely fresh theory, their publication exercised a noteworthy influence on the orientation of the scientific management
movement.
I n no country is the union of the two schools more striking
than in Russia. The dominant factor in the problem of economic
restoration in t h a t country was the lack of skilled workers.
From the earliest days of the revolution, therefore, the question
of vocational training has taken, and continues to take, a most
prominent place in the numerous attempts made to introduce
more scientific methods of industrial organisation. Time and
motion studies have been carried out with greater thoroughness
in Russia than in any other country, and although it is not easy
to estimate the value of the results secured the quantity of
1
I t should be observed t h a t in England similar assistance has indirectly
been afforded to scientific management by the Welfare movement.
— 36 —
documentary material published on the subject is prima
impressive.
facie
Thus, generally speaking, the phase of adaptation appears t o
be characterised by a rather irregular and haphazard extension
of Taylorism in all directions. The earlier rigidity of Taylor's
principles gives way before a desire t o adopt more elastic methods
of organisation, applicable to all departments of industry and of
individual undertakings and to all the various branches both of
production and of distribution. The enthusiasm of the supporters
of the movement was sometimes so ingenious as to make t h e m
expect, a t any rate in a number of countries, to see the new
methods make rapid progress throughout industry. The prolonged period of patient preparation and education required of
persons who set out to introduce such an innovation was insufficiently realised. The movement was considerably strengthened,
as the literature shows, by the collaboration which grew u p
between the management experts and the physiologists and by
the increasing attention devoted to the human factor in consequence of the introduction of the eight-hour day and the pressure
brought to bear by the labour movement. The progress made
was such and the necessity for rapid reorganisation of the economic system in all countries after the war was so urgent t h a t a t
one time the movement appeared likely to pass beyond the
realm of theory and secure general acceptance on the p a r t of
public opinion. Unfortunately, however, the efforts made t o
reorganise industry on an exclusively national basis hindered
rather than helped the movement. Its progress began rapidly
to be checked by the difficulties experienced in every European
country during the post-war period. The abnormal circumstances under which international competition made itself felt, the
free rein given to speculation in countries where the currency
suddenly lost its value, as in Germany and Austria, the difficulty
which new countries experienced in stabilising economic conditions, the prolonged industrial crisis in a number of exporting
countries, such as England, the slow and steady fall in the value
of the national currency which placed the industry of France and
Belgium in an entirely unreal situation—all these factors made
the attempt to introduce scientific management methods more
precarious and more difficult t h a n might at first have been
expected. Only in a very few countries whose economic policy
- 3 7 was conducted on particularly sound lines and where the public
never lost its courage in place of unpromising conditions did it
prove possible t o proceed without dislocation from t h e second
to the third and final phase. Czechoslovakia provides one such
exception; in t h a t country the scientific management movement
has progressed steadily and with increasing momentum ever
since the end of the war.
Third Phase :
Adjustment
As the period under review approaches nearer to the present
day it becomes increasingly difficult to fix the essential characteristics of the movement's development. The phase through
which it is at present passing corresponds, generally speaking,
to a closer and more systematic adjustment of the theories elaborated and the practices instituted during the post-war period.
I n so far as an a t t e m p t at definition is possible, the present phase
would appear to be characterised by a desire to co-ordinate the
hitherto scattered activities and by a realisation of the necessity
for entrusting the diffusion of a knowledge of the essential
principles of scientific management, and the education both of
technicians and public opinion with a view to their more general
application, to properly qualified organisations. An essential
feature of the phase consists in the development of institutions
of all kinds for the purpose both of technical study and popular
education ; it is also a period of conferences. The information
obtainable from the literature is therefore of less importance for
its study than an examination of t h e results achieved b y t h e
institutions and a study of practical experiments and the existing
state of public opinion. Subsequent sections of the present
report are devoted to these subjects.
The general impression which a study of the literature provides
is t h a t the need for codifying the theory and co-ordinating the
practice, for defining and determining more precisely the objects
and scope of scientific management, is increasingly realised.
Hitherto no single study has been published in any European
country which entirely covers this ground 1.
1
In his preface to Mr. NUSSBAUMEB'S book, L'Organisation scientifique
des Usines (Paris, 1924), Mr. Henri le Châtelier, who first introduced Taylorism
in France, lays stress on the fact that the scientific method on which Taylor's
— 38
T h e most recently published literature does n o t a p p e a r to
c o n t a i n a n y original c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e s u b j e c t , b u t t h r o u g h o u t
i t a desire t o r e n d e r T a y l o r ' s p r i n c i p l e s m o r e precise a n d m o r e
u p - t o - d a t e is p e r c e p t i b l e .
T h e purely technical literature appears based on a systematic
e n d e a v o u r t o s e c u r e g r e a t e r p r a c t i c a l efficiency, a n d t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s , a n d i n c o n n e c t i o n t h e r e w i t h t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n of t h e a c c o u n t i n g d e p a r t m e n t , receive i n c r e a s e d a t t e n t i o n .
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h a n k s p a r t l y t o t h e p o p u l a r i s a t i o n of
" F a y o l i s m " , increasing consideration appears t o be devoted to
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a p p l y i n g scientific m a n a g e m e n t p r i n c i p l e s in
commercial u n d e r t a k i n g s , b a n k s , a n d t h e public services.
T h e p s y c h o - p h y s i o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e also a p p e a r s t o reflect t h e
d e s i r e t o i n c r e a s e t h e p r a c t i c a l v a l u e of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s c a r r i e d
o u t , a n d t h e m o s t r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d l i t e r a t u r e a p p e a r s t o be
s p e c i a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d o n v o c a t i o n a l selection a n d g u i d a n c e , t h e
s t u d y of a p t i t u d e s , a n d t h e e l a b o r a t i o n of t e s t s . N e w s u b j e c t s
of scientific s t u d y h a v e b e e n d i s c o v e r e d in r e s t p a u s e s a n d
holidays. I t m a y be asserted t h a t , generally speaking, a t t e n t i o n
is specially d e v o t e d t o t h e s t u d y of t h e p a r t p l a y e d b y t h e h u m a n
f a c t o r in i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n . I t is, h o w e v e r , b y n o m e a n s e a s y
t o d e t e p m i n e e x a c t l y h o w far all t h i s l i t e r a t u r e owes i t s i n s p i r a t i o n
researches are based differs only in one particular from the methods employed
by the scientist in the laboratory. "Scientific management in industrial
production must pay, that is to say, must yield more than it costs."
I n his opinion the scientific method as applied to industry consists essentially in the observance of the following seven rules :—
(1) A belief in determinism: "The belief in the universal operation of
natural laws or, in other words, in the non-existence of chance, leads, in
industry, to a revolt against irregularities and waste and invariably makes
it possible almost to eliminate them."
(2) The application of the principle of sub-division: "The first step to
be taken in commencing the study of any subject whatsoever should consist
in the sub-division of every complex object into its component parts. Such
sub-division should be carried to sufficient lengths to resolve the subject
of study, if possible, into elementary magnitudes and, in any case, into
measurable magnitudes forming independent variables."
(3) Selection of the objective to be pursued : "If it is desired to effect
an improvement in manufacture it is a serious mistake to attempt to improve
everything—quality, cost of production, etc.—simultaneously. The subject
selected for study should be extremely simple so as to be perfectly accessible
to limited means and capacities; it should be sufficiently clearly delimited
to enable us to devise methods of coping with it ; it should not be too vast
if patience is not to be exhausted before our object is achieved, and it should
be of sufficient utility to repay the cost of study."
(4) Action should always be preceded by reflection : "For the manufacture of any commodity the best and most economical method of organisation should be studied. Such study should be preceded by a study of
— 39 —
t o scientific management ideas. At present the interest of supporters of the movement extends to all sorts of subjects, many of
which lie, strictly speaking, outside the scope of scientific management while, conversely, specialists in industrial economics, industrial safety, industrial hygiene, social insurance, and questions
connected with hours of labour can no longer afford to neglect
t h e results of experiments in scientific management. I n regard
t o hours of work in particular, there would seem to be a tendency,
both among the workers and among the employers, to appeal to
scientific management to supply a rational basis for the eighthour day. This fact alone is evidence of the importance of the
present phase, in which scientific management appears as a
factor in the various economic and social problems. To speak
only of the literature, the works most recently published bear
witness to a widespread realisation t h a t systematic research on
questions of organisation m u s t be directed over an increasingly
wide field. Not only have attempts been made in the light of
progress secured by means of improved methods of accountancy
and costing to organise on a more scientific basis the public
services, banks, insurance companies, and commercial undertakings, as well as undertakings more strictly industrial in
character, b u t it is being more and more realised t h a t it is useless
to improve the organisation of the several branches of the factory
the most economical processes of manufacture and, in turn, the latter study
should be preceded by a methodical enquiry with a view to determining the
service or department best fitted to conduct the final study."
(5) Preparation of material factors in organised work.
(6) So long as the work is being performed the two following principles
should be observed:—
(a) The instructions on the card should be strictly followed "even
though the worker may be convinced t h a t alternative methods
would be better."
(b) In conducting experiments only one factor of the problem
under study should be varied at a time.
(7) All results should be subjected to a final checking.
Mr. Le Châtelier concludes : "All these results of scientific method are
common-sense principles. I t is worth while, however, to express them in
explicit terms. When one relies solely on the inspiration of the moment,
one too frequently neglects to reflect before taking action, and thus one
finds oneself working under the least favourable conditions. An effort of
will and attention is required in order to recognise the validity of the principles of scientific method and to comply with them in practice. Taylor
has rendered a great service in demonstrating by irrefutable examples the
considerable advantages t o which the respect of these rules may lead. I t
is not sufficient, however, to believe, in their utility; it is, above all, essential
to know how to apply them in each individual case."
— 40 —
or workshop if a similar a t t e m p t is not made simultaneously in
regard t o the whole industry concerned, and, passing even beyond
the limits of a single trade, in regard t o allied trades, t o the
national economic system as a whole, and even t o international
economic organisation.
I t is already a considerable time since this conclusion was
reached as regards one of the most important aspects of scientific
management, namely, standardisation, which, having gradually
worn down the resistance of individual opponents and become
p a r t of modern industrial practice, has now won a place of
honour in the economic programme of every nation, and, since
the establishment a t Basle in Switzerland of an International
Standardisation Committee, has assumed international importance.
Another item in t^ie scientific management programme, namely,
the systematic elimination of waste, has, since t h e publication
of Mr. Hoover's celebrated r e p o r t 1 in the United States, become
a m a t t e r of general public interest. The utility from the national
point of view of t h e elimination of waste is no longer disputed,
and its partisans are already urging t h a t the campaign should be
carried into t h e international field.
I n yet another sphere the scope of scientific management is
now being extended. The activities of industrial ententes,
trusts, and national and international cartels are being increasingly
justified by the facilities which they afford for a more scientific
organisation of production and a consequent lowering of costs.
Such is not always the immediate object of such organisations,
b u t t h e suspicious attitude of public opinion a n d t h e watchful
supervision of consumers and Governments have resulted in
forcing them t o come into line with a policy b y means of which
their activities can best be given a legitimate character, with
results which are just as much t o their own advance as t o t h a t of
the whole community.
Thus scientific management is gradually assuming international
importance. I t is not a result of mere chance t h a t t h e organisations which have been set u p a t Geneva, Paris, and Rome
respectively with a view t o examining the international aspects
of economic and social problems have come t o take an interest
in it. The International Labour Office, the Economic Committee
1
COMMITTEE ON ELIMINATION OF W A S T E I N INDUSTRY OF THE FEDERATED
AMERICAN ENGINEERING SOCIETIES : Waste in Industry.
New York, 1921.
— 41 —
of the League of Nations, the International Association of Chambers of Commerce, and the International Institute of Agriculture
all now devote attention t o scientific management, and t h e
Preparatory Committee for the Economic Conference merely set
the seal on these recent tendencies when it included scientific
management among the methods by which European economic
reconstruction might be accelerated.
While these developments have been taking place, the opposition of the Labour movement, which in earlier days formed
the most serious obstacle with which scientific management was
faced, has rapidly subsided. Many prejudices and suspicions
appear to have vanished, and recently some writers have even
invoked scientific management methods in order to give greater
force to the claims of working classes. The change of opinion
among European workers is not to be explained merely by
reference t o the favour in which scientific management is held in
Russia. The real reason is rather t h a t in some countries, and
particularly in Germany, the development of the movement is
increasingly associated with America's prosperity and the policy
of high wages. On the other hand, this association has quite
recently provoked a vehement controversy in regard to the possibility or advisability of introducing in Europe practices too
closely modelled on those followed in the U.S.A. Considerable
anxiety has been expressed on this point in some industrial
quarters. F u r t h e r reference will be made a t a later stage of t h e
present report to this controversy.
Such then, would appear to be the point to which the movement
has u p t o the present progressed in Europe. The following
chapters, in which the results secured are reviewed, will, it is
hoped, enable the reader to form a more exact opinion and t o
appreciate t h e full significance of the most recent developments.
CONCLUSIONS
I t appears desirable to a t t e m p t in conclusion to indicate briefly
a few of t h e impressions to be derived from the above summary
of the progress of the scientific management movement.
At the present day it seems to be generally recognised t h a t
scientific management is not, as it was previously, and by some
people still is, thought to be, a complicated collection of formulae
— 42 —
for the securing of p e t t y economies in the management of an
undertaking. The lessons derived from experience and technical
study, which it is the business of technical education in all
countries to import, do not constitute scientific management
properly speaking; nor does the search for technical improvements or the inventions of mechanical modifications in manufacturing processes. Scientific management must not be confused with science applied t o industry. I t has, from the beginning, claimed another field of action. Invention and organisation
are two distinct sciences. To organise is to study and regulate
the relations between the man who performs the work, the tool
which he uses, and the various grades and classes in which the
human factor in production is grouped, so as to order such production along the best possible lines, i.e. t o t u r n out a product of
the best quality at the lowest price with the minimum expenditure of energy in the shortest time.
The perfection of technical methods is merely a means t o an
end. Scientific management incidentally employs it in order
to improve its own results, b u t is not dependent on it. The most
scientifically organised workshop is not always the one in which
the most modern plant is used or which has attached to it the
most fully equipped laboratory. Unlike the inventor, who also
aims at better and cheaper production b u t addresses his efforts
solely to methods of treating raw material, the organiser concerns
himself particularly with the human being whose daily work
consists in handling such raw material. Thanks to his association
with scientific progress applied to industry, the inventor has
long enjoyed a special position in the public esteem; b u t under
cover of the inventor and profiting by his work, how many manufacturers have built up their undertakings on no surer foundation
t h a n the changes and chances of the markets, with their minds
closed to any idea transcending t h a t of personal gain ! Yet the
changes which such progress has brought about in production
and the resulting transformation of the family firm into the
huge concern with branches or factories all over the world have
called attention to questions of organisation which become the
more urgent as the complexity of modern industry increases x.
1
Cf. In regard to the transformation of industry and its increasing concentration the introduction to Les Industries Modernes, by Paul DE ROUSIERS.
Paris, 1924.
— 43 —
The place in the limelight which the manager now enjoys is the
result of the implicit recognition of this transformation. The
management of an industrial undertaking becomes every day
more difficult, requiring more serious preparation and more
varied abilities. The popular idea of the "captain of industry"
has generally rather a romantic colour, on account of the willingness to take risks, the speculative audacity, the superhuman
energy frequently accompanied by a complete freedom from
scruple by which such persons are supposed to be characterised.
I n the eyes of the partisans of scientific management such
ideas are now quite obsolete. To-day the man at the head of
any undertaking must be primarily an organiser, a man t h a t is
to say who has been carefully trained for his work, not merely
by technical education in particular subjects, b u t by a general
instruction in economics and sociology and by a serious study of
applied psychology, which last forms in fact the basis of the
science of organisation, its real subject matter rightly understood
being the functions in regard to production of all who are engaged
in industry, from the worker to the manager. I t s essential
object is to secure the best possible contribution from each
individual by putting him in his right place and securing universal
harmony and collaboration. This is the explanation of the
importance which supporters of scientific management attach to
the human factor and of the interest which they take in vocational
selection and education, in time and fatigue study and in questions
of industrial health. Furthermore, they endeavour to analyse
industrial relations and to discover a more scientific and productive basis for the relationship between employers and workers
t h a n the traditional one of authority. They take more and more
interest in the nature of the contract between the two parties;
indeed, the systematic job analysis, on which both the calculation
of production costs and the just remuneration of the worker are
based, obliges them to do so.
I t is, therefore, scarcely surprising t h a t some of the foremost
exponents of scientific management claim for it an increasingly
important place in social policy and do not hesitate deliberately
to attribute to it a philosophy and a morality of its own. Scientific management, they observe, leads in practice to the recognition and the development of the solidarity existing between all
the different human elements concerned in production. I t
causes them to collaborate more and more closely for their
— 44 —
m u t u a l advantage, b o t h by eliminating everything calculated t o
make work materially disageeable and by exorcising conflicts
between individuals or between classes such as are born of
speculation and injustice 1 . B y necessitating a serious endeavour
to secure a more equitable and scientific distribution of profits, it
not only strengthens such solidarity b u t supplies a more legitimate basis for profit in itself. Moreover, it increases the sense
of professional dignity of the humblest manual worker and of the
manager alike; it cultivates the taste for serious research and
tends to substitute a relationship based on reason, logic, and
community of interest for t h e traditional a n d hitherto universal
relationship of which the sole basis is authority.
Finally, and perhaps chiefly, it calls on each individual in a n
1
" Scientific management... is not any of the devices which the average
man calls to mind when scientific management is spoken of... I am not
sneering a t cost keeping systems, a t time study, a t functional foremanship,
nor a t any new and improved scheme of paying men, nor a t any efficiency
devices, if they are really devices t h a t make for efficiency. I believe in
them; but what I am emphasising is that these devices in whole or in part
are not scientific management ; they are useful adjuncts t o scientific management, so are they also useful adjuncts of other systems of management.
" Now, in its essence, scientific management involves a complete mental
revolution on the part of the working man engaged in any particular establishment or industry—a complete mental revolution on the part of these
men as to their duties toward their work, toward their fellow-men, and toward
their employers. And it involves the equally complete mental revolution on
the part of those on the management's side—the foreman, the superintendent,
the owner of the business, the board of directors—a complete mental revolution on their part as to their duties toward their fellow-workers in the
management, toward their workmen, and toward all of their daily problems.
And without this complete mental revolution on both sides, scientific
management does not e x i s t . . .
" The great revolution t h a t takes place in the mental attitude of the
two parties under scientific management is t h a t both sides take their eyes
off t h e division of the surplus as t h e all-important matter, and together
turn their attention toward increasing the size of the surplus until this
surplus becomes so large t h a t it is unnecessary to quarrel over how it shall
be divided. . .
" The substitution of this new outlook—this new viewpoint—is of the
very essence of scientific management, and scientific management exists
nowhere until after this has become the central idea of both sides ; until this
new idea of co-operation and peace has been substituted for the old idea of
discord and w a r . . .
" There is, however, one more change in viewpoint which is absolutely
essential to the existence of scientific management. Both sides must
recognise as essential the substitution of exact scientific investigation and
knowledge for the old individual judgment or opinion, either of the workman
or the boss, in all matters relating to the work done in the establishment...
" These are the two absolutely essential elements of scientific management."
Testimony of Frederick W. Taylor before a Special Committee of t h e
House of Representatives, January 1912 (Bulletin of the Taylor Society,
June-August 1926, pp. 102 et seq.).
— 45 —
undertaking to make a continual effort at self improvement ; for
so far from being a dry collection of formulae it is essentially a
living doctrine, never satisfied with established methods b u t
continually seeking to improve them. I t is the enemy just as
much of routine and red tape as of irresponsibility and speculation.
Moreover, scientific management is considered by its partisans
n o t merely as a branch of social science b u t as tending to claim
an ever larger place in economics; and this appears to be the
final stage in its development u p to the present. I t would perhaps
be imprudent to ask the manufacturer to consider the systematic
lowering of costs of production solely as a social service which
he owes to the community. Such a conception might appear, at
any rate in Europe as we know it, to err on the side of idealism.
Scientific management, however, claims to be able t o increase
production by supplying the consumer with a better product at
a lower price, to the common advantage of consumer and producer
alike. I n America scientific management is closely associated
with the theory of high wages, and it is in virtue of this association
t h a t it has become popular in t h a t country; whilst in Europe it
is still generally regarded as a specifically American practice.
This view is typical of the latest stage in the evolution of scientific management from the workshop to industry as a whole, and
from the single undertaking to the national trust and the international cartel. Standardisation is its offspring, or a t any rate serves
its ends. Yet in the engineering workshop and the international
cartel alike scientific management applies the same methods and
aims at the same object. I t remains to be seen how far it is
likely to succeed in obtaining recognition for its latest claims.
An attempt to estimate its chances of doing so will be made in
the following chapters.
f
II
INSTITUTIONS
GENERAL REMARKS
The brief sketch contained in the previous Chapter of the
manner in which the scientific management movement has
developed in Europe will have convinced the reader of the
difficulty of forming a comprehensive idea of the a t t e m p t s
already made to understand, explain, and popularise the subject.
The study of the institutions set u p for the purpose of assisting
and encouraging the movement is no less difficult. I n the
first place, as has already been remarked, the scope of this new
science, having been inadequately defined in the early days of
the movement, is now being daily extended and more accurately
defined. Secondly, in addition to a number of institutions
which specialise entirely in the subject, there exists a large
number 1 of organisations, official and unofficial, whose main
object is not specifically the study of scientific management
questions but which devote some part of their attention thereto.
Thirdly, the increased interest which has recently been shown
in the subject has led a very considerable number of institutions
which hitherto had not directly concerned themselves with it
to give it a place in their programmes, while the co-ordination
of hitherto dispersed activities which has been taking place has
brought new institutions into being.
Altogether, a considerable number of institutions appear at
the present day to be dealing in one way or another with
scientific management questions. An a t t e m p t has been made
to draw up a list of such institutions in the various countries
— 47 —
in a table which figures as an Appendix to the present
Report 1 .
A study of these institutions gives the impression t h a t a
rapid development has taken place. Some of t h e m are no
doubt feeble growths and there is considerable overlapping.
They have, however, already succeeded in arousing such interest
and in achieving such positive results t h a t their future appears
assured, especially as they are tending to concentrate their
efforts in a more organised way and to develop their activities
on the basis of a common understanding.
I t would thus appear an easier matter to classify the institutions
t h a n the literature. While it is true t h a t complex institutions
dealing with the whole network of questions, connected with
scientific management and the organisation of production exist,
the majority are more modest and concentrate their energies
on special research work, or devote themselves to the study of
one particular aspect of scientific management questions (e.g.
technical research and pyschological laboratories, propaganda
committees, educational institutions, etc.).
As has already been stated in the previous Chapter, the majority
of institutions devoted to scientific management were set up
during the third or final phase of the movement's evolution.
From the chronological point of view, this phase may be regarded
as more or less falling within the years 1923-1926. This does
not mean t h a t before this period no specialist or non-specialist
institutions existed for the encouragement of the scientific
management movement. I t may, however, be affirmed t h a t
in the majority of cases the activities of such institutions as did
previously exist were of a fragmentary character and of but
slight importance.
I t will be as well to define the various elementary functions
fulfilled by these various organisations with as much precision
as possible. For the purposes of the present enquiry it is, in
fact, of greater importance to classify the steps which have
been taken with a view to encouraging or popularising scientific
management t h a n to draw u p a complete list of them. An
a t t e m p t will therefore be made in the following pages, first to
indicate the chief functions fulfilled by the institutions in question,
and then, treating t h e m from the point of view of the continent
1
See Appendix I I I , pp. 216-222.
— 48 —
of Europe as a whole, to discover how far their orientation has
been determined by national circumstances and to trace their
general characteristics in each individual country. Finally, in
order t o give a more complete character t o the whole study, t h e
activities of a number of typical institutions will be analysed in
special Appendices \
R O U G H CLASSIFICATION OF I N S T I T U T I O N S
As we have seen, scientific management extends to too many
technical, psychological, economic, and social questions for it
t o be possible, in the absence of a properly-thought-out theory,
to define its scope exactly. This lack of exactitude arising out
of the rich variety of the movement's various aspects also characterises the institutions which deal with it. I n order, therefore,
to determine the functions fulfilled by those institutions we are
bound to assume t h a t scientific management is clearly understood
by everyone in the same manner, and t h a t this general understanding agrees with the statements made a t the beginning of
the present Report. I t thus becomes easier to discover, at any
rate theoretically, the questions which specially preoccupy those
who are interested in the development of the movement.
The first object of all such persons is clearly to contribute to
the improvement of industrial technique in its various branches.
I n pursuance of this object, numberless laboratory studies and
experiments have been carried out with a view to the scientific
formulation of the new rules and methods suitable for every
kind of industrial activity and of their adaptation to the worker
considered as a human being.
Side b y side with pure research work of this kind, various
experiments are naturally made by various occupational groups,
each within the limits of its own activities, in industry, commerce,
banking, agriculture, etc.
A third object will naturally be to spread a knowledge of the
indispensable elements of scientific management, first among
technicians, secondly among all concerned in industry, and
thirdly in public opinion as a whole b y means of systematic
propaganda. Such propaganda is rendered indispensable by
1
See pp. 223-232.
— 49 —
the opposition encountered in various quarters. I t is, moreover.
a natural by-product of a n y vigorous movement.
Finally, however well known and widely diffused scientific
management may become, it still remains necessary in order to
ensure its development to teach it to all who in the various grades
of industry will be called upon cither to supervise its application
or to play some part therein. Thus, side by side with the
normal technical education of the various classes of producers,
attempts are made to supply special education in scientific
management methods.
In practice, specialist institutions exist which correspond to
each of these fundamental functions. There are research laboratories devoted exclusively to experimental work on the theory
and practice of scientific management in its various forms;
there are institutions which specialise in applying the results
of such researches in the various branches of industry; there
are others again of which propaganda appears to be the principal
object; and finally, the fourth object, education, is pursued in
the technical schools, universities and a certain number of
specialist institutions.
Such exclusive specialisation, however, is rarely found.
Everything depends, during the present initial period, on the
circumstances attending the establishment of the institutions
themselves in each country. The majority devote their energy
and resources to several, if not to all, of the above objects. Those
which owe their existence to private initiative frequently specialise
to a greater extent, while those, on the contrary, which have
an official character deal with all questions arising out of scientific
management. This fact makes systematic classification of the
institutions as a whole extremely difficult. An a t t e m p t will be
made at the end ot this Chapter to review t h e m for each country
separately and so to make their original character clear.
The four functions defined above correspond to the manner
in which the enquiry as a whole has been subdivided. Such
subdivision makes it fairly easy to distinguish the activities of
institutions whose object is technical improvement and of those
which seek to adapt the human factor to scientific management.
As regards the study of the general problems of production and
the attempts which have been made to solve those problems on
scientific management lines, it has been thought better not to
refer to them here except incidentally, owing to the immense
5
— 50 —
variety and indefinite character of the problems themselves.
I n addition to the information supplied in this Chapter, special
information on institutions devoted to standardisation questions
is given in an Appendix.
Institutes
and Laboratories
for Study
and
Research
I n the majority of European countries institutes have been
established with the object of laying the foundations for a
science of labour. Such institutes have, generally speaking,
been set u p on the initiative of already existing associations
which desired to give a permanent character t o their research
work. I n many cases an official or semi-official atmosphere
attaches to them, owing to the fact t h a t in some cases they have
from the outset or gradually been placed under the protection
of the Government and subsidised by it, in others t h a t they were
founded by universities or technical schools, or in others again
t h a t their development is due to the support of the most representative industrial groups in the country. They exercise a
growing influence in the economic sphere. Most of t h e m are
placed under the direction of specialists in the technique of
industrial organisation, or of men of science. They are staffed
by qualified experts who are generally engineers with personal
experience in regard to equipment, management, and personnel
administration, and thus are in a position to give valuable advice,
or by specialists in questions of psychology and physiology.
The object of such institutes is, as has already been briefly
indicated, t o carry out theoretical and practical research work
with a view to defining more exactly the scope and possibilities
of scientific management, to help in establishing and popularising
new principles, to perfect existing methods, and t o adapt them
where they are of foreign origin t o the national industry and the
national psychology. Such is the case for example in regard to
the Berlin Reichskuratorium
für Wirtschaftlichkeit, the Moscow
Central Labour Institute, the Warsaw Institute of Scientific
Management, and the Masaryk Labour Academy at Prague 1.
1
These various institutes, each of which has its own particular constitution, conduct their research work either directly or with the aid of special
sections. In addition to pure scientific research work of a technical
character, they also devote some attention to publicity and propaganda.
— 51 —
I t must not be thought t h a t the activities of these institutes
are of a purely theoretical nature. The fact t h a t t h e y have, in
many cases, been established or subsidised by groups of employers,
or t h a t a regular relationship exists between t h e m and such
groups, frequently causes them to take the initiative, by agreement
with the employers, in carrying out experiments in private factories of which the results, placed subsequently a t the disposal
of the parties interested, contribute to the technical development
of scientific management. Moreover the institutes have special
publications services: most of them publish periodicals in which
the results of their activities are set forth, and for those who
have no direct contact with their work their publications supply
the best evidence of their activity.
Their efforts are thus not limited to pure research work; but
in so far as they engage in propaganda they do so rather with
a view to calling attention t o particular points which require
study than in order to obtain publicity.
Generally speaking, they consist of several different sections,
each of which is devoted to the study of a special aspect of
industrial life. Some departments specialise in the study of
labour in the workshop (time study, the use of the stop watch,
motion study); others investigate the book-keeping side of
industrial activity (methods of accountancy in relation to
management, costings, questions connected with the calculation
of wages); others again specialise in questions concerning the
standardisation of materials, and endeavour to secure liaison
between particular industries and the national standardisation
offices which have been set up on all sides during recent years.
I n some cases, and particularly in Russia, laboratories have been
set u p within such bodies organised on workshop lines and
working under ordinary factory conditions. Such laboratories
are provided both with pieces of machinery of which the rational
use is studied, and with various ingeniously contrived mechanical
devices for time study and cinematography, b y means of which
every detail in a given operation can be registered.
Some institutes also possess a section devoted t o the study of
industrial psychology. The advantage for research institutions
of carrying on side by side and for their mutual profit psychological or industrial studies on the one hand, and technical studies
on the other, is self-evident. Although in some countries, as
for instance in France, the co-ordination of t h e two kinds of
— 52 —
research work has not yet been completely established, in others,
e.g. Czechoslovakia, Germany, and Russia, the relations between
t h e m are becoming increasingly intimate 1.
I t is difficult to separate artificially the purely scientific activities of the psychological laboratories attached to such institutes
as those mentioned above, or of independent specialist bodies,
from their more immediately practical work. The majority of
such institutions are not merely centres for theoretical study
b u t take steps t o have the results of their experiments applied,
particularly in regard to occupational aptitude and vocational
selection and guidance. Their work in this direction is dealt
with in the next Chapter 2 .
J u s t as the institutes for technical research are generally
specially divided into sections which are, in some cases, quite
independent in character, so it quite frequently happens t h a t
institutes of industrial psychology specialise in different kinds
of research. Thus in Russia there is a special institute of psychoneurology and another devoted to the study of cerebral and
mental functions. Elsewhere t h e institutes specialise in particular industries with special labour conditions; thus in Poland
there is a special psychological laboratory for the building
industry, while in Germany there is an institute devoted t o
psychological research in regard to questions affecting the skilled
worker.
Alongside of such official or semi-official institutions whose
activities, whether covering all questions connected with scientific
management or only some part of them, are conducted for purely
scientific purposes and without any commercial object, there
1
In Czechoslovakia, for instance, the Institute for Technical Management
in Industry, which is part of the Masaryk Academy, carries out research
work in both fields. Similarly in Russia, the Scientific Management Board
and the Central Labour Council are in close relation with each other. In
Germany it frequently happens, particularly in the Technische Hochschulen,
t h a t a technical research institute specialising in scientific management
questions works side by side with an institute for psychological research.
2
In some countries the connection between the two fields of research is
made closer owing to the fact t h a t a proportionally greater importance is
attached to questions of industrial psychology. In England, the National
Institute of Industrial Psychology does not, as its title might appear to
indicate, specialise in the study of purely psychological problems but also
deals with other questions of scientific management. This masking of the
real nature of their activities by some institutions is doubtless deliberate,
its object being to escape association in the opinion of the workers with
American scientific management methods—a factor which has been dealt
with in the preceding Chapter.
— 53 —
exist a number of organisations or private groups which exploit
scientific management commercially, in the sense t h a t in return
for a fee they place the services of experts (consulting engineers,
doctors, consulting accountants, etc.) at the disposal of private
or public undertakings with a view to the application therein
of the most recent results of science as applied to labour. The
activities of such organisations are entitled to mention in this
section as, notwithstanding their commercial character and the
fact t h a t by the nature of the object for which they are founded
they are obliged to make scientific management remunerative,
they have nevertheless, in a considerable number of cases, been
responsible for valuable progress. Taylor was himself a consulting engineer and was only enabled to develop and perfect his
theories thanks to his close and constant contact with industry.
Major Denis, who by his study of the utilisation of mechanical
equipment made a systematic application of Taylor's methods
possible in France, was also a consulting engineer. Organisations of this character exist under various titles in many countries 1 . Some, like the Piorkowski Institute at Berlin, are of great
importance, while others, of a more modest character, represent
the activities of a small group of consulting engineers, concealed
sometimes by a rather high-sounding title.
A certain number of organisations, both official and private
in character, have also been set up for the special study of problems of industrial administration ; they are more or less directly
under the influence of Henri Fayol's doctrine
administrative,
a t any rate in France, Belgium, and P o l a n d 2 . Organisations
of this kind, but of native origin and inspiration, exist in Germany,
the Netherlands, and Russia. The object of all of t h e m is to
study, by means of close observation of the various phases of
industrial life, the conditions which each grade in the hierarchy
must fulfil in order to perform its duties in the best possible
manner. Organisations deriving their inspiration from "Fayolism" devote special attention to the education of managers.
They have thus been led to take particular interest in the admin1
E.g. the Vereinigimg Oesterreicher Betriebsorganisation at Vienna, the
Organisatoren Verband at Berlin, the Compagnie franco-américaine d'organisation rationnelle (C. B. Thompson & Co.) at Paris, and the group known as
L'Organisation Scientifique a t Brussels.
=
For example, the Centre d'études d'administration industrielle et générale,
established by Fayol in Paris, the chief object of which is the development
of the doctrine administrative.
— 54 —
istration of public departments considered as industrial undertakings, from the point of view both of economy of effort and of
increased output. Some organisations of this kind, particularly
in Russia, have assumed the character of official institutions,
while others are merely special sections of larger bodies, as in
the case of the Masaryk Labour Academy in Czechoslovakia ;
others again exist as independent committees or study centres,
as in France and Belgium.
The majority of the institutions hitherto mentioned, both
official and unofficial, are specially concerned with questions of
manufacture or administration. Some of them, however, have
more or less specialised in problems of commercial organisation,
particularly in Germany 1. As these problems have, u p to the
present, been less studied and appear a t first sight less suitable
for scientific research, it is not surprising t h a t the efforts made in
this direction have hitherto been of a somewhat fragmentary
character and have not attracted much attention.
In the field of research the various special enquiries conducted
in Europe under the inspiration of Hoover's famous enquiry
into waste in industry deserve mention, although they were
not carried out b y institutions properly so called. Such enquiries
were made in Poland and Czechoslovakia with the support of
official institutes and served t o show t h e value of scientific
management methods both in the public services and in industry.
F r o m this point of view, such enquiries are perhaps less interesting for the manner in which they are conducted t h a n for the
effect which they produce.
The above brief survey is sufficient to show how wide is the
field covered by the researches conducted by the various institutions in Europe devoted t o scientific management questions.
Their activities are somewhat ambitious, somewhat unco-ordinated in certain cases, and sometimes give the impression of
being rather superficial. Like most pioneer organisations these
institutions have had a somewhat thankless task. They had t o
trace outlines and draw u p programmes before approaching more
concrete tasks. Many of t h e m have recognised t h a t it would
be useless for t h e m to a t t e m p t to draw up their programmes too
1
E.g. the Taylorix Gesellschaft at Stuttgart and its various branches.
— 55 —
rigidly. They have tended to adapt them within the constantly
changing sphere of production to the continual changes in
technique. They are more and more devoting their energies
t o defining and applying such rules and methods as are suitable
for the study of new problems.
I t will be as well to supplement these remarks on their general
characteristics by a survey of the various institutions on a
national basis, and an a t t e m p t to do this is made below, in a
later section of the present Chapter.
Institutions
for the Application of
Management
Methods
Scientific
As has already been pointed out, the distinction between institutions carrying out research work and those which concentrate
on the application of scientific management methods is a somewhat artificial one. The former have found themselves obliged
in a very large number of cases to direct their attention to concrete problems and have, a t the request of trade organisations,
or in order to reply to questions for which an answer was urgently
required, set out to study and recommend the application of
scientific methods to certain special trades or industries. Thus
in Czechoslovakia the exigencies of the post-war situation caused
the baking trade to lead the way in experimenting with scientific
management.
The research institutions having supplied trade associations
or employers' or workers' organisations with a certain amount
of general information based on their experiments, those associations or organisations naturally set about utilising such information for their own purposes. Institutes, committees, and
unions of various kinds were set u p for the purpose of adapting
scientific management methods to their own particular requirements, while in the matter of industrial psychology independent
bureaux endeavoured to apply the results obtained in the
laboratories to vocational guidance. A brief a t t e m p t t o classify
the existing institutions set u p for these purposes and to describe
methods and achievements is made below.
I t need hardly be said t h a t such institutions maintain close
contact with, or are even directly dependent upon, the industrial
or other undertakings with which they are necessarily associated.
— 56 —
I t will therefore be necessary to devote some attention to their
activities in dealing in detail with the a t t e m p t s which have been
made to apply scientific management methods in Europe. In
accordance with the classification indicated at the beginning of
the present Report, the institutions under consideration many
be divided into three classes according to the field of their
activities—technical questions, psycho-physiology, and general
organisation.
The first class includes a number of organisations—associations
of producers, co-operative organisations, committees formed for
the purpose of linking up various undertakings of a similar
character—the main object of which is not the application of
scientific management methods to industrial work. Their principal preoccupation being either the furtherance of their collective interests or co-operation in marketing, they have been led by
the improvements in their own interior organisation and by the
general conditions in regard t o production of the post-war period
to pursue the collective study along the most scientific lines of
the technical problems with which they are confronted. The
difficulties arising out of t h e existing economic situation and the
keenness of international competition have frequently rendered
such collaboration indispensable. I t is of interest to note t h a t
the progress made in foreign countries has frequently been held
u p as an example and has assisted in overcoming the psychological obstacle represented in some countries by the traditional
individualism of the. employers.
The organisations whose corporate interests have led t h e m to
make a practical study of scientific management methods include
trade associations of every kind. The following are among
the chief of these:
Czechoslovakia:
The Fuel Utilisation Institute.
The Institute for the Improvement of Small-Scale Industry.
The Institute for Research in regard to Various Industries (glass blowing,
brewing, boot and shoe making, electricity, etc.).
The Czechoslovak Agricultural Committee.
France:
The Technical Union of Undertakings engaged in Public Works and the
Building Trade.
— 57 —
The
The
The
The
General Committee of Insurance Companies.
Federation of Co-operative Societies.
Central Bureau for Rational Heating.
Union of Metallurgical and Mining Industries.
Finland:
The Agricultural Scientific Management Society.
Germany:
The
The
The
The
The
Union for the Improvement of Technical Methods in Agriculture.
German Federation for the Testing of Materials.
Society for Metallurgical Studies.
German Society for Constructional Engineering.
Union of German Industrial Engineers.
Great Britain:
The Federation of Laundry Proprietors.
The Railway Information Bureau.
The Institute of Works and Costs Accountants.
Poland:
The Committee for Scientific Management in the Building Trade.
The Committee for the Investigation of Waste in the Sugar-Producing
Industries.
Russia:
The Technical Communications Committee.
The Consumers' Union.
The Study Circles on Banking Organisation.
Switzerland:
The Research Laboratory for the Watchmaking Industry.
The Association of Machine Constructors.
The fact t h a t all these institutions or organisations, whose
interest in scientific management is based on immediate practical
considerations, regard the introduction of more modern methods
as accessory t o technical improvements will surprise nobody.
An increasingly large number of t h e m , however, carefully
distinguish between t h e improving of plant and its utilisation
in a more rational manner.
Finally, it m a y be noted t h a t institutions falling within this
class are characterised by a tendency, arising out of their t r a d e
interests, t o establish relations with each other on a international
— 58 —
footing 1 . Although this movement is still in its infancy, it
nevertheless demonstrates the peculiarly international character
of scientific management.
There also exist side by side with the organisations set up by
private industries, a number of official institutions or organisations established with the object of carrying out researches in
regard to the application of scientific management methods to
various State administrative services or departments. The
institute for the application of rational methods to the administrative services of the States and the institute of industries
for the production of war material in Russia and the Amsterdam
Association of Municipal Inspectors in the Netheilands are
cases in point.
The second class consists of institutions whose object is to
utilise the results of researches carried out in psychological
laboratories with a view to the determination of vocational
aptitude. No pther class of institutions has secured practical
results with greater rapidity. Developments in Germany on
these lines have been particularly important, as a glance at the
Appendix on industrial psychology in practice will show. Among
such institutions the vocational guidance bureaux, set u p with
a view to directing juvenile workers towards the careers for
which their physical and mental capacities best fit them, are
daily assuming greater importance. There has usually been no
difficulty in securing agreement for this particular purpose
between the State and private industry, as the community and
the individual employer are equally concerned in encouraging
the activities of institutions of this kind. Although, therefore,
their establishment is of recent origin, they have made rapid
progress in all European countries ".
1
As instances of international trade collaboration in regard to scientific
management may be quoted the International Public Works Congress
(Paris, 1924), and the attempt made by the April 1926 session of the International Institute of Agriculture at Rome to draw the attention of its
members to the application of scientific management in agriculture.
2
In France the Under-Secretary of State for Technical Education is
responsible for the administration of the vocational guidance bureaux, with
the assistance of a national vocational guidance committee. On this subject
in general, see articles in the International Labour Review on vocational
guidance in France, May 1922 and May 1926; in Austria, Dec. 1922; in
Germany, April 1925; in Russia, Sept.-Oct. 1925; in the U.S.A. Jan. 1926.
— 59 —
There are other institutions whose main object is to ensure
the vocational education and to maintain the skill of artisans,
and which also, though incidentally, devote attention to the
practical utilisation of the results of psycho-physiological
research, e.g. in France the Chambres des Métiers \ and in Germ a n y the Badische
Landesgewernsbeamt.
Attempts have also been made in some cases to carry on
vocational guidance on a private basis as a remunerative profession. I t is still too early to attempt to estimate the value
of the part played by enterprises of this kind in the scientific
management movement as a whole.
Vocational selection has also been carried to a considerable
length in some countries, particularly in Germany and Russia.
In these two countries even engineering students are in some
cases subjected, in the course of their studies, to a series of
experiments with a view to the determination of their vocational
aptitude, and in both of t h e m vocational selection is carried out
in increasingly close liaison with the technical and vocational
schools 2.
I n the third class a special place must be allotted to institutions
dealing with standardisation. I n Taylor's view standardisation
had a double significance. I t meant in the first place the
reduction of the various objects utilised or produced by industry
to the minimum number required for meeting all requirements,
and similarly with regard to methods of carrying out work—in
other words, the simplification of materials and processes to
the greatest possible extent; and, secondly, the adoption as
standards of products or processes Avhich fulfil a maximum
number of requirements.
Attempts have been made to effect a certain amount of standardisation for particular industries, at any rate as regards
manufactured articles. The object of such attempts has, generally speaking, been a commercial one—to encourage export
1
The Bordeaux Chambre des Métiers in particular has published a series
of studies with the general title of Rose des Métiers for the purpose of
informing youthful apprentices in regard to the special aptitudes required
for various occupations.
2
In Russia a considerable number of official institutions deal with vocational selection.
— 60 —
trade. The Governments, and in some cases important industrial
organisations, were not slow t o perceive t h a t it was t o their
interest to intervene in regard to such questions. They proceeded
therefore to set up standardisation committees attached to
official departments, consisting of representatives of industry,
scientists, specialists on various technical questions, and in most
cases representatives of the Ministries most closely in touch
with industrial production (Ministries or Departments of Industry,
War, Marine, or Aeronautics). I t is unnecessary to describe
the organisation oí these committees in detail here, as a special
Appendix is devoted to t h e m 1 . I t is sufficient to note t h a t they
have been set u p in every country, and t h a t , finally, the necessity
for co-ordinating their activities by means of an international
standardisation committee having been realised, an International
Normalisation Congress held in Zurich in 1925 resulted in the
establishment of a permanent International Standardisation
Office.
The functions of these committees are generally not very
precisely defined. They deal with various questions as these
are submitted to them or referred to them for an opinion at the
suggestion of industrial employers. I n Russia, standardisation
has been carried to considerable lengths, owing to the fact t h a t
industry is carried on by the State and t h a t it is therefore to
the State's interest to reduce products to a minimum number
of uniform types in order to lower the costs oí production.
Even products intended for export are much more severely
standardised t h a n in other countries.
Special standardisation committees have also been set u p for
particular industries, e.g. for the railways, which have found
it indispensable for the requirements of both national and international traffic t h a t the various companies should reach a
common understanding in regard to a large number of questions,
such as width of gauge, methods of coupling, etc.
There are also a number of institutions of a specialist character
which cannot be correctly classified in any of the three categories
defined above, either because their activities bring t h e m within
the scope of all three or on account of their special peculiarities.
Two such institutions appear to deserve special mention; the
first oí these is the special section set u p by t h e Federation of
1
See Appendix IV, pp. 252 et seq.
— 61 —
Swedish Industries with a view to informing members of the
federation with regard to scientific management methods. The
federation places experts at the disposal of members in order to
advise t h e m in regard to the improvement of technical services,
the calculation of costs, the outlay of equipment, etc. This
deserves special mention as being the first case where a national
employers' organisation has placed its services at the disposal
of its members in regard to scientific management questions 1.
Secondly, a special scientific management service has been
officially set up in the Polish Ministry of Labour, with a view to the
collection and supply of information and the securing of results.
I t has been temporarily abolished on grounds of economy, but
the example has not been lost on other Governments 2.
Institutions
for Publicity
Purposes;
Congresses
I t appears advisable to mention briefly the various efforts
made by institutions, organisations, or congresses with a view
to informing public opinion in regard to scientific management,
to interesting technicians and employers in its progress, and to
correcting the opinions originally held concerning it in the
organised labour movement. I t should be noted t h a t for these
purposes organisations of technicians, industrial employers, and
scientists, who have long shown a disinterested desire to investigate the claims of scientific management and to demonstrate
its utility, are working in close relationship with the committees
or services set u p for publicity purposes under the auspices of
specialist institutions. Both groups have in particular made
themselves responsible for convening congresses whose proceedings
have aroused sufficient interest in the countries concerned, and
even in some cases abroad, to constitute an important factor in
the progress of the movement as a whole in Europe.
1
The Hauptverband der Oesterreichischer Industrie also established a special
committee for the rational organisation of industrial undertakings early
in 1924.
2
The Swiss Federal Labour Office has been for some months past engaged
in collecting information in regard to scientific management methods with
a view to their application in industry. A special official has been appointed
to collect this information.
— 62 —
1. General
Publicity
All the above-mentioned institutions, with the exception of
some purely technical committees, have t a k e n steps t o make
their researches or the practical results achieved known by the
issue of reviews and bulletins and through lectures. They have
thus contributed to the spreading of knowledge concerning the
principles of scientific management, especially in technical
circles. I n some instances such institutions have set u p a special
section for publicity work, e.g. the Masaryk Labour Academy
at Prague and the Institute for Scientific Organisations at
Warsaw 1.
Institutions also exist in a number of countries for the sole
or main object of securing publicity. The most typical institution from this point of view would appear t o be the Italian
national committee Enios established under the auspices of the
Italian General Confederation of Industry—a powerful body
owing its existence to the initiative of the employers. I n
Czechoslovakia there is a similar committee which includes
representatives of t h e workers' organisations. I n France, the
Conference de l'Organisation française, the members of which are
mainly technicians, has hitherto concentrated on publicity work
by means of congresses. In Russia a curious institution called
the "Time League" has been set up for the purpose of drawing
the attention of the masses t o the value of scientific management
in regard even to the most unimportant matters. On the workers'
side a special body has recently been set u p within the Vienna
Chamber of Labour by Dr. Palla, for the purpose both of spreading
a knowledge of scientific management questions among the
workers and of studying the effects of the methods now employed
on conditions of labour.
Moreover, the various groups and associations of employers
which have incidentally or specially studied the application of
scientific methods and the different special committees set up
by such organisations for the purpose have also taken care t o
keep t h e technicians informed of the progress of their work
by means of studies and reports reproduced in their regular
periodicals, and even by special articles or publications.
1
The latter institution has gone so far as to organise special lectures for
Members of Parliament.
— 63 —
I n addition, however, t o these institutions, the work of which
has already been described, there is a further class of body of
recent origin which has made a very considerable contribution
to the publicity work carried on in favour of scientific
management. The learned societies and engineers' associations,
which naturally take an interest in all fresh experiments in
industry and in the progress made in technical methods, began
to devote attention t o scientific management methods and
principles as soon as their attention was directed to them. A
number of such bodies have helped in translating the works of
Taylor and his disciples. The assistance given in France by
the Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie nationale to the
spread of Taylorism before the war deserves special mention.
In Czechoslovakia, Poland, Russia, Italy, and Germany the
engineers' associations have rendered and are continuing to
render similar service.
Such associations take many different forms. Special mention
may perhaps be made of associations which cater for the ex-pupils
of the principal engineering schools x and supply t h e m with
information by means of publications and lectures, and of those
which cater specially for technical workers belonging to a particular religion or political party 2 , and draw their attention from
time to time to the social and moral aspects of the movement.
Some associations have been founded by admirers of American
industrial methods, who have set out, in many cases after studying
those methods and the idea underlying t h e m on the spot, to
popularise them in Europe 3 .
All these associations publish articles and pamphlets expressing
their own particular outlook. Thus the public is provided with
a kind of encyclopaedia based on a number of different points
of view; the associations or committees of ex-pupils of purely
technical schools concentrate on the development of industrial
technique and frequently provide their members with original
contributions to the study of the s u b j e c t 4 ; other committees
1
E.g. in France, the Association des Anciens Elèves des Ecoles nationales
des Arts et Métiers. In Germany, the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure.
2
E.g. in France, the Union sociale des Ingénieurs catholiques.
3
E.g. the Association des Amis suisses des Etats-Unis in Switzerland,
the Taylor Society in England, and the Taylor Gesellschaft in Germany.
'• The work done by ex-pupils of technical schools who have followed
courses in scientific management and have subsequently entered the
employment of industrial and commercial undertakings represents an
— 64 —
interested rather in the social aspect study the effects of scientific
management from the point of view of improving the material
situation of the various classes engaged in production; while
groups formed for the purpose of more general study endeavour
to synthesise the various scattered elements of scientific management and devote particular attention to the theoretical and
speculative aspect of the new science. Similarly, groups of economists who have included scientific management within their
field of study have devoted special attention to the application
of scientific management methods to production problems.
I n addition to this variegated publicity work which, though
frequently unco-ordinated, has nevertheless stimulated discussion
and produced results of considerable technical value, the less
disinterested propaganda carried out by associations of specialist
engineer consultants deserves mention. Although there are at
present not many such bodies in existence, their members are
increasing. Their main object is to make known the results
which can be derived from a proper application of scientific
management methods. A special section has been set up for
this purpose by the International Federation of Consulting
Engineers, which has been actively engaged in publicity work
from 1913 until the present date in Belgium, France, Poland,
and Switzerland.
Hitherto scarcely any a t t e m p t has been made t o co-ordinate the
work of these different bodies, the objects of which vary greatly.
Thus the associations of- technicians prefer to work independently of the employers' organisations. Each class of associations
devote special study to the effects of scientific management
within their own particular sphere. I t has consequently not
been easy for the public to form an opinion owing to the multiplicity of the appeals made to its attention. From this point
of view, the congresses represent a genuine progress—not t h a t
the problems raised by scientific management are always dealt
with at such congresses with sufficient clearness or comprehensiveness, but because an a t t e m p t is made at t h e m to obtain
a certain measure of agreement, and also because the various
aspects of the problems and difficulties which arise out of scientific
important contribution to the science of management. Such studies,
which take the form of a kind of practical thesis, are unfortunately not
published. The author of the present Report has been shown a number
of them which are of real value.
— 65 —
management are discussed at them with considerable freedom
and in such a manner as to attract the attention of the public.
2. Congresses
Among the congresses which have devoted attention to scientific management, many have considered it only incidentally and
in relation to the general conditions affecting production in a
given industry or in regard to special problems. A complete list
of such congresses can hardly be given in the present Report, but
a few examples may be quoted. Thus, at the Civil Engineering
Congress held at Paris in 1918, Mr. de Fréminville, whose competence in regard to scientific management problems is, as has
already been said, extremely great, gave a full account of scientific
management methods as then understood, and at the same time
offered valuable advice in regard to their introduction in an
already existing undertaking. Similarly, to quote a quite recent
example, Mr. von Siemens, a recognised authority on such
questions, read a paper to the forty-sixth meeting of the Deutsche
Industrie- und Handelstag, held at Berlin on 28 April 1926, in
which he explained how scientific management and industrial
rationalisation could be generally applied in Germany. Again,
in 1924, the International Congress of Public Works and Building
Contractors, after discussing a number of technical papers,
briefly considered the means by which the costs of production
in the building industry might be reduced, including particularly
the standardisation of materials and improved organisation of
building yards. Some of those present at the congress may,
without knowing it, have spoken the language of scientific
management.
Such congresses, which appear to have taken place in practically
all countries, have generally ended with the adoption of a series
of resolutions more or less calculated to attract the attention of
the public. Some of these resolutions, specially favourable to
the spread of Taylor's principles, undoubtedly help to make
those principles better known.
From the point of view of the present Report, however, the
most important congresses, both as regards the value of the
practical information obtained as a result of them—some account
of which will be given in the next Chapter—and on account of
6
— 66 —
t h e tendencies which they reveal, have been those exclusively
devoted t o scientific management.
(a) National congresses.—The object of the national congresses
has generally been t o bring together t h e various scattered individuals or bodies in a given country who were specially interested
in scientific management questions. They provide those who
have devoted special study t o these questions with an opport u n i t y to explain their ideas, their methods, and, in a considerable
number of cases, the results of their personal experience to an
audience consisting to a large extent of technicians, b u t including
also representatives of employers' groups or associations, civil
servants, and persons representing important industrial, commercial, financial, agricultural, etc., undertakings. This was
the case particularly in regard to the two scientific management
congresses held at Paris in 1923 and 1924 and the congress held
at Warsaw in December 1924, which may be regarded as specially
typical.
The Paris Congresses, which were called together by t h e
Conference de l'Organisation française, were held under the auspices
of the principal Government departments, prominent employers,
and well-known French men of science. Their object was not
to study all the questions raised b y scientific management, b u t
rather t o draw u p a definite plan of the work t o be accomplished.
Their reports cover all the various branches of activity mentioned
above as lying within the scope of institutions set u p for research
purposes, viz. the study of the technical and human factors in
scientific management in relation t o special problems, the organisation of the different departments within an undertaking, the
study of costs and methods of accounting, the activities of intelligence services and planning offices, the application of administrative methods in the public departments, the application of
the results of psycho-physiology to the vocational selection departments, t o industrial hygiene, and to accident prevention, etc.
The reports provide a valuable summary of the accounts b y
engineers, doctors, and professors of their own experiences, b u t
they hardly indicate the existence of a coherent body of doctrine.
Most of the papers read were of too technical a character t o
attract general attention; their influence was, nevertheless,
valuable for the co-ordination of the activities ol the specialists.
They led in particular t o one rather interesting result which
— 67 —
deserves mention. In pursuance of a resolution adopted in 1924,
the association by which the congresses had been called together
has recently set out t o compile a special glossary of scientific
management, with the intention of thus making a useful contribution to the movement by supplying a clear definition of terms
which are still differently interpreted in xlifferent countries and
even within particular countries 1.
The Warsaw congress would appear to have been similar in
character t o those held a t Paris. Its organisers intended t h a t
it should provide an opportunity for bringing together a number
of different associations which had been recently founded with
a view t o making the principles of scientific management better
known among the public. I t led directly to the constitution
of a preparatory committee which some months later established
the Warsaw Institute of Scientific Management. The foundation
of this body made a considerable impression on public opinion,
as, when the proposal to establish such an institution had first
been made after the international congress held at Prague, it
had been based on the argument of national necessity, so as t o
enable Polish industry to compete with t h a t of Czechoslovakia
and Germany.
The congresses held at Moscow in 1921 and 1924, and entitled
the All-Russian Scientific Management Conference, were of a
somewhat different character. Their object was t o set on foot
a general movement throughout Russia for the reorganisation
of the whole industrial system on new bases, and t o draw u p a
coherent programme of production. Their proceedings were
therefore necessarily more or less confined to the realm of theory,
and little allusion was made t o practical experiments. Their
success from the point of view of national propaganda was
nevertheless considerable.
The congress held a t Amsterdam in 1923 was remarkable
for the fact t h a t the administrative and municipal authorities
participated directly in it. The resolutions adopted by the
congress devoted particular attention to the necessity for securing
better organisation of the public services. The congress which
is t o be held in 1927, also at Amsterdam, will deal with the same
problems.
1
This example has been followed in Germany by a special committee
on terminology set up by the Reichskuratorium.
— 68 —
An account of the national congresses would be incomplete
if it did not mention the effects of- the two international congresses, held at Prague and Brussels, in the countries of which
those two cities are the capitals. The Prague congress in particular had a considerable success in attracting the favourable
attention of the Czechoslovak employers. Further reference t o
these congresses is made below. I t is intended t o hold two
national congresses in 1927 at Prague and Vienna respectively.
(b) International congresses.—Hitherto
only two international
scientific management congresses have been held in Europe,
namely, at Prague in 1924 and at Brussels in 1925 1 .
The Prague congress, which had been very carefully prepared
by the Masaryk Labour Academy, attracted considerable attention. The organisers of the congress had invited the leading
American specialists in scientific management questions, and
particularly, in addition to the most qualified representatives of
the Taylor Society and the American Engineering Council,
Mr. and Mrs. Gilbreth. Thus, the greater part of the time
occupied by the congress was devoted to a general account of the
present state of the movement in the United States. The
proceedings were consequently more in the nature of a lesson for
Europeans t h a n of an international exchange of views. They
took place in the presence of a numerous native audience ;• the
Polish delegation was also a very large one. One of the most
interesting features of the congress was the account which was
given of the steps which had been taken in Russia—a revelation
to many of those present.
From the educational point of view, however, the congress was
not as successful as it might have been, owing to the absence
of representatives from the principal industrial countries of
1
In July 1926 an International Congress on Scientific Management was
held at Lucerne, under the auspices of the International Association for the
Study and Improvement of Industrial Relations and Conditions of Labour
in Industry. The chairman of the congress was Miss Hesselgren, Member
of the Swedish Parliament. The congress was restricted to the members
of thè association. The presence of Mrs. Gilbreth, who read a paper on
the development of scientific methods in industry, of members of the
Taylor Society in New York, and of a number of factory managers, who
described their personal experiences, lent additional interest to the proceedings. The object of the conference was to draw attention to the human
and psychological aspect of industrial problems, and to the improvement
in conditions of labour, both physical and moral, likely to result from a
more rational system of factory management.
— 69 —
Europe. I t was therefore impossible to obtain the agreement
in regard t o methods and practices which had originally, particularly in the case of the Americans, constituted the main object
of the conference. Nevertheless, from the point of view of the
spread of technical information, the holding of t h e Prague
congress was one of the most important events in the history of
the movement in Europe.
The congress held at Brussels in October 1925 was of less
technical interest, and made a less considerable impression.
Only a few of the questions which had been dealt with at Prague
were touched. Although, however, there were no delegates
present from the U. S. A., Russia, or Germany, the proceedings
of the congress were followed by a large number of Belgians,
and the French, Belgian, Italian, and Polish delegations made
valuable contributions to its success. Some extremely interesting
papers were read on unfamiliar subjects, and particularly on
the application of scientific management in agriculture. The
presence of Mr. Henri Fayol showed t h a t there is no antagonism
between Taylor's disciples and those who support the doctrine
administrative, while t h a t of representatives of the International
Association of Chambers of Commerce and of t h e International
Labour Office 1 was evidence of the progress which the movement
had made in the international sphere.
The Brussels congress was a success for the policy of international understanding pursued by the preparatory committee
of the International Scientific Management Congresses. This
committee has now been asked to make preparations for a congress
to be held in Milan in September 1927. Its character was
somewhat transformed in the course of a meeting held at Paris
on 11 and 12 J u n e 1926, when it adopted the title of t h e International Scientific Management Committee. The central bodies
in Italy, Czechoslovakia, Poland, France, and Belgium, as well
as a number of institutions in other countries, particularly the
U.S.A., are already affiliated to the committee, and it hopes at
an early date t o include representatives of technical bodies in
Germany and Great Britain. I n its present form it represents
more completely t h a n any other international institution the
scientific management movement 2 .
1
The Internationa] Labour Office had already been represented at the
Prague Congress.
2
Cf. the bulletin issued by the International Scientific Management
— 70 —
Educational
Institutions
It may be said that education in regard to scientific management
is still in its initial phase, in the sense that it has only recently
become a matter of current industrial practice, and that in a
number of countries the programmes of studies and lectures are
still liable to transformation from time to time, to an extent
which indicates considerable hesitation on the part of the teaching
staff.
The education now provided may be classified as follows:—
(1) Theoretical education, already supplemented in some cases
by practical work provided in the universities and
colleges with a view to educating engineer students,
future employers, and other persons interested in
economic questions in the outlines of the science of
management.
(2) Practical and theoretical education in the vocational
technical schools; such education aims at providing a
thorough grounding in the sciences connected with
management and in their practical application to
industry.
(3) Educational courses intended for workers and foremen,
provided in technical and continuation schools and
evening classes.
The distinction between these three categories, and particularly
between the last two of them, is not always very clearly marked.
Nor is it possible to draw a definite line of demarcation between
education in scientific management for industrial purposes and
that provided for purposes of commerce and administration, as
no such distinction is, generally speaking, drawn in the educa. tional establishments themselves. The fact that the science of
management is still in its infancy has militated against its admission to the curriculum of official educational establishments, but
there is nevertheless a definite tendency in that direction. The
propagandist institutions mentioned above naturally endeavour
Committee since July 1926 (of which three numbers have hitherto appeared)
and Appendix I I I , p. 223 of this Report.
— 71 —
to supply the deficiency and to provide by all the means at
their disposal for the delivery of lectures and demonstrations in
the schools, and for the establishment of private courses for
technicians and professional men. The same is true of institutions
like the Comité Michelin in France, the object of which is even
more to contribute to the turning out of specialists in scientific
management than to carry on propaganda.
Such courses and lectures in the schools, at any rate, are frequently optional, and do not involve any sort of specialisation.
There is, nevertheless, an increasing tendency on the part of the
directors of the national educational systems, especially in
Germany, to make education in scientific management compulsory, at any rate in the case of engineers, for the obtaining of
the diploma, without which it is difficult for them to obtain
employment in the technical branches of industry 1 .
1. Higher Education
In most European countries education in scientific management
is supplied by the universities, the business colleges, the special
technical schools (the schools of mines and schools of civil
engineering in France, the technical universities in the
Netherlands, the polytechnics in Poland, the study circles in
Russia, the higher technical schools in Germany, England, Switzerland, Holland, Czechoslovakia, etc.). It has been placed on the
curriculum of higher educational establishments of very various
kinds; thus in Belgium education in scientific management is
supplied both by the Institut Solvay at Brussels and the Ecole
du Travail at Charleroi.
It should be noted that in some countries (e.g. Germany and
England) classes in scientific management are conducted in direct
relation to actual industrial life. The universities themselves
are equipped with laboratories which are conducted more or
less on the same lines as research institutes and are constantly
comparing and exchanging technical results with private industry,
in regard both to industrial psychology and to industrial organisation properly so called. This tendency, which specially
1
The Technische Hochschule a t Charlottenburg has instituted a diploma
for the winter term 1926-1927 based on a combination of technical and
economic study, somewhat similar to the leaving certificates granted by
the American "business schools."
— 72 —
characterises the German system, is also to be remarked in other
countries. Thus in France the Ecole d'Arts et Métiers, in which
engineers are trained for all branches of the engineering industry,
are organised in such a manner that the pupils are obliged during
the whole course of their studies to do practical work in workshops where Taylor's principles are applied. It is to be noted,
however, that in the French schools less attention is paid to
questions of industrial psychology than in the German technische
Hochschulen.
The maintenance of contact between educational institutions
and research laboratories is facilitated by the fact that in many
cases the scientists who investigate psycho-technical questions
are simultaneously employed as professors and teachers. In
Germany this is the case almost universally. In France a
number of laboratories, in which important work has been performed, are attached either to the Conservatoire des Arts et
Metiers, an institution of a high scientific level, or to the Ecole
des Hautes Etudes, which is to all intents and purposes a
university.
In the French higher technical schools, in which pupils are
prepared both for industry and for commerce, the teaching has
for some years past been more or less based on Fayol's ideas,
and aims at supplying education in technical and administrative
methods to future managers x. In the majority of cases industrial
psychology and the elements of general industrial organisation
are also taught.
2. Technical Schools
Those technical schools which supply teaching in scientific
management generally give it in the form of a supplement to
the special technical courses. As these schools specialise more
thoroughly than the ordinary higher educational establishments
(in many cases indeed they are founded and are financed by
particular groups of industries) the courses in scientific management are of a specially technical character. Such teaching for
purely practical purposes is rapidly spreading in all countries,
and is even making its way into the most highly specialised technical schools (e.g. the railway schools, agricultural colleges, etc.).
1
Cf. the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales de Paris, Mr. Wilbois'
Ecole d'administration, etc.
— 73 —
3. Schools Jor Apprentices
and Foremen
I n a considerable number of schools for apprentices an a t t e m p t
is now being made to make the pupils acquainted with the most
modern management methods. Such schools are directly concerned in practical industrial psychology as the industrial
psychologist finds in t h e m the best possible field for experiment
in the determination of aptitudes and vocational selection.
They have consequently in t u r n become a field for experiment
in scientific management properly so called. The economic
developments in the post-war period have demonstrated to the
employers the vital importance of the proper training of apprentices. I n some countries noteworthy efforts have been made,
by both private bodies and public institutions, to set on foot
with the least possible delay courses for apprentices based on
the best scientific management methods. Thus in France a
school tor apprentices has been established by one of the important
railway companies, in which the pupils are t a u g h t the most
strictly scientific methods employed in the locomotive repair
shops, and in which they are made thoroughly to overhaul the
engines, as far as possible under normal working conditions.
Again, in Germany for the metallurgical and engineering industry
alone there are over 100 private schools for apprentices, in
order to enter which candidates have t o pass a psycho-technical
test, and in which the work throughout is based on psychophysiological methods. Progress in this direction is generally
due t o the initiative of employers' associations or of individual
undertakings, though in some cases it is due to t h a t of Government d e p a r t m e n t s x . I n a number of countries trade unions
now realise the necessity for such education as p a r t of vocational
education in general. Thus at Genoa courses in scientificmanagement have been established for the special benefit of workers
and foremen employed in the workshops of the Co-operative
Wholesale Society.
Moreover, in addition t o schools for apprentices in the ordinary
sense, special courses have also been instituted for foremen and
even for engineers in order t o supply candidates for t h e higher
posts in industry. Thus, in Poland education, in scientific
1
In Russia such education is naturally of an officia] character and the
special institutions, particularly the Central Labour Institute a t Moscow,
have received orders to assist in spreading it.
— 74 —
management has been supplied to the foremen in the railway
repair shops, and in Russia similar courses have been established
in order t o supplement the system of vocational education in
the mining industry. Similar steps have been taken in other
countries with a view to supplying the various grades in industry
with at any rate an elementary knowledge of scientific
management.
The above rapid survey of the instruction at present given in
scientific management is sufficient to show t h a t the situation is
full of promise. I t is clear t h a t in every country and in every
branch of the educational system, whether public or private,
and however technical or however elementary, the necessity
for adapting the mentality of all those engaged in production in
whatever capacity (whether employers, technicians, or workers)
to the latest developments of the science of management has in
the past few years become increasingly realised. The instruction
which is supplied in scientific management, notwithstanding
its recent origin, is already bearing fruit. „ Employers, engineers,
and workers will certainly be increasingly affected by it in
future years.
G E N E R A L S U R V E Y OF INSTITUTIONS B Y COUNTRIES
An a t t e m p t has been made in t h e foregoing pages t o show t h e
important part which the institutions have played in the development in Europe of the scientific management movement.
Although in almost all cases they owe their existence primarily
t o the introduction of American industrial methods, the part
which t h e y play varies according t o countries, owing to the
national character, economic conditions, and special circumstances which have influenced their development. I t appears
indispensable to survey briefly the particular institutions existing
in the more advanced industrial countries of Europe, and to
show the extent to which they have made original contributions
t o the movement as a whole ; though such a survey must inevitably
involve a certain amount of repetition.
— 75 —
Austria
The development of t h e scientific management movement in
Austria has been subject to German influences. The movement
has, however, a character of its own, due to a large extent to the
economic reorganisation which has taken place simultaneously
with financial stabilisation.
Mention has already been made of the interest taken in the
movement by employers' organisations and by organised labour.
Among the groups which have been formed of a moré technical
character, special mention may be made of the Gesellschaft für
W armewirtschaft founded in 1921, and also of the Vereinigung
Oesterreichischer Betriebsorganisatoren established in 1925. The
recent establishment of a central committee entitled the Zentral
Verband für wirtschaftliches Schaffen has led to the centralisation
and development of the scattered activities of these various
bodies.
Industrial psychology has been studied more particularly
with a view to practical application in industry. The laboratory
of the Daimler motor works deserves special mention in this
connection. Vocational guidance has been carried to considerable lengths in connection with the employment bureaux.
In the sphere of education reference may be made to the special
courses provided at the Vienna Neue
Handels-Akademie.
Belgium
I n Belgium the tendency has been to concentrate rather on
practical work t h a n on research or publicity. The Comité national
de l'Organisation scientifique has been in existence since June
1926 1 . The various institutions dealing with industrial organisation devote special attention to education. Even before
1
This committee, which has its seat at Brussels, devotes its attention
mainly to publicity on behalf of scientific management, to collecting
information which may be of service to its supporters, and to securing
the representation of Belgium on the International Scientific Management
Committee. Its chairman is Mr. de Leener, professor at the Solvay Institute.
The members of its executive committee include employers, professors,
engineers, and representatives of farmers and the labour movement.
— 76 —
the war special courses were provided at the Solvay Institute
and t h e Charleroi Labour University. Specialists a t the Universities of Brussels and Ghent have devoted considerable attention
t o the science of administration and t o "Fayolism," and have
carried out researches and experiments on these subjects with
encouragement from the Government.
Psycho-physiological questions are specially studied at the
Institut des Hautes Etudes at Brussels. A practical result of
such study is t o be traced in the special lines on which vocational
guidance has developed in Belgium.
Czechoslovakia
I n Czechoslovakia all the various institutions specialising in
scientific management questions have for some time past been
affiliated to a single body, the Masaryk Labour Academy (Masarykova Académie Pràce) established a t Prague for national purposes in 1918 1 . I t would indeed appear t h a t the political
independence of the country is closely bound u p with its economic independence, which must to a large extent be secured
b y means of the general institution of improved industrial
methods.
Owing t o the definitely political character of the scientific
management movement in Czechoslovakia, the Government has
always given it effective support with a view to assisting its
development. I n order t o create a favourable atmosphere for
t h e introduction of the latest methods, it has been necessary
for the institutions t o devote a considerable part of their activities
t o propaganda, as neither the employers nor the workers appear
t o be prepared t o adapt themselves t o unfamiliar practices out
of harmony with local traditions. This necessity explains the
establishment, in addition t o a considerable number of institutes
and centres for technical and psychological research, of a powerful
propaganda organisation at the Masaryk Academy.
The same national and patriotic character m a y be traced in
the systematic encouragement by t h e Masaryk Academy of
research and educational work in the various industries.
In July 1926 a Czech National Scientific Management Com1
Cf. Appendix III,.pp. 229 et seq.
— 77 —
mittee was formed at Prague in order to secure the representation
of Czechoslovakia on the International Committee and to help
the employers to understand and appreciate the technical
experiments carried out at the Masaryk Labour Academy. A
special feature of this Committee lies in the fact that it consists
of representatives of industrial and agricultural employers,
workers, and technical experts in equal proportions.
The spirit of national discipline and the support given by the
Government has made it possible to undertake an enquiry into
the elimination of waste in Czechoslovakia modelled on that
conducted under the auspices of Mr. Hoover in the United
States.
It is also not surprising that with similar official encouragement
studies have for some years past been carried out with a view to
the application of scientific management in agriculture. It
may be noted incidentally that throughout Central and Eastern
Europe, as a result of the Agrarian Reform involving the breaking
up of large estates, the necessity of introducing scientific farming
methods for the purpose of avoiding a reduction in agricultural
output has been very widely realised.
Instruction in the most advanced scientific management
methods has for some years past been supplied in the various
universities and technical schools.
The above account of the progress made by the movement in
Czechoslovakia sufficiently explains the choice of Prague as the
seat of the first International Scientific Management Congress.
Finland
The most characteristic feature of the development of the
scientific management movement in Finland consists in its rapid
spread in agricultural circles. The Finnish Society for Scientific
Management in Agriculture (Maatalouden Tyótekoseura), established in 1925, is devoted to the study of improvements in agricultural methods and particularly of methods of ploughing. . It
publishes a periodical which, from the point of view of literature,
represents Finland's most important contribution to the scientific
management movement.
— 78 —
France
Few attempts have been made in France to set u p institutes
for purposes of technical research.. Among t h e bodies which
have devoted special study to industrial organisation, the Centre
d'Etudes administratives set u p by Henri Fayol deserves special
mention. The organisations which have hitherto devoted attention to scientific management have specialised rather in publicity
and information work t h a n in research and technical study.
The most representative of these associations is the Conférence
de VOrganisation française.
The case is the same for a number of
societies of engineers {Anciens Elèves des Ecoles nationales des
Arts et Métiers, Ingénieurs civils de France, Ingénieurs catholiques, etc.) and for various learned societies, especially the
Société d? encouragement pour l'industrie nationale.
These institutions have set out to adapt American methods to the mentality
of the French producer, and their contributions in t h a t direction
have been more important t h a n in regard to the elaboration of
a body of original doctrine.
The tendency in France to separate the study of psychological
questions from t h a t of industrial organisation properly so called
should also be borne in mind. A considerable number of research
workers have so perfected physiological and psychological
methods as t o make it possible to measure industrial fatigue,
thus providing a basis for vocational selection K Hitherto,
however, they have not been in any very direct contact with
industry. They have frequently concentrated their efforts on
laboratory studies, the results of which, so far as they have been
made available outside t h e purely educational sphere, have
merely been placed at the disposal oí the vocational guidance
bureaux. This is an indication of t h e tendency noted above,
and characteristic of France, not t o perceive the full significance
of a closer association between industrial psychology and industrial technique.
Furthermore, intimate relations have not yet been established
in France as between periodicals dealing with scientific management questions and the activities of the special associations or
institutions.
1
Especially Messrs. Lahy, Imbert, Amar, and Frois.
— 79 —
A number of professional bodies are beginning to take an
interest in scientific management, though their interest is only
incidental 1 .
A considerable effort has been made to develop education in
scientific management notwithstanding the lack of a specialist
teaching staff. One step of an original character has been taken
which deserves mention. The . Comité Michelin has since 1921
made itself solely responsible for arranging for the delivery of
lectures in all the higher engineering schools by competent
technical experts, whose capacity in regard to industrial organisation was clearly proved during the war. The object of the
committee is to supplement the theoretical education provided
for engineer pupils by practical instruction. Immediately after
its foundation, it decided to send a certain number of certificated
engineers from the higher schools (Ecole des mines, Ecole dés
ponts et chaussées, and the various practical branches of the
Ecole polytechnique) t o pass a year in factories in which specially
interesting methods of organisation had been introduced. The
pupils have to submit a report at the end of the year, and prizes
are awarded t o the writers of the best reports.
The success of this educational experiment has led to the
foundation of courses in other educational establishments and
particularly in the national Ecoles des Arts et Métiers.
The
Ecole des Hautes Etudes commerciales at Paris has also arranged
for the delivery of lectures on the organisation of industrial and
commercial undertakings. The Ecole nouvelle
d'administration
et d'affaires, founded by Mr. J.Wilbois, specialises in the education
in technical and administrative subjects of pupils about to take
part in the management of undertakings.
The increasingly important part played by the official organisation of vocational guidance bureaux, which now covers the
whole country, must also be mentioned.
Thus the institutions existing under the various headings
adopted for the purposes of this Report in France are of less
importance than the fairly considerable output of literature on
scientific management might lead one t o expect. As will be
seen below, t h e relative inferiority of France in this sphere does
1
Since Oct. 1926 the Union des Industries métallurgiques et minières
has placed the services of a special industrial organisation branch at the
disposal of its members.
— 80 —
not prevent her from being one of the most advanced European
countries in the practical application of scientific management
methods.
The Comité de Vorganisation française and the Centre d'Etudes
administratives have recently agreed to amalgamate in order to
constitute a Comité national de l'Organisation française, which
will in future represent France on the International Scientific
Management Committee l.
Germany
In Germany the scientific management movement has from
the outset been concentrated round the educational institutions.
The close relationship which has always existed in this country
between the laboratories, which are in many cases dependent on
the universities, and industry is well known. When in the postwar period an attempt began to be made to effect the economic
reconstruction of the country by means bf the new "rational"
methods of industrial organisation, the same close contact was
naturally maintained. Thus a list of educational centres (universities, higher technical schools, and higher business colleges)
would supply a fairly accurate indication of the point to which the
scientific management movement has progressed. A considerable number of professors who have had some actual experience
in industry are now specialising in the theory and practice of
industrial management.
It should be noted that scientific management and scientific
factory organisation, which have hitherto been considered as
constituting an optional subject and in which it has been impossible to specialise, are now to be made compulsory for all pupils
in the engineering section. Thus a considerable number of
engineers will pass out of the schools every year armed with an
1
A central committee was set up on the.initiative of the employers on
26th November 1926 under the auspices of the Confédération générale de la
production française, with the support of the Comité national de l'Organisation.
Mr. L. Bréguet is chairman of this committee.
On the workers' side two study centres are at present being formed by
the Confédération générale du Travail and the Confédération générale des
syndicats Chrétiens respectively. The agricultural associations have also
decided to set up a special committee attached to the Confédération nationale
des associations agricoles with a view to the application of scientific management in agriculture.
.
— 81 —
intellectual equipment which is bound to be of the greatest value
tor the industries in which they find employment. Time and
motion study are in particular carried t o considerable lengths.
Practical demonstrations are given to specially qualified workers,
and private industry has assisted in the establishment of research
laboratories by providing t h e m with the most modern apparatus.
I n addition to the special laboratories for technical research
{Versuchsfelder für Werkzeugmaschinen, Betriebstechnische Laboratorien, etc.) almost all the Technische Hochschulen possess psychological laboratories in which special attention is devoted to
fitness tests, vocational education, and the improvement of
machines and tools, and in which also an a t t e m p t is made on
more general lines t o determine the " o p t i m u m " working
conditions.
A certain number of universities or Handelshochschulen also
possess laboratories. I n the latter special attention is naturally
devoted to the study of scientific management questions affecting
the commercial development of industrial undertakings, banks,
or business, i.e. accounting, costing, advertising, salesmanship,
vocational fitness of employees, etc.
The research workers in these laboratories, both teachers and
pupils, frequently act, as has been stated above, as consulting
engineers or experts for industrial undertakings or public administrative departments 1.
Whereas in regard t o purely technical education the methods
adopted are more or less those imported from America, in an
adapted form, training in industrial psychology possesses some
original features, which may be explained b y reference to the
special methods which have' been recommended in Germany
with a view to national economic expansion.
The most important and the most typical of the independent
institutions is t h a t which was established a t Berlin in 1919 b y
Dr. Piorkowski. This institute publishes a periodical entirely
devoted to questions of organisation and employs a staff of specialist engineers, economists, and business men. I t takes in
1
Thus Professor Moede, Director of the Charlottenburg Laboratory, is
technical adviser on scientific management questions to the State railways;
Professor Friedrich, a t Karlsruhe, acts in a similar capacity to Krupps and
the Hanomag works; Professor Giese, of Stuttgart, is adviser to the Wurtemberg vocational guidance bureaux; and Professor Russie, of Mannheim,
advises the Badische Landesgewerbeamt.
7
— 82 —
hand the general organisation of undertakings which apply for its
assistance, and supplies t h e m with expert advice on organisation
questions in regard to any of their particular departments,
devoting special attention to the various conditions of a psychological, economic, or social nature affecting the success oí each
undertaking. I t not only directs the initial organisation but also,
with the approval of the management, assists t h e subsequent
development of undertakings by contributing to the education
of the members of the staff.
Further information in regard to institutions of this kind is
provided in an Appendix on practical experiments in industrial
psychology in Germany 1. I t is in fact impossible to describe
the activities of the institutions in t h a t country in abstraction
from the practical application of scientific management methods.
Special mention must, however, be made of the Reichskuratorium für Wirtschaftlichkeit, established at Berlin after the war.
This institution has set itself the task of increasing the economic
output in all branches of national production 2 . The Reichskuratorium itself is a kind of external link between a whole group
of technical committees set up for the purpose of studying various
aspects of scientific management, e.g. the Ausschuss für wirtschaftliche Verwaltung3, the Ausschuss für wirtschaftliche Fertigung, the Ausschuss für Arbeitszeitermittelung,
etc. The members
of these committees—technical experts, scientific workers,
employers, politicians, and financiers—act in a purely honorary
capacity. Moreover the Reichskuratorium also acts as a central
co-ordinating body for all activities directed towards industrial
rationalisation in Germany. I n this capacity it is responsible
for utilising the funds placed at its disposal by the Reich (over
1 1 / 2 million marks for 1926) and grants provided by important
industrial undertakings; for supervising, more or less directly,
the activities of the numerous institutions which deal specially
or incidentally with scientific management questions; and for
1
Germany also possesses an institute specially devoted to scientific
management in agriculture founded at Pommritz in Saxony by Professor
Seedorf, of Göttingen, in 1920 and especially devoted to research and
experimental work.
2
Cf. Appendix III, p. 225.
3
The Ausschuss für wirtschaftliche Verwaltung is responsible for the
publication of Betriebswirtschaftliche Schrifttum, the most valuable source
of bibliographical information on scientific management at present in
existence.
-
83 —
conducting general publicity work throughout t h e country and
b y various means—the press, special publications, study courses,
lectures and exhibitions.
Great
Britain
I t has already been pointed o u t that, t h e scientific m a n a g e m e n t .
movement in Great Britain has developed more t h a n in other.•countries in the direction of psychological research. The two*
institutions which appear best t o represent t h e activities of"
English technicians a n d physiologists are : {a) t h e National!
I n s t i t u t e of Industrial Psychology, a private b o d y founded b y
Dr.. C S. Myers in 1921 for t h e purpose ol studying, b y means of
investigations carried o u t inside factories and workshops, t h e
bestaneans of facilitating t h e performance of w o r k ; t h e institute
has received a certain a m o u n t of general •support from workers'
organisations 1 ; a n d {lb} the Industrial F a t i g u e Research Board,
an official body set u p during the war, which carries out investigations of a similar mature t o those of t h e iinstitute, b u t for more
strictly scientific pompöses and with Hess immediately practical
aims. I n practice these two bodies collaborate closely with
eacäa other.
33xe Institute of Wor&s and Costs Accountants, as its title
indicates, devotes its activities «olely t o the study of questions
.of accountancy a n d t o t i e training of accountants.
 certain number >of special bodies have been set up, with
encooragement from the Government, e.g. the Agricultural
^Economics Institute a t t h e University of Oxford, in which a
certain amount of research work on scientific management
in agriculture has been carried out. Similarly, there is a Railway
Information Bureau attached t o t h e London School of Economics.
Some industrial undertakings possess special research departments.
I n a fairly considerable number of cases progress has been made
as t h e result of public or private initiative, b u t the object of
such action in England is always essentially practical in character,
less attention being paid to education and publicity than on the
Continent. The latter objects have hitherto been left more or
less entirely to t h e engineers' associations. An active and vigorous
1
Cf. especially Appendix I I I , p. 232.
— 84 —
association of engineers specialising in questions of organisation is
in existence 1 . A English branch of the American Taylor Society
has been founded. Assistance has also been forthcoming from a
certain number of learned societies, e.g. the* Royal Economic
Society and the Royal Statistical Society. Moreover, although
t h e opinion of the Labour movement continues to be extremely
suspicious in regard t o American methods, the Joint Research
and Information Department of the Trades Union Congress and
the Labour P a r t y devotes special study to the development of
scientific management, particularly on the psychological side.
On the whole it may be said t h a t in England, as in France, the
p a r t played by institutions is less important t h a n one might be
led to expect in view of the quantity of literature published and
the interesting nature of the experiments which have been made.
Italy
From the time of Mosso onwards, Italy has been making a
remarkable contribution to the growth of the science of industrial
psychology in Europe. Until recently Italy's most important
contribution to the scientific management movement was
represented by the work of her industrial psychologists, as it
was some time before the results of the researches carried out in
Italian laboratories were accompanied by practical experiments
in industry. At the beginning of 1926, however, the Italian
National Scientific Management Committee {Ente nazionale italiano per l'organizzazione scientifica del
lavoro—E.N.I.O.S.)2
was founded a t Rome under t h e auspices of the Italian General
Confederation of Industry, with the support of technical bodies
and employers' organisations, and also of the Fascist corporations.
Since then the movement has made rapid progress, thanks to the
energetic leadership of Mr. F.Mauro, chairman of the E.N.I.O.S.,
who is an engineer. The E.N.I.O.S., though independent of
t h e Government, is markedly national in character.
1
I t has hitherto proved extremely difficult to form a British national
committee to unite and co-ordinate the work t h a t is being done in various
quarters for purposes of research, experiment, education, or publicity. In
June 1926 a certain number of employers, led by Mr. Seebohm Rowntree,
decided to establish a permanent secretariat as a first step towards forming
a committee to co-ordinate the various technical and specialised institutions.
2
Cf. Appendix I I I , p. 231.
— 85 —
Instruction in scientific management has hitherto been supplied
in the engineering and technical schools (Turin, Genoa, Novara).
At a recent meeting of the Supreme Council of National Economy,
it was decided to make such instruction compulsory in all technical schools and institutes. At the same meeting it was also
decided to introduce the most modern methods of industrial
organisation into the chief Government departments and the
State industrial undertakings, by way of setting an example
to the nation as a whole.
Thus Italy, which up to the présent has appeared less interested
in questions of industrial organisation than the other chief
industrial countries of Europe, now seems anxious to base its
national economic system on properly organised methods of
production.
The Netherlands
Since 1925 a central institute, entitled the Efficiency Institute,
has existed in the Netherlands, which carries out research work
and propaganda in regard to scientific management questions.
Instruction in scientific management is supplied in a certain
number of technical schools and at the University of Delft.
Vocational guidance has been carried to fairly considerable
lengths. Several organisations of consulting engineers exist;
one of these, directed by two engineers—Messrs. Hymans and
Van Gogh—has on several occasions been invited both by the
Government and by the municipalities to suggest methods of
improving output in the public services.
The development of scientific management methods in State
and municipal departments is a feature peculiar to the Netherlands. The Institute of Inspectors at Amsterdam has already
been mentioned.
Poland
The central body for study and propaganda in regard to scientific management in Poland is the Warsaw Scientific Management
Institute {Institut Organizacyi Pracy). This body was established
in 1925, on the initiative of the Labour League, which came into
existence after the war with objects similar to those oi the Masaryk
Labour Academy in Czechoslovakia. It is one ot the most striking
— 86 —
examples oí. an institute specialising in technical and psychological research work of the kind described in the a t t e m p t made
above to classify the various institutions. There also exist a
certain number of organisations of engineers who specialise in
scientific management questions. The various existing associations and institutions dealing with industrial management
questions decided in 1925 to set u p a joint committee entitled
the Executive Committee of Scientific Management Associations,
which secures liaison between the various bodies and co-ordinates
propaganda and information work throughout Poland, rather
in the same way as the Masaryk Academy and the Moscow Central
Labour Institute. A considerable amount of such work is done.
Its object, as in Czechoslovakia, is to encourage the idea of
industrial reconstruction and national economic independence.
Most of it, however, is due to the initiative of private bodies,
such as the Scientific Management Institute itself.
Instruction is rapidly developing in the Lemberg and Warsaw
Polytechnics and in the business colleges. Technical courses in
scientific management have been arranged for factory managers,
senior railway officials, and even representatives of various
workers' organisations 1.
Russia
The important part played in Russia by the scientific management movement has already been mentioned. Evidence of it
is to be found not only in the abundant .output of literature on
the subject, but also in the great variety of institutions which
have been founded. Encouraged by the Government, these
institutions have devoted themselves to the task of adapting
the latest scientific management methods to the new economic
system. Since 1921 an All-Russian Conference has been meeting
regularly for the purpose of elaborating a doctrine to be disseminated throughout the whole territory of the Union. The Central
Labour Institute (CentralnyiInstitut
Truda) at Moscow is undoubtedly the most important and the most complete of the Russian
specialised institutions; its activities do not, however, in any
1
The Scientific Management Society (Towarzystwo Organizacyi Naukowej)
established in 1926 has devoted special attention to arranging courses for
technical workers. More than 700 engineers and factory managers have
up to the present been through such courses.
— 87 —
way conflict with those of other similar organisations. The
number of such institutions in existence throughout the whole
territory ot the Soviet Government—even in districts like
Turkestan, the Caucasus, and Siberia—is extremely striking K
There are more than 60 local institutions which, under the terms
of their respective constitutions, simultaneously carry out
technical research and educational and publicity work. In many
cases the propaganda appears to be inspired from some central
source—a fact which may be regarded as evidence of the anxiety
in governmental circles to encourage the development of the
movement. Most of the institutions publish periodicals and
studies dealing with particular industries, and supply practical
advice in regard to the internal organisation of the various
departments of particular undertakings. As they are all, under
the terms of the Soviet constitution, State organisations, co-ordination between them is easily secured by means of a Central
Scientific Management Council (Sovnot)2.
Thus they act on
instructions received from the Central Department at Moscow,
and their task in regard both to the supply of information and
t o technical and psychological research is facilitated by the fact
t h a t the results obtained in the central institutes are regularly
communicated to them.
I n addition to the ordinary propaganda and research institutions, there exist also a considerable number of workers' study
circles, institutes for the application of scientific management
methods in the State departments, special committees for the
organisation of transport services, a technical section for industries
engaged in the production of munitions of war, a similar section
for aviation, etc. All these institutions are supplied with up-todate information concerning experiments and practical results
extracted from reviews and reports covering the activities of
the various European and American institutions. They attach
particular interest to comparisons between their own methods
and those adopted in other parts of the world.
The organisation of education in the technical faculties of the
universities and in the various technical schools and institutions
has been no less systematic. The principal aim is in all cases
1
The importance of the institutions in Russia dealing with scientific
management was sufficient to justify the publication of a special year-book
in 1924.
2
See Appendix I I I , p. 227.
•
— 88 —
to t u r n out skilled workers and engineers. The need of skilled
labour for the economic reconstruction of the country is so great
t h a t the Central Labour Institute of Moscow has for some months
past concentrated entirely on this sole object. The practical
results secured by these various activities m a y fall short of what
might be expected in view of t h e imposing appearance of the
organisation of the movement in Russia, comparable as regards
the number and variety of existing institutions with t h a t of
Germany alone. The activities of these institutions may, nevertheless, be expected to exercise a decisive influence on the
future, economic development of the country, if circumstances
permit.
Spain
I n Spain the aspect of business organisation which has attracted
most attention both among research workers and in official
circles would appear t o be t h a t of the scientific distribution of
work. The work of the Instituto d'Orientación Profesional at
Barcelona deserves special mention. At this institute the view
has been taken t h a t not merely the capacities b u t also t h e
personal character of -young persons seeking vocational guidance
should be studied. In November 1924 a ' D e c r e e was issued
instituting a reform of technical education involving the general
introduction of vocational guidance, t o be provided by official
institutes under the supervision of the Ministry of Labour,
Commerce, and Industry, forming an independent section of the
technical school system. Five years were allowed for the
putting into force of t h e new Regulations. Mention m a y also
be made of the activities of the organisations ol technical workers,
particularly the Federation of Civil Engineers, and of the efforts
made b y t h e m t o obtain t h e establishment of a national scientific
management committee.
Sweden •
In Sweden the main subject of interest among technical
workers appears hitherto t o have consisted in the standardisation
of raw materials and of the articles produced b y the electrical,
textile, chemical, telephone manufacturing, and other industries.
— 89 —
The most active institution of a technical character is undoubtedly the Scientific Management Committee of the Federation
of Swedish Industries. The federation, which is the most
important employers' organisation in t h e country, has established
this Committee with a view to placing at the disposal of its
members not only full information in regard to the organisation
of factories and industrial workshops and t o costing methods,
but also the assistance of specialised consulting engineers. The
committee has also undertaken the translation of the best
American works on the subject. I t arranges frequent meetings
between manufacturers and technical experts, a t which practical
problems connected with scientific management in the various
industries are discussed. Thanks to its financial resources and
its authoritative position, the federation has succeeded in
establishing a corps. of expert advisers for employers which is
unique of its kind. The expense is met by a considerable
contribution paid by every member of the federation in proportion
to t h e number of persons in his employ.
The federation has not neglected the psychological side of
scientific management. Its committee follows with special
interest the researches carried out in regard t o this subject in
foreign countries and particularly in England, where they have
had a peculiarly practical character.
The effect of American influence on the movement in Sweden
appears to have been considerable.
Switzerland
The institutions dealing with scientific management in Switzerland are of recent foundation and comparatively few in number.
They have been established by the spontaneous action of
employers and business men, induced to collaborate by a common
interest in and experience of American methods. The most
typical association from this point of view is the Swiss Society
of Friends of the United States (Schweizer Freunden der U.S.A.—
SFUSA) at Zurich, which includes a considerable number of
business men and has for the last two years been holding conferences which have been followed with attention by specialists.
I n Switzerland, as in Germany, the aspect of scientific management which would appear to have attracted most attention is
— 90 —
t h a t of the human factor. The Institute of Industrial Psychology
at the University of Zurich plays an important part both in
supplying instruction on the best methods of vocational guidance
and in putting such methods into practice in the industries of
Eastern Switzerland. I n French Switzerland a similar part is
played by the J . J. Rousseau Institute at Geneva.
A number of employers' organisations, and particularly the
Central Union ot Swiss Employers' Associations, follow the
scientific management movement with interest, and contribute
to its development by checking its results experimentally and
by carrying on a sustained propaganda campaign.
CONCLUSIONS
The above rapid survey shows first t h a t the institutions devoted
to scientific management are extremely numerous, and secondly
t h a t t h e y are of recent foundation, most of t h e m having been
established during the last three years. This explains the fact
t h a t in some countries their activities are as yet not properly
co-ordinated and t h a t there has been some overlapping.
The tendency at present is towards co-ordination and division
of labour—in some countries even towards definite centralisation.
The interest of the Governments in these institutions, which
owe their existence in nearly every case to individual initiative,
is growing. The Governments are beginning to realise the
importance from an economic and social point of view of the
scientific management movement, and in some cases have
established special departments to deal with the subject or
have taken action on various other lines.
Moreover, the a p a t h y which the Labour movement has long
shown in regard to scientific management seems to be disappearing, and for the first time special bodies are being set up by
the workers to study the matter.
Ill
PRACTICAL
APPLICATION
GENERAL
This rapid survey of the general evolution of the scientific
management movement and of the institutions by which it has
been promoted naturally lead us to consider the practical
results achieved.
Following the classification we have adopted, we propose in
the first place to determine the character and importance of
scientific organisation as applied to industrial technique, t h a t
is, the strict application of Taylor's principles to the workshop,
and their extension to the different services (purchasing and
sales departments, accountancy, etc.). Mention will also be
made of similar schemes in which endeavours are said to have
been made to omit such elements of the American system as
appear too rigid or unsuited to European conditions.
We shall then consider the application of scientific management t o the human factor, this being determined in the majority
of cases by the development of psycho-technology. Lastly, we
shall deal with certain cases which are concerned rather with
the general organisation of production.
Before proceeding to discuss the subject in greater detail,
certain preliminary observations are necessary.
I n the first place, the extreme variety of the methods by which
the principles of scientific management have been introduced
in all kinds of undertakings and under the most varied conditions
must not be misinterpreted. Many of the examples are only
partial in character, and very few of t h e m give the impression
of a methodical idea carried to its conclusion. A number of
them are still in their infancy or are mere experiments. In these
circumstances it is difficult t o draw general conclusions from
— 92 —
the a t t e m p t s made. We heartily subscribe, however, to the
opinion of an eminent engineer who, when discussing with us
the application of scientific management, remarked t h a t it was
necessary to be very prudent when considering results, and even
in favourable cases it was not possible t o speak of more t h a n a
percentage of success or progress.
The references concerning applications which we have found
in existing literature are comparatively few in number, with the
possible exception of some for Germany. Technicians with
experience in t h e organisation of industry have not always been in
a position to describe t h a t experience in their writings, owing t o
the fact t h a t they were bound by professional secrecy. On t h e
other hand, the evidence of less highly specialised authors is
not always conclusive. I t is the technical periodicals t h a t
offer the most valuable documentation; they frequently contain
detailed descriptions of the working methods used by particular
undertakings. A considerable amount of useful information
may also be gleaned from the reports submitted t o various
congresses.
None of these sources, however, is as valuable as actual contact
with manufacturers and technicians. Although it is fairly
easy t o obtain from the documentation as a whole an adequate
idea of the main lines of the general evolution of scientific management, it would nevertheless be a mistake to estimate the value
of the results achieved simply from those cases which have formed
the subject of studies and reports hitherto published.
We have endeavoured to obtain on the spot, by means of
direct contact, more definite and critical information t h a n was
to be found in printed sources.
These personal investigations have enabled us to add very
considerably to our knowledge. B u t owing to the fact t h a t
the information obtained was in m a n y cases confidential, some
of it has not been used in this Report.
We should like to say, however, t h a t there are an increasing
number of manufacturers who are not obsessed with the idea
t h a t their processes should be kept secret, and who are willing
to show how their works are organised. These manufacturers
realise t h a t in the majority of cases what they might wish t o
keep hidden is already known to their competitors, and t h a t in
matters of organisation it is to their interest t o give information
in order t h a t they may be in a position to obtain it.
— 93 —
INDUSTRIAL T E C H N I Q U E
The majority of the cases of application t h a t we have been
able to find are undoubtedly technical in character. An exact
classification b y industries and operations would, however,
have been impossible, even if we had had more time and more
ample means of investigation a t our disposal. Scientific management in the individual factory is regarded for the most part
as a private affair. Further, it is difficult, in any given concern,
to discriminate between what is and what is not scientifically
organised. I t is all a question of degree. This is perhaps one
of the reasons why many manufacturers and some technicians
are not very clear as t o the actual definition of scientific management, and think—especially when their workshops have
up-to-date equipment and every obvious step has been taken
to secure systematic production—that their undertaking is
unequalled from the point of view of organisation. There is
also much confusion between the use of machinery and scientific
management. Even those responsible for an undertaking are
sometimes unaware to w h a t extent it is scientifically organised,
a n d we have come across managers who, wishing to introduce
the latest principles of organisation into their works, discovered,
after studying their application in rival businesses, t h a t they
had already adopted them without realising it.
The phases which we endeavoured to describe in the first part
of our Report are naturally found again in the history of the
application of the system. Here again the war is a decisive
influence, and there is the same marked post-war extension as
has already been noted in connection with the evolution of the
movement. Starting in engineering works, scientific management has spread, in Europe as in America, to the metal-working
industries, the building, textile, and food and drink trades, and
then, crossing the boundary of industry properly so called, to
banks, insurance institutions, commercial and agricultural
undertakings, etc.
Among the most typical examples may be noted chocolate
factories in England, pneumatic tyre and electrical apparatus
factories in France, fisheries in Iceland, agricultural undertakings
in Finland, cotton-printing works in Russia, paper pulp works,
— 94 —
sawmills and spinning mills in Germany, boot and shoe factories.
in Czechoslovakia and Switzerland, building concerns and typewriter factories in Sweden, and, in every country, engineering
and metal-working concerns of various kinds, including railway
repair and construction shops. These examples suffice t o
demonstrate the elasticity and variety possible in the application
of scientific management.
Some mention should here be made of the first a t t e m p t s to
introduce scientific management in Europe. Some of these
go back a long way, although it is true t h a t a number of them
were based only very indirectly on Taylor's principles. Nevertheless, they were the first steps in a movement which gathered
impetus after the cessation of hostilities. They are all the more
noteworthy as several of them are examples of practices with
a national character not directly inspired by the American
example. As far back as 1888, Captain Ply had introduced i n t a
a French arms factory methods of operation which m a y be
regarded as forestalling Taylor's publication of his own work*.
This plan consisted essentially in attaching to the design department a special office whose d u t y it was t o plan the various stages
of the work and t o study in detail the correct use of the various
machines in the workshops. The studies carried out by this
office were communicated to the workers in the form of instruction cards similar t o those used in the best modern practice.
I n Belgium, the case of Bollinkx is parallel. Bollinkx organised
his steam engine works so t h a t the instructions were communicated to the workers in the form of cards giving the time limits
fixed for each elementary process in the operations. This system
was supplemented by a wage system on the lines of the Halsey
bonus plan. Gradually, after getting into touch with Taylor,
Bollinkx extended his system to the different departments of his
works 2.
These two examples prove t h a t the tendencies which led modern
European industry to embark on scientific management have a
long history. The natural development of our industrial civilisation has always called upon the spirit of organisation for help
towards attaining optimum output. Scientific management is
1
2
This method is described in the Revue de Métallurgie for 1888.
Bulletin de l'Association des anciens élèves de l'Ecole polytechnique belge,
1904.
— 95 —
simply the logical outcome of the application of the spirit of
analysis and scientific research to industry.
I t is none the less a fact t h a t but for Taylorism and the development of scientific management in America, Europe would not
have offered the many examples investigated of scientific management in action, which probably constitute only a small proportion of the total number in existence. If industry is taken in a
general sense as including, in addition to productive undertakings
properly so called, transport concerns and commercial, agricultural and financial undertakings, and if to these are added
the public services, it would be quite impossible to make a
complete list of the cases. An effort has, however, been made
t o give in a special Appendix a short survey for France K B u t
the essential point a t this juncture is, in our opinion, not
so much to give a more or less complete list of examples of
scientific management, but rather to indicate:
(a) the reasons which led manufacturers to introduce new
methods in their undertakings, the conditions in which
they were introduced, and the various stages of their
development ;
(b) the various forms in which scientific management has been
applied in the different operations and industries, commercial and administrative applications being considered
separately.
Conditions Governing .the Introduction and Extension
of Methods of Scientific
Management
Before examining the conditions which have assisted or
retarded the introduction and extension of methods of scientific
management, it may perhaps first be well rapidly to survey the
factors by which they were determined. We have already
mentioned, and need not again refer to, the direct influence of
the war. Territorial changes, the disappearance of some of the
most active elements of the population, and the industrial
changes necessitated by the duration of the war, completely
upset the European economy and accentuated t h e need for
1
See Appendix IV, p. 233.
— 96 —
methodical reorganisation. From this point of view there is no
more conclusive example t h a n t h a t of Russia, where revolution
served t o intensify the effects of war.
The economic disorder which has accompanied or followed
the monetary crises in the chief European countries has also
been an important influence towards the introduction of scientific
management methods. If inflation has generally resulted only
in putting large amounts of capital at the disposal of manufacturers, who have thus been enabled to renew their plant and
equipment on more modern lines, stabilisation, on the other
hand, has opened u p a large field of action for scientific management. Germany is a striking example of this. The sudden
restriction of credit and the necessity of cutting down general
expenses t o a minimum have greatly stimulated the application
of measures of industrial concentration and standardisation, and
made the smallest undertaking realise the necessity of reducing
waste and increasing output. These measures become all the
more interesting when it is remembered t h a t Germany has made
enormous progress in psycho-technology, and t h a t the human
factor undoubtedly receives much more attention there t h a n
elsewhere.
Generally speaking, however, the war merely emphasised the
urgency of certain factors making for change, and inherent in
the natural evolution of industry, such as the financial difficulties
with which all undertakings have to contend, the necessity of
making the best possible use of raw materials and labour—sometimes scarce or insufficiently trained—the growth of social
legislation and the charges resulting therefrom, the reduction of
hours of work and the consequent necessity for improvements in
equipment and methods of production, the necessity of reducing
the cost of production in order to retain or develop markets, etc.
Among the favourable conditions which made it possible to
speed u p the introduction of new methods may be noted the
diffusion of publications concerning scientific management, and
more particularly the translation of American works, the exchange
of experiences of wartime experiments, the collection of timestudy d a t a for the determination of speeds and the times of
processes, and, parallel with the increase in the number Of
institutions for scientific research, the awakening of curiosity
among technicians, and the increased facilities for investigation
put a t their disposal.
— 97 —
Certain psychological factors were also of assistance. We
have mentioned the important p a r t played by national feeling
in the evolution of scientific management in Europe. I t may
be noted, moreover, t h a t in certain countries the workers accepted
without demur the modifications introduced into their methods
of work. I n other countries it was the consumers' readiness
to purchase standardised products t h a t facilitated mass production and industrial specialisation.
The unfavourable conditions, on the other hand, included, in
addition to ignorance or routine on the part of the employers,
deep-rooted prejudices on the part of the workers, the spirit
of speculation which upset industrial economy in countries with
depreciated currencies, and the individualistic tendency which
made employers slow to adopt scientific and uniform processes,
and led the workers to resist to a certain extent any stricter
system of supervision. Stress must be laid upon the difficulties
of education and daily adaptation demanded of the managing
staff of undertakings, foremen, accountants, and gang leaders,
as well as of workers, by the introduction and application of
such methods. This slow process of education, which is an
essential condition of permanent success, was rendered more
difficult at the outset owing t o the dearth of specialists—for it
is they who have played the most important p a r t in the introduction of scientific management in industry.
The term here includes not only consulting engineers who
specialise in scientific management, b u t also technicians who
have had occasion, either before or after the war, to visit the
United States in order t o study American industrial methods
on the spot, or who have acquired a knowledge of these methods
by prolonged service in the best organised European works.
In the beginning these specialists encountered difficulties in
more than one country, either because they proceeded with
their technical work without taking the necessary precautions,
or because they did not allow for all the psychological factors
in the case. This led, in some cases, to prejudice, which
disappeared, however, when the efficacy of their methods came
to be realised.
As has already been stated, consulting engineers in Holland
played a very important p a r t in the development of scientific
management, and their services were even called in by State
undertakings.
8
— 98 —
I n France, in addition t o American efficiency engineers who
train young collaborators in their methods, are found engineers
in increasing numbers who have specialised after visiting America,
or after serving in works run on Taylor's principles. The best
known of these engineers are now attached t o big industrial
concerns.
In Sweden, consulting engineers work in regular and fruitful
collaboration with the Federation of Industrial Employers.
In Russia, where in theory every citizen collaborates in the
collective organisation of the country, one frequently finds in
an undertaking a group of specialised workers who study suggestions for increasing output and effecting economies. These
workers are obviously not experts in scientific management,
but by dint of daily effort their educational work progresses,
and positive results have already been obtained.
In Germany, the number of consulting engineers and other
specialists is considerable. Directors of institutions and their
collaborators are frequently asked by the heads of concerns—and
this is how relations are established between institutions, on the
one hand, and industry, commerce and banking, on the other—to
examine the possibilities of increasing their output, and are then
entrusted with the organisation of the scheme. I t frequently
happens t h a t specialists trained in these institutions are subsequently appointed to undertakings which make them responsible
for supervising the application and adaptation of new methods.
Three essential aspects of scientific management have to be
considered: technical, psycho-technical, and economic; so t h a t
these specialists are, to begin with, engineers, psychologists—here
again a distinction m u s t be made according as their previous
training has been in medicine or in philosophy and sociology—or
economists. I t is obvious t h a t their knowledge and experience
must subsequently extend to all questions of the organisation of
industry, although it can be said t h a t nowadays in Germany
there are specialists for each branch of economic activity and
even for each of the various aspects of scientific management 1 .
Generally speaking, there is not yet agreement in the different
countries of Europe as to the exact rôle of consulting engineers,
1
E.g. for the engineering industries: Schlesinger, Wallichs and Heidebroek; for textiles, potteries, and paper: Moede and Friedrich; for banking:
Breiter; for commerce, accountancy and publicity: Piorkowsky and Seyffert.
— 99 —
and there is some hesitation as regards the character of the collaboration which may be demanded from them. Fear of the
disclosure of trade secrets often prevents the use of their services,
especially when they come from abroad. This has led to the
conclusion of contracts providing t h a t when a manufacturer
engages the services of a national or foreign consulting engineer,
the latter shall undertake not to organise a similar concern on
the same lines within a certain specified period.
The increase in the teaching of scientific management in
technical colleges is making itself felt as regards the profession
of consulting engineer. Whereas a few years ago the whole
question was frequently quite new t o technicians, there are now
many—and their number is rapidly increasing—who are conversant with the new methods and who, even if they have no
experience, are at all events qualified to grasp the full details at
once as a result of their scientific training. Moreover, even
when foreign specialists are employed by an undertaking, the
regular engineers attached to it are able to extend their knowledge
and practical experience by contact with them and rapidly become
fitted to introduce innovations in their turn. Once initiated,
their more intimate knowledge of the special conditions of manufacture in the works renders the regular engineers capable of
rendering better services t h a n foreign specialists employed for
a short period.
Nevertheless, the rôle of consulting engineers in the evolution
of the scientific management movement is not nearly a t an end.
Provided t h a t they themselves guard against the easy charge
of humbug by strict selection and proper organisation, and
provided, above all, t h a t they take into account the psychological
factors in the case, there is every opportunity for them to render
the most important service both in the domain of practical
education and in t h a t of research.
I t has not always been possible to employ the services of
specialists. There are numbers of cases in which, by means
of the information provided by American factories, or derived
from the more authoritative publications on the matter, manufacturers and engineers have succeeded, as a result of experiment, in introducing scientific management methods into their
concerns.
Once the necessity of introducing these methods has been
realised, technicians have the choice between immediate and
— 100 —
complete application, and progressive adaptation of the new
methods and processes.
Manufacturers have frequently tried t o introduce new processes based upon the principles of scientific management almost
at a day's notice, without considering the necessary psychological preparation. From the point of view of methods of work,
their undertakings became simply a mixture of routine and
incipient attempts to imitate foreign methods not adapted to
their needs. Thus, in many works, scientific management has
been confused with time study, so t h a t times have been arbitrarily set for certain processes without any a t t e m p t to standardise
the material or t o analyse t h e work. This arbitrary fixing of
times has led to mistakes which were easily discovered and
corrected when specialists were called in. Nowadays, the technicians generally endeavour to a d a p t new methods to each
undertaking in a rational and progressive fashion.
Special Aspects of the Application
of Scientific
Management
While scientific management as practised in Europe is often
far from identical with Taylorism properly so called, the majority
of t h e cases of its application which we have studied none the
less reveal the direct influence of Taylor's principles, even when
t h e word Taylorism is not uttered, and even, and above all,
when care is taken never t o speak of systematic scientific management. The elements of work are always more or less the
same, and it is only natural t h a t an analytical study of all the
stages of industrial life, even if it is not based directly on the
works of the American engineer, should lead t o conclusions
which are similar t o his.
We propose now t o indicate rapidly the importance attributed
in Europe, as regards actual application, to each of the various
elements of Taylor's system, even a t t h e risk of perhaps making
some artificial distinctions between them.
Time study, as we have seen, was the first aspect of scientific
management to strike manufacturers on the introduction of
Taylor's works into Europe, and it was round this question
t h a t the first experiments in application centred. I n France
a n d Belgium, attempts h a d been made even before the war to
— 101 —
institute time study as a basis for scientific task fixing. Generally
speaking, however, these experiments were quite unscientific in
character, and were not preceded by a study of tools and equipment or methods of using them, their immediate object being
merely to institute a system of wages calculated to speed up work.
As Taylorism developed, it began to be realised in almost all
European countries t h a t time study, although it is the basis of
scientific organisation, requires technical and psychological
preparation, and must be combined with systematic general
organisation. Further, whereas, to begin with, the times had
been measured by any of the workers or by apprentices, it was
soon realised t h a t the duties of the observer should be to ascertain the best methods of work as well as to measure the time
necessary for their performance; hence the growing tendency t o
train as observers persons selected from among the most capable
of the workers. There is, moreover, no uniform system of time
study; in certain cases it is effected during the normal course of
the operations under consideration, and in others by means of
ad hoc experiments carried out in special workshops. I n the
engineering industries and in the case of machines whose speeds
can be determined in advance, the work of time study is simplified owing to the knowledge of the conditions under which
the machines work. Time study is also facilitated by the use
of devices for calculating the speeds of processes and by the
publication of time schedules 1 .
Taken as a whole, time study experiments in industry are
rarely carried out with scientific rigour. Motion study and
analysis are not carried as far as Taylor intended and not as far
as has been possible in certain laboratories attached to the research
institutes 2 . This is one of the most characteristic aspects of the
application of scientific management in E u r o p e ; the object has
been to avoid imposing too strict rules on the workers either in
analysing the work into elementary operations or in assigning
tasks on the basis of time study experiments. I t may be noted,
further, t h a t experiments are now almost always carried out in
agreement with the workers and are in many cases not begun
until they have received an assurance t h a t introduction of the
1
Special mention should be made of those published by the Reichsausschuss
für Arbeitszeitermittlung, Berlin.
2
Motion studies of this kind have been carried out chiefly in Germany
and Russia.
— 102 —
new methods will increase their wages. P u t forward in this
way, time study methods have met with a good reception. In
some cases the application of the system has even been asked
for b y workers in certain workshops in which it was not yet
employed when they learned of the results of experiments carried
out in neighbouring workshops. Time study has thus come to
be a normal industrial institution without being regarded as a
grievance by the workers affected. There are, however, a few
countries in which certain psychological factors have retarded
its general use.
The corollary of time study is the preparation of the work.
I n the early days when scientific management was first adopted
in Europe sufficient attention was not devoted to this essential
feature and this constituted one of the reasons for the setbacks
encountered. Nowadays, however, more and more importance
is being attached to this point.
The preparation of the work is sometimes confined t o the
fixing of the times necessary for the various processes of manufacture. The results of the time study experiments and the
d a t a concerning the calculation of machine speeds by means of
special calculating devices (scales, schedules, etc.) are then
collected in a special office. Any workshop in the factory which
has a piece of work t o do applies for an estimate of times and
receives in reply a note as to the times allowed for each of the
elementary parts of the whole operation.
I n many cases the preliminary work is not confined to the
fixing of times. I t extends t o the organisation and supervision
of the work. The planning department, which is sometimes
known as the manufacturing office, is then made responsible for
directing and supervising the execution of the work. I t receives
orders from the commercial side of the undertaking, works up
the technical details, prepares instruction cards for workers and
stores and decides in advance what machines are to be used for
each operation and assigns their t a s k s ; it then distributes the
work and supervises its execution. All the cards sent out are
returned t o the planning department when the work has been
completed and these enable this department to determine the
costs of production. An office of this description approximates
very closely to Taylor's idea. Thus it is in the works organised
b y his disciples t h a t the most typical examples are to be found:
among them may be quoted two French factories—one for
— 103 —
electrical appliances and the other for india-rubber articles—in
which these principles have been applied integrally and have
given most satisfactory results.
The work of the planning department is determined by the
nature of the industry. In the engineering industries, in which
the most usual operations are machine processes, job setting is
facilitated by the data available concerning the conditions for
the use of machine tools. Directly hand work is combined
with machine work, the time study department has to collaborate
more constantly with the planning department. When handling
becomes complicated owing to the size and number of the parts
t o be manufactured the planning department is responsible for
seeing t h a t the handling is properly done.
In factories for mass production, the preliminary work assumes
a special character and consists in fixing, in accordance with
the d a t a supplied by the technical departments, the routing
of the work and the number of specialised gangs needed for
each stage of the process, and in controlling, by charts and statistics 1 , t h e general working of the various workshops. ' Once the
process of manufacture has been settled, there is no further
need for the intervention of the planning department to determine individual jobs, and the system of routing is thus simplified. This is so in the construction of motor-cars and in
mechanical engineering.
In certain undertakings this department is not responsible
for the detailed planning of the work, but its chief function is to
fix the daily output according t o the demands of the commercial
departments. This is the case in the food and drink industries,
in multiple shop grocery companies, in chocolate factories, etc.
In other industries the chief duty of the department is to check
stocks received and sent out: this applies to glass works, in which
control of stocks is exceedingly important, owing to the variety
of the articles manufactured.
Whenever a planning department is set u p it is entrusted
with the duty of standardising material and methods, in
close collaboration with the manufacturing departments. Such
1
In Europe the charts recommended by Taylor and his followers are
frequently used: the Gantt chart for recording progress in the workshops,
charts showing the progress of the work in hand, charts showing the output
of machinery, tools, etc. Many technicians have also invented new charts
suited to their particular branches.
— 104 —
standardisation, which should precede application of scientific
management, should as a rule only be effected gradually according to Taylor himself, as and when the new methods are introduced. An a t t e m p t is first made to reduce the machine tools
and the tools themselves to a certain minimum number of types
and the same reduction is then gradually brought about in the
products manufactured, so far as this is commercially possible.
I t should be noted t h a t many manufacturers, even when they
have not attempted complete reorganisation of their undertakings, show anxiety t o specialise and t o standardise their
products, and regard the reduction of the number of models
manufactured as an important means of reducing costs. This is
especially noticeable in foundries, in clothing and boot and shoe
factories, and in certain large motor-car works.
The specialisation of equipment is frequently accompanied by
the specialisation of workshops. B u t this is the result of the
normal evolution of industry, which is itself becoming more
and more highly specialised, rather t h a n t h e outcome of a desire
to apply the principles of scientific management.
The specialisation of the workers, while also due to the progress
of machinery, has been made still more necessary by the introduction of new methods. Setting aside a few big undertakings
in which intensive mass production has led to division of labour
carried to its extreme limit, in most of the undertakings where
scientific management has been introduced, specialisation of
the workers has been carried out in such a way as t o safeguard
technical skill and to leave a certain amount of variety in the
work which any one worker may be called upon t o perform. We
might quote by way of example factories for the manufacture
of electrical appliances, a glass works, a ship-building yard or a
railway repair shop, in which the introduction of scientific management has not involved any change in the work as a whole done
by each group, b u t has only meant the establishment of certain
new rules to which the skilled workers must conform, without
prejudice, however, t o their technical skill.
The specialisation of foremen is more common. Scientific
management presupposes the separation of the work of management from t h a t of supervision, and many cases are found in
European countries in which Taylor's ideas on this point have
been adopted.
The idea of a single head who is responsible for all the activities
— 105 —
of the workshop is gradually being replaced in scientifically
organised works by t h a t of the functional distribution of activities. When there is a planning department and when its duties
are not confined to time fixing, several of the specialists attached
to the department assume a p a r t of the responsibility, especially
as regards the distribution of the work, the selection of the
machines and tools to be used, and the supervision of the execution of the work. The head of the workshop still has general
charge of the work b u t is relieved of these particular duties. H e
becomes, to use a common expression, a "producer" whose chief
task is to supervise the sequence of the work, to keep an eye
on the workers and, whenever necessary, to call in specialists
in equipment, control, distribution, etc.
I n the works which have been reorganised by Taylor's followers this system of functional foremanship appears t o have
been strictly applied. Some of Taylor's followers even attach
such importance t o this point t h a t they refuse the term "organised" t o any undertaking which fails to apply these principles.
In actual fact, in big industrial undertakings there is nearly
always a t least an a t t e m p t at functional specialisation, and
the departments responsible for control, equipment and handling material tend to become more and more independent.
Taylor urged t h a t no one foreman should be placed above the
others, being of opinion t h a t the head of the workshop should
be on a par with the technical foremen. His views on this point
do not always appear to have been carried out in Europe and
even in cases where an a t t e m p t has been made to realise his
ideas the head of the workshop has in course of time been given
more authority.
The logical accompaniment of efforts t o introduce scientific
management is some system of fixing wages in harmony with
the methods employed.
We have already noted t h a t at the outset the fixing of wages
was frequently the immediate and only object of efforts towards
reorganisation. Even now it is still safe to say t h a t in -certain
countries it is by the application of bonus systems of wage
payment t h a t manufacturers prefer to express their wish to
increase output, and t h a t they frequently stop there, even when
they subsequently become aware of the value of other aspects
of scientific management.
— 106 —
I t is to be noted t h a t scientific management does not iurply
any particular wage system, payment by the day, the hour or
the month being equally compatible with output bonuses, and
the object of scientific organisation being simply to establish a
fairer ratio between effort and wages.
Thus, in the same works there may often be found systems of
remuneration which vary considerably as between one department and another, or between different classes of workers. When,
for example, time study and routing arranged by the planning
department are applied only t o p a r t of the staff, often only
these workers are paid on a bonus system.
The wage systems employed are very numerous 1 . Those of
Taylor himself are little used; Rowan's and Gantt's systems are
more often recommended on account of their simplicity and
elacticity. We noted in speaking of the published material on
the subject the importance attached, during the later phases
of the evolution of the movement, t o the question of wages;
the Rowan system alone has formed the subject of a large number
of reports and pamphlets. I n practice it often occurs t h a t so
much significance is attached t o the introduction of a new wage
system t h a t this is mistaken, as in the case of time study, for a
complete system of scientific management. Some technicians
admit t h a t when endeavouring t o apply these systems they
have been obliged gradually to introduce a series of improvements into the administration of the undertaking, which
coincide detail by detail with Taylor's principles. This, however,
is not invariably the case and often a new scientific system of
wage payment is adopted without preliminary job analysis and
standardisation. This was the case in the French arsenals before
the war and is so in several works in England and Belgium.
I n order to give an idea of the systems employed, a few
examples may be taken at random. I n a big shipbuilding yard
the time for each operation is calculated by the time study
office: if a gang takes only 120 hours instead of the 200 fixed
for a certain task, thus saving 80 hours, the bonus due to them
1
Among the commonest bonus systems, special mention should be
made of the Halsey system, in which the bonus represents a definite
proportion of the saving effected by the worker, and the Rowan system,
in which the bonus is proportionate to the saving in time. In this
latter, case, the workers' wage is generally limited to twice the basic
wage.
— 107 —
is 80/120, i.e. 66 per cent. The workers, who are paid by the
hour, are paid for the 200 hours estimated and thus profit by
the whole of the time saved. I n several engineering works the
machine times required for a series of operations are estimated;
these times are multiplied by co-efficients corresponding to the
margins allowed and the time fixed for the workers is double
what is considered necessary. The bonus allowed in this case
is proportionate to the time saved.
In some cases job standardisation is not followed by the
payment of bonuses. In certain large motor-car works the
principal d u t y of the planning department is to determine in
advance the number of workers necessary for a given output,
and their distribution. The output in such cases depends more
on the planning department t h a n on the workers, who work
shifts at a rate decided beforehand. The most suitable wage
is thus payment by the hour. What is required is the output
of a certain number of cars per day, and deductions are sometimes made from wages if this output is not reached.
In most of the works organised on principles of scientific
management, bonus systems are applied to the foremen and gang
leaders. I n the case of foremen the bonuses are calculated
according to the output of the department for which they are
responsible. An example is offered by certain railway repair
shops in which the foremen receive a bonus proportional to the
time saved whenever a locomotive t h a t is being overhauled
remains in the shops for less than 60 days.
Further, there is a tendency to give the foremen a direct
interest in the savings effected in general expenses.
Gang leaders receive a bonus which it is easy to proportion
t o the output of their gang. This method is applied in a large
india-rubber factory in which the bonus earned by each gang is
calculated every fortnight by means of a Gantt chart. At the
same time the average gain or loss of time of the whole gang is
calculated, and from it the bonus payable to the gang leader.
In a motor-car works in which scientific management has been
introduced by easy stages, the gang leaders are now regarded as
"Taylorised" ; they receive instruction cards containing the collective jobs for the whole of their gang and are responsible for the
financial arrangements for the work; their bonuses are calculated
according to the results of their activities during the previous
three months. They are responsible for fixing piece rates for
— 108 —
the workers under them, with the help of time study specialists
when necessary.
These details will give some idea of the importance attached
in European industrial undertakings to the various elements of
scientific management. B u t it would be rash to form an opinion
of the value and scope of applications of scientific management
on these facts alone. I t is obvious t h a t the nature of the
industry must have a preponderating influence on any proposals
for introducing such a scheme. We shall therefore make a brief
survey of experiments made in various industries, not forgetting,
however, t h a t it is difficult to form an opinion on them, as in
some industries the introduction of the system is still too recent
for it to be possible to measure the progress made, while in others
agreement has not yet been reached as t o t h e best methods of
work.
I n the public works and building trades efforts have been
mainly directed towards two points, namely, t h e standardisation
of materials and the organisation of the work. Standardisation
is here applied t o building materials and in particular to the
units used in construction (bricks, tiles or slates, finished products
required for interior fittings of houses) and may also influence
methods of execution (scaffolding, use of standardised material, etc.).
The organisation of the work is being carried out more and
more systematically, but, owing to the large number of factors
entering into play in the building trades, it appears to be difficult
t o make any real preliminary study of how the work is t o be
done. Waste of time and material has, however, been reduced
and in certain cases it has been found possible b y meaná of
statistics and graphs resembling those used in the engineering
trades t o establish a closer relation between the work of the
different contractors responsible for the building. These improvements are regarded by experts as a first step towards the
introduction of scientific management in building operations.
Mines and especially coal mines seem a t first glance to offer a
vast field for the application of scientific management. Some
interesting cases of application are to be found, especially in
France and Poland. Owing, however, t o certain psychological
as well as technical obstacles there have been difficulties in the
way of the introduction of the system. Surface work is similar
— 109 —
t o the work in every industrial undertaking and the methods
applicable t o the latter may therefore be applied to it. As
regards underground work efforts have been directed mainly
towards hewing and transport operations. Study offices were
first established with the object of determining possible modifications of existing methods of work which might eliminate
waste. These offices gradually carried out time study experiments and succeeded in some cases in changing the methods
of work and in bringing hewing and transport operations into
line, with the full consent of the workers and without in any
way compromising their safety.
In t h e motor-car industry scientific management is very widespread. Two different schools appear t o exist. The first,
which is based upon Ford's methods, tries to reduce t o a minimum
the number of types turned out, so as to facilitate mass production, only concerning itself incidentally with the adaptation
of the machines to the requirements of customers. The second
schools tends rather to manufacture a large number of different
models according to the requirements of each class of customer.
This results in two types of factories in which the rôle of the
planning department is quite different.
As regards railways, the introduction of scientific management
is only in its infancy. Attempts in this direction were made
almost simultaneously in most of the European countries:
Belgium, France, Germany, Russia, Switzerland, etc. The
most successful efforts have been in the m a t t e r of the reorganisation of the repair shops for locomotives and carriages. This
is perhaps a consequence of the war, which resulted in all
countries in a falling-off in the quality of the rolling stock.
Railway repair shops are very similar t o those of t h e engineering
industry and it is natural, therefore, t h a t an a t t e m p t should
have been made to introduce similar methods. The difficulty
as regards the repairing of locomotives lay mainly in the variety
of types of engine and the enormous number of pieces of which
each is composed. The big European companies each have as
many as twenty different types- of locomotive, each engine
including about 4,000 parts. Nevertheless, the methods adopted
in all these shops are fairly scientific and sometimes approximate
closely t o those of Taylor.
Improvements have also been introduced in the departments
connected with the working of the railways. Time study methods
— 110 —
have been introduced in various shunting yards and have enabled
output t o be increased by the introduction of a new wage system.
Efforts have also been made by various companies to standardise
methods of work in stations and t o make a more rational use of
wagons. A systematic effort of this kind has been made in Russia,
where a railway committee has been set u p which specialises
in time study experiments. The chief work of this committee
is connected with the relief of traffic congestion at certain stations
in the vicinity of the big industrial centres, the elimination of
loss of time in the shunting of locomotives, permanent way
repairs, etc.
Agriculture offers a fresh field for the application of scientific
management. The use of machinery in agriculture in Europe
is too recent t o have permitted of many experiments in its
systematic employment. Efforts have been chiefly directed
towards the specialisation, reduction of the number, and proper
distribution of the workers 1 . The agricultural countries, especially those of Central and Eastern Europe where rural economy
has been transformed by agrarian reforms, are beginning to take
an interest in these improvements.
In addition to the important industries mentioned above,
numerous industries and undertakings in which scientific management has been introduced in Europe might also be cited;
e.g. the chemical, textile, and ready-made clothing industries,
forestry undertakings and saw mills, workshops for the manufacture of jewellery, paper pulp works, chocolate factories,
glass works, etc.
I n each of these industrial work appears under a fresh aspect,
and in each of them the efforts made have been organised accordingly. B u t the principles followed in all these different cases
are few in number and observations made during the course of
this enquiry confirm the view t h a t they all owe their inspiration
more or less closely to Taylor.
1
Especially in Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Finland. Experiments
dating back thirty years have been carried out in France at Moyenneville on the best methods of remuneration of agricultural labour. Attention
should also be drawn to experiments in the domain of horticulture carried
out in Belgium during the war.
— Ill —
Application
to Commercial and Administrative
Activities
Separate mention should be made of those cases of application
which do not apply to the technical aspect of undertakings,
but are concerned with their commercial, financial, and administrative activities.
In any industrial concern there are three branches to be
considered, namely, the accounting, commercial, and administrative departments.
Accounting has made enormous strides with the growth of
limited liability companies. I t has become a regular science
which has long had its own specialists, and plays an important
p a r t in all stages of industrial production. Under scientific
management as here defined, its function is of prime importance,
its object being to arrange all the operations carried out in a
factory with a view t o the rapid and almost automatic calculation
of the total expenditure and costs of production. I n "Taylorised"
works all the active elements—technicians, foremen and workers
—thus become, as it were, the collaborators of the chief account a n t ; so much so t h a t some manufacturers easily fall into the
belief t h a t a well-organised accounting department is sufficient
to give their undertaking the reputation of being run on scientific management lines x.
The commercial and administrative departments of industrial
undertakings adopt methods based on those employed in production, although "the necessity for close co-operation between
them and the workshop is not so marked.
This co-operation, however, becomes essential in undertakings
in which a complete scheme of scientific management has been
introduced.
A case in point is t h a t of a factory for the mass
production of motor-cars, in which the commercial department
supplies detailed ' information as to the wishes of customers,
"Attention may here be drawn to the important part played in certain
countries, particularly in Belgium and France, by consulting accountants
in the development of the movement for the introduction of scientific
management. There is perhaps some basis for the accusation that they
have a tendency to reduce all operations of systematic organisation to
mere measures of financial control. Important as accounting is as a
method of control, it is nevertheless a fact that its importance is much
greater in banking and commercial concerns properly speaking than in
industrial undertakings.
— 112 —
with whom it is in constant touch, and thus enables the manufacturing department t o introduce into the new models improvements calculated t o arouse t h e curiosity of t h e public and
lead to fresh orders.
The commercial procedure recommended by industrial undertakings and the details of the organisation of the work in their
commercial departments are very much the same as are found
in purely commercial concerns. I n the latter it is the technical
organisation of sales which has formed the subject of research
and which, under the influence of American ideas, is assuming a
more and more scientific form. The determination of methods
of sale, the working up of a market, the selection and training
of the workers, the preparation of sales campaigns, publicity, etc.,
nowadays form the subject, especially in Germany, of studies
which are the more important in t h a t each of these branches of
commercial activity now has its specialists. A regular technique
of commercial organisation has thus been constituted, the rapid
spread of which is further promoted by commercial education.
Here, too, it is to be noted t h a t an ever larger place is being
given t o the human factor, not only as regards t h e vocational
and moral training of the workers, b u t also in connection with
the study of the best systems of remuneration.
Office work, • which is more uniform in character and less
governed by psychological factors t h a n sales work, offers a vast
field for the application of methods of scientific management.
The appearance of machinery in this domain is of fairly recent
date in Europe. For many years its introduction met with
difficulties which were the outcome of routine, office labour
saving machines, calculating machines, and accounting and
statistical machines being regarded as luxuries. Certain countries adopted them before others, in particular Germany, Switzerland, and the Scandinavian countries.
These machines were at first regarded simply- as devices likely
t o facilitate the work of the employees, but, with the growth
of improvements and specialisation, it was realised t h a t they
might mean an economy in time and staff, provided t h a t they
were intelligently used. Specialists have gradually contributed
t o securing their general adoption, both in the commercial
departments of industrial undertakings and in large stores,
banks, insurance, offices and administrative and commerciai
undertakings.
— 113 —
Among these undertakings, special mention should be made
of banks. Adopting principles of scientific management rather
late in the day, banking institutions nowadays appear anxious
t o make up for lost time.' Some of them had grown accustomed
t o regarding a large—and sometimes deliberately too large—staff
as living proof of the prosperity of the concern. Events have
proved t h a t in this domain, as in others, it was possible, by means
of an intelligent use of machines, t o organise the work methodically and to reduce staff to a minimum. In France, the strikes
which occurred in 1925 revealed the defects in banking organisation, and in many cases showed t h a t the banks could continue
their work with a smaller staff provided it was better distributed.
I n Germany, the economic crisis of 1925-1926 obliged the chief
banks to make better use of their staffs, and several might be
mentioned which succeeded in effecting a reduction of as much
as fifty per cent. I n these various experiments in organisation
methods reminiscent of those applied in industrial undertakings
are frequently found, e.g. planning departments responsible
for the distribution and control of accounting operations, systems
for the transmission of orders which recall routing and instruction
cards, methods of remuneration based upon output, etc. Modern
methods for the selection of workers have also been applied in
this field, particularly in Germany.
Insurance companies offer similar examples, which are perhaps
even more interesting, as the necessity of applying cost accounting
to office expenses is greater. Up to the present efforts have been
concentrated mainly on the introduction of machines and improvement of technique. I n England, where the insurance industry
is highly developed, the insurance companies have for some
time been using machines which take the place of a numerous
and skilled staff. Several insurance companies have even combined to promote the manufacture of new machines particularly
suited to their requirements. These machines, like calculating
machines, are being adopted by insurance companies in other
countries.
The use of improved machines in offices necessarily involves
a certain standardisation of material. Under the influence of
American ideas, an a t t e m p t has been made to extend standardisation to every article of office equipment (files, desks, sizes of
business paper, etc.). Apart, however, from a few standards
imposed by certain manufacturers or by special needs, such
9
— 114 —
standardisation has not proceeded very far in Europe. Many
organisers have carried out studies and experiments in actual
methods of work, especially filing, with a view t o their standardisation.
I n speaking of the application of scientific management to
industry, State industries were implicitly included in this definition ; these, particularly during the war, were the scene of very
thorough, and in m a n y cases very conclusive, experiments.
At different times, even before the war, there have been cases
of partial application in public administrative departments, as,
for example, in France where, as far back as 1888, t h e Land
Survey Department had succeeded in increasing the wages of
surveyors' assistants at the same time while improving the
standard of their work, by means of a wage system based upon
time studies of the elementary operations involved in their
work.
The real application of scientific management in State administrative departments dates in nearly every country from the
post-war period. Although, in some cases, national traditions
and deep-rooted habits formed an obstacle t o the introduction
of really scientific methods in the work of officials, interesting
examples may still be given; e.g. the social insurance institution
in Sweden, where the methodical application of the principles
of time study has made it possible t o extend the work very
considerably without imposing too heavy a burden on t h e State ;
the up-to-date system of postal cheques in Belgium and France ;
and the organisation of t h e Office national des Wagons in France.
I n Holland, the municipal inspectors, placed by certain large
towns at the disposal of the local public administrative departments, have co-operated in the scientific reorganisation of various
services. The Ministry of Finance, in particular, requested them
t o determine, in conjunction with private experts, how savings
could be effected in the customs department, and what improvements could be adopted in the methods of collecting taxes.
At Amsterdam, the staff employed in the central customs office
has been reduced by about thirty per cent, in this way. I n the
case of taxes, after systematic time studies h a d been applied t o
the work of the receiving clerks, the number of taxes paid per
hour was doubled. For Germany, mention should be made of
the improvements of the same kind introduced into the Ministry
of the Interior where, by means of a scientific study of the factors
— 115 —
involved in the filing system, the transmission of files has been
considerably expedited.
I n most public undertakings, questions of general administration play a preponderating part, and the more varied and diversified the staff of an administrative undertaking, the more
important become the problems of general organisation, of
relations between the departments, and of co-ordination and
control. This explains how a doctrine such as t h a t of Fayol
came t o supply the basis for certain improvements. One can
hardly talk of the "application" of this doctrine, as its object is
to show the head of an undertaking the fundamental rules by
which he should be guided in the exercise of his functions, rather
than to lay down detailed instructions for the activities of the
different departments of an undertaking. Nevertheless, it
appears from evidence on many sides t h a t this doctrine has led
to useful improvements in the organisation of a number of private
undertakings 1 and administrative departments. The studies
carried out by Fayol on the work of the French Post Office and
the tobacco monopoly have borne fruit in the improvements
introduced into the administration of these immense State undertakings. Fayol's analysis of Ministerial functions and, in particular, of the functions of the Prime Minister, was confirmed
by the temporary establishment of an under-secretariat in the
Prime Minister's Department. I n Belgium, his doctrine has
also had a very definite influence on the organisation of the
army.
APPLICATION IN R E L A T I O N TO THE H U M A N
FACTOR2
I t is difficult to draw a very clear distinction between psychotechnical considerations and the wish to introduce scientific
management, and it is still more difficult to discriminate between
applications, some cases falling under one and some under the
other of these categories. We mean by application in relation
to the human factor all the modifications introduced into working
1
In Le Gouvernement des Entreprises commerciales et industrielles, by
S. CARLIOZ, there are four monographs on the effects of the application
of Fayol's principles in important private undertakings and, in particular,
in two of the large Paris stores, Le Louvre and La Belle Jardinière.
2
Useful information on the development of psycho-technology and the
latest examples of its application is to be found in Mr. Leon WALTHER's
— 116 —
conditions with the object of ensuring the optimum output of
human effort, as distinct from t h a t of machinery, and we shall
have to distinguish between two categories: those concerned
with the best distribution of employment and occupations (vocational guidance, vocational selection), and those intended to
improve the particular or general conditions of work, such as
the improvement of equipment, and lighting, workshop hygiene,
safety, etc. This means, to employ a classic formula, t h a t
application in relation to t h e h u m a n factor simply amounts t o
putting the right man in the right place—using the last word in
its proper sense, as well as in the figurative sense of employment
or position.
Vocational guidance, which was rightly viewed as a corollary
to the measures taken for the protection of children and young
persons employed in industry, met with official support in
nearly all the large European countries directly after the war.
I n England, an Act was passed in 1921 entrusting the local
education authorities with the task of guiding young persons
in the choice of employment. In Belgium, the organisation and
supervision of vocational guidance have been entrusted since
1923 to mixed commissions, the members of which are representatives of the local authorities, the employment exchanges, and
the employers' and workers' associations. I n Holland, every
child receives, on leaving school, a card upon which his teachers
have noted anything t h a t m a y facilitate the task of the employment exchanges. We have already mentioned t h a t in Spain
vocational guidance is provided by the technical and trade
schools, while in France vocational guidance offices are attached
to the employment exchanges, or, in the case of large industrial
centres such as Strasburg, Marseilles, and Bordeaux, there are
independent vocational guidance offices which work in cooperation with the employment exchanges. A similar organisation
has been established in Germany, Poland and Switzerland, and
there is no need to emphasise the point t h a t this system appears
likely t o ensure the best results. Indeed, vocational guidance,
interesting book, La Technologie du Travail industriel (Neuchâtel, 1926).
The author, who is Director of Studies at the J.-J. Rousseau Institute in
Geneva, is also in charge of research on the practical application of psychotechnology in various Swiss factories. Attention may be drawn to the
conclusion of this work, where the author shows how the problem of the
monotony of industrial work may be solved by vocational selection and
guidance.
— 117 —
if confined to advice or suggestions without leading to the actual
placing of the applicant as rapidly as possible, would be of only
very relative practical value.
We shall not stop to discuss the distinction of principle which
is generally drawn between vocational guidance and vocational
selection. I t will be realised after a moment's thought t h a t the
difference is more apparent t h a n real, and t h a t vocational guidance, rightly understood, carefully carried out and applied to
all young persons about t o earn their living, would enable industrial employers to rely upon vocational guidance offices to select
the apprentices or workers to be employed in their undertakings.
Vocational selection, as is natural, has only become general in
countries in which the demand for employment was greater
than the supply. Experiments have proved, moreover, t h a t
the value of psycho-technical examination'—that is, the correlation between the results of such examination and the results
subsequently obtained in practice'—is in direct proportion t o
the number of candidates among whom selection can be made.
Such being the case, it is quite comprehensible t h a t it should
be in Germany t h a t vocational selection (Berufsauslese auf
Grund psychotechnischer Eignungsprüfung)
should have made
most progress 1 . The psycho-technical examination of newly
recruited workers is practised in the Federal Railways and Post
Office, and in private industry in nearly all t h e large metalworking, engineering, and electrical undertakings, in the textile
and paper industries, in sawmills, and in a large number of banks
and commercial firms.
This examination involves in every case, both for selection
and guidance, three successive stages, namely, the examination
of the candidate, orally or by means of a questionnaire, the
psycho-physiological examination of his a p t i t u d e s 2 , and the
interpretation of the results obtained. I t covers the constitution and physical resistance of the candidate, acuteness and
development of the senses—sight, hearing, touch, and, more
1
This is true in general for the applications of psycho-technology. In an
Appendix will be found a more detailed description of the methods employed
and the most important results obtained in Germany.
a
Large undertakings now appear to be better fitted than the vocational
guidance offices to carry out thorough examinations in their own laboratories, or to have such examinations made in the laboratories of the research
institutions. The vocational guidance offices frequently confine themselves
to questioning the candidate and carrying out a few summary tests.
— 118 —
rarely, taste and smell—attention and sensitiveness, times and
modes of reaction, skill, ingenuity, inventiveness and power of
contrivance, and lastly, general intelligence. Tests of a more
or less ingenious and complicated character have been adopted
in the research institutions in every country (in particular by
Münsterberg in America, Amar and Lahy in France, Kent in
England, Moede and Giese in Germany). These tests sometimes involve the use of special instruments or apparatus, and
always necessitate the presence and supervision of a skilled and
careful examiner. Several precision instrument factories in
Germany have special workshops for the manufacture of such
apparatus, and courses are organised every year by the large
research institutes or by the competent offices for training
examiners and vocational guidance experts.
As regards tests, the tendency is t o give the candidate a task
which is to some extent a symbol of the work he will have to do
later on. I n some cases, t h e test is very like the reality. This
is so in particular in t h e case of tests for engine, t r a m , and motor
omnibus drivers which have been introduced in certain countries
(France, Germany, and Russia). As an example, mention may
be made of the results obtained by the Berlin Tramway Comp a n y 1. A few years ago about 100 new drivers were engaged,
50 after a psycho-technical examination and 50 simply after a
medical examination. At the end of six months it was found
t h a t the accidents recorded for the second 50 were 50 per cent.
more t h a n for the first 50 ; two years later they were still responsible for 40 per cent, more accidents than the others. Further,
it was found t h a t there was a considerable reduction in the
consumption of electric current and materials by those drivers
who had undergone psycho-technical examination, and finally,
t h a t it was possible to reduce the period of training in their case
by two-thirds of the normal time.
According t o the most recent tendencies, more and more
importance is being attached to the scientific organisation of
vocational training. The new methods differ from the old forms
of apprenticeship in t h a t the training is no longer carried out in
an ordinary workshop, but in a special one, and is under the direction, or a t least the supervision, of an expert in psycho-technical
methods, while the apprentice or worker is no longer shown
1
See Appendix IV, p. 250.
— 119 —
some way of doing his work, but is taught the best way as determined by detailed job analysis, by being made to perform in
succession the various movements corresponding to the elementary operations \ Slow-motion films or drawings and photographs are often employed as a means of demonstration.
After this stage of the training follows the second category of
methods of application (choice of equipment and fittings, lighting, arrangement of the workshop, etc.). These methods of
application have been introduced into every branch of activity;
office furniture and typewriters, the fitter's bench and tools, the
lighting and arrangement of the tables in the workshops, are all
being scientifically organised. In certain undertakings in the
textile trade, the colours of the surfaces (walls or tables) which
form a background for trie threads stretched on the machines
are determined as a result of experiments. It is applications of
this kind that give positive results most rapidly, in the form of
an increase in output, a reduction in the number of accidents
of mishaps and to the work (flaws, soiling, etc.), and an increase
in the well-being of the worker during his work. Such improvements, moreover, are welcomed by the workers, and it seems
likely that scientific management as a whole would be more
readily accepted by them if it were first presented under this
aspect.
Lastly, there exists a field of application relating to the human
factor in which increasing interest is being taken, namely,
monotony and automatism. Certain industrial employers have
entrusted the doctors attached to their undertakings with the
task of studying the question of possible improvements in the
utilisation of breaks and the effects of varying the tasks assigned
to the workers on their attention and application. So far,
however, it has been a matter of compiling statistics and charts
rather than of making any actual changes in the methods of
work 2 .
1
See especially the experiments and methods of application of Gastev at
the8 Central Labour Institute of Moscow.
Nothing would as yet seem to have been attempted in this direction
in Europe comparable to the work carried out by E. Mayo in the United
States.
— 120 —
G E N E R A L ORGANISATION OF PRODUCTION
The field offered by the general organisation of production in
Europe is so immense, and theories p u t forward as t o the means
of placing it on a scientific basis so varied—and here we reach
the border line between scientific and political considerations—
t h a t it would be difficult even t o suggest a plan for the study
of the question; nor, indeed, is this our object.
I t would seem desirable t h a t a special enquiry should be held
into all the experiments made since the war in the scientific
organisation of production, both industrially, and nationally 1 or
even internationally. An enquiry of this nature would undoubtedly find traces of the ruling ideas which have been noted in
the more limited field of industrial undertakings. I t would
reveal, though perhaps less clearly t h a n in the United States,
obvious signs of t h a t evolution which is leading the movement
for scientific management t o a t t e m p t applications on a wider
scale t h a n those hitherto tried in workshop or industry.
While there is nothing in Europe analogous t o Hoover's enquiry
into the elimination of waste in American industry, partial
efforts have a t least been made on the same lines in Czechoslovakia and Poland by the research institutions. I t is only in
Russia t h a t systematic attempts would seem to have been made
to apply the principles of scientific management to production
as a whole, and it is in t h a t country especially t h a t an objective
study of the subject should be made. The various commissions
on dockyards and on coal appointed in England to examine
conditions in these industries have repeatedly recommended
measures which would fit into a general plan of scientific
organisation 2 .
The efforts made in Germany since the war to organise industry
in accordance with the principles urged by R a t h e n a u and t o
maintain a steady level of prices and with it permanent employment for the workers—the cartels, the industrial agreements in
1
The Ausschuss zur Untersuchung der Erzeugungs- und Absatzebedingungen der Deutschen Wirtschaft, recently created in Germany, of which
Dr. Lammers is chairman, is an admirable attempt to realise this. I t is
not unlikely t h a t the German example will be rapidly followed in other
European countries.
2
Cf. Sir H. Samuel's report on the coal industry of Great Britain.
— 121 —
the metal-working and chemical industries'—are, like the manufacturing and sales trusts in Soviet Russia, to a certain extent,
in so far as they aim at reducing the costs of production, examples
of the application in a wider field of the principles of scientific
management 1 .
Similarly, mention should be made of the steps taken by employers' organisations, often with Government support, to reach
a certain unity of views as to methods of manufacture between
manufacturers of the same trade, and of the efforts made both
during and since the war to bring about agreements between
manufacturers on collective purchase of raw materials and on
markets, in so far as their object and the methods employed
are in harmony with the aim of increasing output 2 .
1
The most highly organised of international cartels, t h a t of the electric
lamp industry, has been gradually led to take an interest in the scientific
organisation of labour, while still continuing, for the benefit of its
members, laboratory research work for the improvement of conditions
governing output. This problem now forms part of the duties of the
central society, whose headquarters are in Geneva.
2
The examples of industrial concentration are so numerous, and so
thoroughly studied, in Germany t h a t it is impossible to give a complete
summary of them in these pages. We therefore refer. readers to the
articles and works written on the subject. To quote one of the most recent
and outstanding cases, we call attention to the amalgamation of the iron
and steel works in the Rhenish-Westphalian District, an amalgamation
which surpasses in importance all others hitherto attempted in Europe,
and which gives a good idea of the methods generally adopted in Germany in
this connection. The following industrial groups have joined the combine:
the Rhein-Elbe Union-Konzern (Deutsch-Luxemburgische Bergwerksgesellschaft, Gelsenkirchener Bergwerksgesellschaft, Bochumer Verein), the Otto
Wolf Group (Phönix A.-G., Rheinische Stahlwerke, Vereinigte Stahlwerke
van der Zypen) and the Thyssen Group. These groups, which represent
almost the entire iron and steel production of the Ruhr, have transferred
a part of their capital to a new society, the Vereinigte Stahlwerke A.-G.,
with a capital of 800,000,000 marks, having its head office in Düsseldorf.
The Vereinigte Stahlwerke A.-G. must maintain in activity only those steel
works, rolling mills, and other workshops which are fully equipped and
organised on the most modern principles, and other works are either to be
completely reorganised or closed down. This simplification will lead to a
considerable reduction in the general expenses. I t will also enable the
various groups concerned to obtain financial advantages greatly superior
to those which they could obtain separately. Not only will the new cartel
be able to play an important rôle in the fixing of prices, but it will be easy
for it to obtain long-term credits a t much better rates than the short-term
credits hitherto obtained, on account of the substantial guarantees presented by its more scientific organisation. I t is estimated t h a t 40,000,000
marks per year will be saved on storing and transport alone. As regards the
number of workers whom the present reorganisation might affect, it is
estimated that, in maintaining the present rate of production, close on
60 per cent, of the workers employed up to the present could be dismissed.
I t is, however, not proposed to dismiss these workers, but rather to make
a proportionate increase in production.
— 122 —
I n a similar order of ideas, mention might be made of the recent
creation of national economic councils in France, Germany
and Italy. The object of these councils is, apart from political
considerations, to promote t h e more harmonious organisation
of production within the national boundaries. Finally, attention
should be drawn t o t h e work done in international conferences
by representatives of t h e same industry a n d b y international
trade federations, not t o mention the activities over many years
of t h e International Chamber of Commerce in Paris, the work
of the Economic Committee of t h e League of Nations, a n d t h e
results of the Economic Conference held in Geneva in May 1927 1.
These efforts'—industrial, national, a n d international'—to
place the organisation of production on sounder, if not always
more scientific, are necessarily, and t o a n increasing extent,
inspired by methods borrowed from the more scientific organisation of factories. They also help t o direct public attention
in the various countries t o t h e latter subject. Out of this vast
mass of efforts and experiments, in which it is exceedingly
difficult, without close study, t o determine t h e exact p a r t played
by the classic methods of scientific management, we shall take
only one series of problems which undoubtedly come under
scientific management, namely, those relating t o standardisation.
Nothing is more striking than t h e progress made b y t h e idea
of standardisation a n d b y its application in t h e industrial world.
There can be little doubt t h a t this rapid progress is due t o
the undeniable technical advantages it offers. I t is not t h e less
remarkable t h a t in t h e United States, for instance, a special
Bureau of Standards should have been set u p , well provided
with funds, in such an important public administration as t h e
Department of Commerce. Doubtless the strong personality
and initiative of Hoover contributed largely t o this. At the
same time there is hardly one European country nowadays
which does not possess its own national committee on standards
1
Among the documents submitted to the Preparatory Committee of
the Economic Conference, a certain number deal, directly or indirectly,
with problems of scientific management. The following reports may be
specially mentioned: Professor WIEDENFELD: Cartels and Combines;
Dr. LAMMERS: The Legislative and Administrative Conditions in which
Industrial and Commercial Combines Function in the Different Countries ;
BRITISH ENGINEERS' ASSOCIATION: The Economic Situation
of the British
Engineering Industry ; Hon. D. HOUSTON: Rational Organisation of Industry
in
the United
States;
Management in Europe.
and INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE:
Scientific
— 123 —
in which, while not interfering with its autonomy, the Government
shows considerable interest.
Applications are very numerous and include the simplification
or unification of types of materials and of methods, the fixing
of terminology, and the uniformisation of dimensions. Standardisation aims at saving time and effort and even at the introduction of safety methods. I t has spread from the workshop
and the storage and sales departments to professions and industries
much more rapidly than any other aspect of scientific management, and nowadays nobody dreams of disputing its value and
results. I t s development internationally has, however, met
with a certain number of obstacles. I n spite of its advantages,
standardisation is accused of favouring narrow interests and it
has proved itself on many occasions to be a good defensive
weapon in the hands of those in favour of a protectionist policy.
A difference of measurement or standard is often a better defence
for national industry against foreign competition t h a n customs
tariffs.
I t is with hope therefore t h a t any progress in international
standardisation is viewed by those who desire an international
organisation of production, based on the utilisation of the most
scientific methods ensuring optimum output at minimum cost.
The International Bureau of Weights and Measures and the
International Electro-Technical Committee have opened the
way. The conferences of secretaries of national committees
on standards resulted in 1925 in the setting u p of a permanent
committee having its headquarters in B a d e n 1 .
While achievements in the way of standardisation are still
very limited, they are certain to increase rapidly with the breaking
down of the barriers which nowadays divide the national economy
of the different countries.
G E N E R A L R E S U L T S OF APPLICATIONS
I t is hardly possible in so brief a survey as this to estimate the
results of the various examples of application noted. Without
venturing to express an opinion, we shall confine ourselves to
noting some impressions.
1
In an Appendix on standardisation (p. 252) some of the objects, etc.,
to be considered by this Committee are mentioned.
— 124 —
Generally speaking it may be stated t h a t the results obtained
are distinctly favourable. The most remarkable result, at all
events for technicians, is of a psychological order. I t is the new
outlook t o be found in everyone, from the highest t o the lowest
in the undertaking, as the result of t h e application of methods
of scientific management. The fact t h a t routine has given
place to the spirit of research in "Taylorised" factories is transforming the workshop into a kind of laboratory where the study
of problems of production is considered with reference not only
t o the technical, b u t also t o the psychological, data. I t is of
interest t o note t h a t this attitude is still found even when the
application of the system for various reasons is subsequently
abandoned. We might quote the case of a big constructional
engineering works in which for several years all operations were
directed and controlled by a planning department. The system
had t o be given u p owing t o financial difficulties, b u t the manager
told us t h a t he personally did not regret t h a t scientific methods
had been employed for some time, adding t h a t all the measures
taken for the purpose of the introduction of these methods had
been maintained, as had the precautions designed t o prevent
unnecessary handling of goods and t o eliminate waste.
I n the case of the workers, the stimulus resulting from the
application of these methods is due not only to the attraction
of high wages, b u t to the fact t h a t the best workers can prove
their technical superiority by reducing the time allowed for
each elementary operation, t h a t they can participate in the work
and the research of the planning office, t h a t they collaborate more
closely with the technicians, and t h a t they feel themselves
more definitely' placed in t h e positions best suited t o them.
Scientific management has also, in the works in which it has
been applied, had valuable social results; according t o technicians it has been definitely instrumental in improving the relations
between employers and workers.
Apart from these psychological results, there are'others which
are perhaps more likely to hold the attention of the public and
particularly employers, namely, the financial benefits attending it.
I t is unfortunately impossible t o determine these with a n y
degree of accuracy. I t is even necessary perhaps to view with
caution certain , figures p u t forward by over-zealous propagandists or interested experts. I t is difficult to assess t h e saving
effected in the budget of an undertaking by the more or less
— 125 —
fragmentary application of methods of scientific management.
A really scientific assessment depends upon well-organised
accountancy; regular methods for determining the results due
t o improved organisation are only employed, so far as we are
aware, in certain fully "Taylorised" undertakings. Even such
undertakings may be bearing the weight of financial difficulties
dating from before their reorganisation or may be suffering from
the result of failure t o find markets, of adverse circumstances due
t o speculation in raw materials, rates of exchange, fashion, etc.,
all of which are calculated t o confirm t h e judgment often passed
by technicians on scientific management, namely, t h a t as applied
in the workshop, it constitutes a very small p a r t of a vast whole,
and t h a t detailed applications m u s t be designed to serve the
purpose of the general organisation of production.
This relativity, however, does not hide from view the successful
general financial results obtained by the partial or complete
application of scientific management in an undertaking. Scientific management represents in t h e first place an additional
guarantee of t h e proper use of the capital invested, a guarantee
proportional t o the scale of t h e experiment; further, it provides
a permanent basis for estimating costs of production, and lastly,
once the initial period of experiment is over, it means a definite
diminution in the cost of manufacture and, if applied skilfully
and with due reference to the human factor, a considerable
increase in o u t p u t 1 .
As regards the workers, although the application of a bonus
system of wages does not necessarily form p a r t of the systematic
application of the new methods, the latter mean a definite increase
in wages and greater stability of employment.
As for the economic results, it is obvious t h a t a system of
scientific organisation designed to reduce the cost of production
can have none but beneficial effects. One of the most striking
1
To quote a few figures: in a certain factory the number of workers has
been doubled as compared with the pre-war period, the material has not
been changed and the introduction of scienti flc management has trebled
output. In a certain mine there has been an increase of 30 per cent, in
the output of hewing tools, and of 30 to 60 per cent, in the loading of
trucks, while in another the output of workers engaged in the transport of
wood has increased from 4 to 10 cubic metres per hour. In a locomotive
repair shop the simultaneous application of the Eight-Hour Act and of
new methods has resulted in a 40 per cent, reduction in the time during
which the engines are under repair; a motor-car factory has doubled its
output in the course of a few months, etc.
— 126 —
examples encountered in the course of this enquiry is t h a t of a
Czechoslovak boot and shoe factory which succeeded by means of
methodical organisation in reducing its products t o a minimum
number of lines and its selling prices t o about half the price of
similar articles on the national market. Even when the price
of the product is not immediately reduced, and for any reason
there is no wish t o stimulate production b y means of lower prices,
benefits follow in t h e form of a strengthening of the undertaking
and a rise in wages.
We would mention here, though only in passing, the effect
of better organisation on hours of work. In America the common
application of the eight-hour system was not brought about by
legislation; it was scientific management t h a t t o a large extent
determined its use. I t is considered, in the United States, t h a t
intensive and well-arranged work should not require any undue
effort from t h e worker. I t is also held t h a t , considering the
worker in his capacity as a consumer as well as in t h a t of a producer, it is to t h e general interest t o leave him sufficient leisure
t o profit by the higher level of welfare t h a t properly regulated
production can ensure him. In Europe, where legislation on
the eight-hour d a y is somewhat in advance of its application,
scientific management has made it possible, t o an extent which
is difficult t o determine, but appreciable, to proceed from the
old t o t h e new system of production 1 .
'
To sum up, while it is difficult t o determine with all the
accuracy t h a t scientific management itself demands the results
obtained by the application of its principles, these results are
most clearly revealed in the progress made by the movement, in
the enthusiastic support of technicians, in the gradual breaking
down of the resistance of the hostile or sceptical, and lastly, in
the interest which is beginning to be shown by the public. Such
evidence is sound proof of the value of t h e results already obtained
and anticipated from the application of scientific management.
To be persuaded it is only necessary t o visit a factory organised
in accordance with these principles: the well-planned activity,
the sense of method and order, the anxiety t o obtain continuous
work and t o adapt t o the strength of each individual'—all contribute towards the impression of uncontested superiority and
undoubted benefits.
1
Cf. the enquiry carried out by the French Ministry of Labour into the
economic and social consequences of the Eight-Hour Act.
IV
OPINIONS CONCERNING SCIENTIFIC
MANAGEMENT
GENERAL
Our researches in connection with the application of scientific
management have brought us into direct touch with a large
number of specialists, technicians, industrial employers, etc.
We have gathered from t h e m a large amount of information
concerning scientific management as applied by t h e m which
supplements and elucidates the date obtained from the existing
bibliographical material and the technical work of the various
institutions. This information appeared t o furnish material
for a special chapter which might enable the reader t o form
a more accurate and more vivid idea of the present state of the
movement for scientific management and of its future possibilities. We mean b y "opinions" not only t h e opinions found
in works of propaganda or technical writings, b u t personal
statements whether written or verbal of all those persons who
are concerned with the development of the movement. We hope
b y means of this examination t o determine the probable orientation of the movement and its chances of success in Europe.
We have given some slight indication in the foregoing chapters
of the attitude of various circles towards scientific management.
We noted incidentally in connection with congresses the interest
aroused in the public by the activity of certain institutions, the
part played by national feeling or b y a corporate spirit.
We now propose to co-ordinate and classify these data. I t is
essential first t o examine separately the attitude of the three
groups which, owing to the very nature of scientific management,
are interested in its development in the factory, namely, the
— 128 —
employers, the technicians and the workers. The first class
have under present conditions either to agree or to refuse to
apply new methods, the second have t o adapt t h e m to the peculiar
circumstances of the case and t o derive from such adaptation
a maximum output, while the third necessarily feel their effects.
A distinction must be made in each of these groups between
collective and individual statements. Personal opinions often
differ from those expressed b y the authorised representatives
of the employers' organisations or of the trade unions. I n the
latter case political considerations come into play which do not
affect individuals to the same extent.
I n addition, however, t o the opinion of those who co-operate
in the production or distribution of the products, the opinions
of consumers must be taken into account. The reduction of the
costs of production and the elimination of waste are not calculated to leave t h e m indifferent. I t may even be t h a t it is they
who are most interested in the integral and general application
of scientific management, the wonder being t h a t they have not
themselves made greater efforts t o ensure its introduction for
the benefit of all concerned. No doubt, the Governments,
judging by their increasing interest in the matter, are concerned
just as much with the benefits which it m a y procure for t h e
masses as with the need for protecting and improving national
industry. We have endeavoured to determine the consumers'
opinion, t h a t is, the opinion of the public, and have found it
reflected in the work of scholars and economists whose studies
serve to guide the Governments, and in the work of politicians,
officials and publicists.
We have endeavoured in this Chapter to keep to the plan
which we originally traced. I n the technical domain, opinions,
like cases of application, are numerous and varied. We have
confined ourselves to the consideration of the essential features.
I n questions of psychology and psycho-technology we have
been very prudent: certain of these subjects, such as co-operation
between employers' and workers in the undertaking which, in the
opinion of some, come within the scope of scientific management,
would have taken us far beyond the real scope of our enquiry.
As regards the problems concerning the general organisation of
production we have met with b u t few coherent opinions which
were not dominated b y political, economic or pronounced social
considerations. I t is becoming more and more clear, however,
— 129 —
t h a t there are an increasing number of business men and savants
who regard problems connected with the general organisation of
production from a technical point of view and without prejudiced
or preconceived ideas.
The classification upon which we have decided may perhaps
weaken the force of certain statements b y breaking t h e m up, b u t
it will a t all events enable us t o base our conclusions upon sounder
premises.
EMPLOYERS
I t is obviously the employers' attitude t h a t has been most
strongly influenced b y post-war economic conditions. I t is
necessarily determined by the nature and importance of the
industry with which they are concerned. I t depends largely
upon the degree of personal education, .their knowledge of the
general movement in favour of scientific management, their
contact with American technicians or industrial employers, and
their readiness to consider the methods employed b y their national
or foreign competitors. There is in actual fact an infinite range
in the opinions of employers. There are some responsible for
big concerns who have never even heard of Taylor. Many
confound scientific management with improvements in equipment, and this is often the case for those at the head of concerns
in which labour counts for little in the total expenditure and for
whom the only thing t h a t pays is to keep in touch with mechanical
progress.
Nevertheless, all those who have devoted any thought to the
general organisation of their undertaking, who have not confined
themselves to purely technical considerations, and who have
a clear idea of what costs of production mean, are always almost
alive to the importance of the discovery of a method of work
which holds out a promise of improvement in the financial
output of an undertaking. The opportunity which it offers them
of competing successfully with their rivals then leads them to
t a k e an interest in the different forms of scientific management.
Often, however, when t h e y begin t o take an interest in it it
happens that, their scientific knowledge being deficient, they
are soon held up by what they think are insurmountable obstacles.
Among the objections current in employers' circles may be
mentioned the following :
10
— 130 —
Scientific management, which is an excellent thing in America
where labour is scarce, would not suit over-populated Europe.
I t can only succeed in the case of very highly-specialised industries,
which go in solely for mass production and do not trouble about
the tastes of their customers. Europe, however, is still adverse
to standardised products, and her individualism requires variety
and high quality. European taste is the result of various traditions, which must be respected b y the manufacturer.
I t is impossible to introduce American methods in our countries
without encountering the prejudice of the workers, upsetting
their habits, and arousing their mistrust. If a new and disputed
system of work is introduced, will not the worker feel himself
bound by regulations which he does not understand; not to
speak of opposition of principle? The fear of difficultés with a
staff which might consider itself injured often serves as an excuse
for employers who are anxious to disavow all responsibility.
They refuse t o be persuaded in such cases b y the example of
undertakings in which the methods of scientific management
introduced have met with the ready approval of the workers.
Scientific management, it is further alleged, does not result.
in immediate profits ; to institute it in a concern which is already
established is a lengthy process, which means an increase in the
general costs without any certainty t h a t they will be made u p
within a reasonably short time b y an increase in profits. Is not
hesitation comprehensible in the case of the manufacturer
whose capital is entirely sunk in the concern, or who has t o cut
down expenses?
Scientific management, as the example of America goes to
prove, is only suitable for a period of economic stability and not
for a time when anxiety to reduce the costs of production is
frequently eclipsed b y speculative practices which prevent it from
even being established.
Scientific management means the introduction into a concern
of foreign elements before whom the manufacturer feels himself
to be disarmed. He has the impression of placing himself, as it
were, in their hands. Once the transformation is begun he cannot
draw back or abandon the scheme. Moreover, do these elements
always possess the necessary competence ? Are there not numerous examples of quacks who suggest wonders and bring about
nothing b u t disaster? This fear, and still more the dislike of
placing within reach of publication secret processes which are
— 131 —
kept so carefully from the knowledge of the most reliable workers,
has a paralysing effect on many employers.
Lastly, may not scientific management, by causing a redistribution of work, weaken the power of the head of the undertaking?
Are these new methods not prejudicial t o the principle of
authority and subversive to discipline? W h a t can be more
sacred in the eyes of the employer, especially since the war,
t h a n the authority which he wields over the lower ranks subject
to his discipline?
These objections, which we ourselves have heard repeatedly, were
not always the disguised opinion of deliberate ill-will or mistrustful
ignorance of the new methods. P u t forward in all sincerity,
they appear to denote in those with whom we came into contact
hesitation rather t h a n conviction and a disposition to criticise
rather t h a n a definitely hostile attitude. I n actual fact experience has shown us t h a t many a manufacturer who raises such
objections to the introduction of scientific management can be
won over t o it. I n this connection we found on several occasions,
in the course of our enquiries, t h a t our conversations had aroused
keen interest and resulted in successful attempts at application.
Thus, ignorance and defective education would appear to be
at the bottom of most of t h e resistance encountered among
employers as regards scientific management. Necessity, which
is said t o be the best of all teachers, has been instrumental in
teaching many employers and is still completing the education
of many more in the storm-tossed Europe of to-day. I t has led
many of them to change their habits and t o impose fresh methods
on the workers. In cases such as these the cause of scientific
management is won, with few exceptions, once and for all. I t is
employers such as these t h a t make t h e best propagandists a n d
recognise all the technical and social benefits of the system.
In the opinion of many employers, however, the requisite
education should not come about under the pressure of necessity ;
it should be given in the universities and technical schools and
should be the outcome of the general mentality, including the
mentality of the working classes. I t was only quite recently
t h a t instruction in scientific management found its way in the
curricula of the technical schools and faculties. There is still
nothing in Europe, even in Germany, like the American business
schools, of which H a r v a r d is a typical example, in which the
future employer learns not only what he requires of professional
— 132 —
technique, but is t a u g h t something of social and political economy
and the science of organisation, and, first and foremost, his
obligations towards the collectivity.
Cases exist, at the same time, in Europe, of employers being
led as a body, by gradual stages, t o adopt scientific management.
Thus in Czechoslovakia it only required a small body of economists
and technicians, supported by broad-minded politicians who had
hailed scientific management as a means of effecting the economic
restoration of their country, to bring about the education of the
employers. The latter, although indifferent or hostile at the
outset, appear gradually to have been convinced by certain
positive conclusions brought out by the enquiries into waste
in industry; by the efforts of the different standardisation committees of the Masaryk Academy of Labour, and by the active
general propaganda of this latter institution. Even if all of
t h e m are not immediately induced to organise their undertakings
systematically, they are at all events alive t o the progress of the
movement and are prepared at the first suitable opportunity to
profit by its teachings. They are already co-operating in the
work of research and education t h a t is being carried out by the
great Prague institute. Mention should also be made of the
wholehearted manner in which German industrial employers
are collaborating in the work of the Reichskuratorium in Berlin 1 .
That defective education is frequently t o blame for paralysing
in the employers any desire t o go more closely into the methods
of scientific management and to ignore traditional objections,
is a general belief in all the European countries and forms the
background of the picture.
Among the individual opinions which we obtained are some,
however, t h a t should be mentioned here.
There is one opinion, the economic and social significance of
which will be readily realised, and it is t h a t scientific management
depends solely, at all events as regards its application, on the
employer's initiative. This statement, which is not always made
by those manufacturers who have given tangible proof of the
1
In a general manner it is to be noted t h a t the employers in Germanic
countries and countries coming under the Germanic influence are much
more easily convinced of the theoretical and practical value of scientific
management than those in countries where individualism is strongly
developed. There are certain countries where employers are as equally
hostile to the discipline imposed by their own organisations as to t h a t
introduced by scientific management methods and practices.
— 133 —
application of methods of which they claim the prerogative, may
have a double meaning. I n the case of some, it is bound u p
with a sincere claim on the part of the employers to be responsible
for the economic well-being of the collectivity—and must be
judged from t h a t point of view—while in the case of others, and,
we believe, the majority, it represents a refusal t o allow the
collectivity and more particularly the workers, to judge of the
methods used by the industrial employer in the management
of his undertaking. Scientific management becomes, in such
circumstances, a strictly private affair, to be judged by the
employer according t o his interest or his conscience, and hence
a purely personal concern. We have found some echo of this
opinion everywhere. B u t there are in the ranks of the employers,
especially in England, highly-qualified persons who are not in
agreement with this view. According to them, scientific management is a social obligation for the employer who must conform
to its principles, not only in his own interest, b u t both in t h a t
of the collectivity to whom he is indebted for the possibility of
labour and profit, and t o whom he owes in return the best article
at the lowest possible price—and also in the interest of his workers, t o whom the proper application of scientific management
means an increase in well-being and professional dignity.
In medium and small scale undertakings this feeling of professional dignity plays a bigger part t h a n might be imagined. The
owners, who are themselves ex-workers or are still working, are
anxious to maintain the quality and stability of workers whose
devotion to the concern constitutes their chief strength. As for
responsibility towards the collectivity, t h a t is nobody's concern,
and it is t o be feared t h a t the almost professional individualism
of the employer frequently leads him to ignore such considerations.
Another opinion which is frequently heard concerns the effects
of the general application of the eight-hour day. Many European
employers regard scientific management as a means of compensating for the drop in production consequent upon the reduction
in hours and of reducing the costs of production by a more
scientific utilisation of machinery and labour. Their only
complaint against the new system is t h a t it is lacking in elasticity,
b u t they are confident t h a t it will be quite as advantageous as
the old system from the technical point of view, and t h e y appreciate its benefits from the standpoint of the health and well-being
of the workers.
— 134 —
The idea t h a t it is in the general interests of industry to be able
to call on healthy and contented workers is the result not only
of philanthropic or religious beliefs, but also of a mature consideration of conditions of labour. I t is closely allied t o scientific
management as understood to-day. British welfare work is
simply one aspect of the matter. Mention should be made of the
rapid progress made by this idea in employers' circles in every
type of undertaking, from the big concern which is so proud of its
social work, down t o the smallest, in which intelligent solicitude
on the part of the employer may lead to very considerable results.
I t is the possibility of improving their relations with their workers
which has been chiefly instrumental in certain countries in
arousing the interests of employers in scientific management.
The feeling t h a t this method was calculated to consolidate unity
between producers did not escape t h e m . They were perhaps
more zealous in advocating t h a n in applying it. I t is clear t h a t
this feeling has found a ready echo in Italy, where the official
conception of compulsory collaboration between employers and
workers has culminated in the institution of the "corporations."
As regards its other relations with the human factor, scientific
management has met with the approval of individual employers
in the matter of vocational selection and guidance and the
training of skilled apprentices or workers, the need of whom was
felt everywhere. There are some employers who think t h a t the
time has come to deal with these problems by agreement with
the representatives of their workers. Here we have a question
which has assumed a far wider political aspect in Europe t h a n
in America, namely, t h a t of the participation of the workers
—belonging to the works or t o a trade union—in the study and
application of the conditions of labour. We cannot do more
t h a n mention this point in this report. I t is sufficient to say
t h a t Rowntree. in England has realised as fully as Dennison in
t h e United States t h a t the introduction of scientific management
m a y form the subject of close collaboration between the workers
and the management, and in this connection examples are to be
found in the Old World which are just as bold and have proved
just as successful as those encountered in the New World.
I t may be noted, however, t h a t these individual efforts,
satisfactory as they are, play a less important part to-day t h a n
was formerly the case. The growth of limited liability companies
m a r k the dawn of a new era in industry which might be described
— 135 —
as the administrative era. The employer is tending to become
more and more an administrator, who is appointed in virtue of
his general technical training rather t h a n by reason of inherited
rights. The evolution by which the employer-owner is being
replaced b y the manager-administrator, is calculated to promote
the progress of scientific management. Managers, who are
technicians or ex-technicians, are naturally inclined to examine
with greater authority and fewer prejudices any changes t h a t
may be introduced in other countries or in undertakings similar
t o their own.
The penetration of technicians into the management not only
of industrial, b u t also of commercial undertakings, their scientific
training and the fact t h a t t h e y have often worked in several
companies and have been able to exchange impressions with
other industrial employers whose training is varied and who
belong to other countries, frequently means t h a t they themselves
adopt scientific methods, or, when they apply for assistance
to efficiency engineers, are better able t o understand the scope
of the methods and the means to be employed for adapting t h e m
to their industry. Thus the employer's mentality is gradually
changing and approximating more closely t o t h a t of the technicians, of whom we shall speak later.
I t is of interest, moreover, to know to what extent the application of new methods in their own undertakings has been instrumental in modifying the mentality of certain employers. I t is
remarkable from this point of view t h a t even though they were
not entirely won over to the new methods when first adopting
them, they gradually became infected with the new spirit which
the Swiss engineer has described as the " T a y l o r i a n s p i r i t " and
which means, as may be imagined, t h a t the industrial employer
no longer looks at everything from the traditional or speculative
point of view, b u t from the scientific standpoint. Certain
employers regard this effect of scientific management on industry
as a real revolution \
This influence makes itself felt not only in the purely technical
domain b u t also in regard to questions of general economy.
Having experimented in the application of certain principles
in their own undertakings, such employers naturally come in
1
Cf. The opinion of C. G. REYNOLD in the article on "Scientific Management" in the Encyclopœdia Britannica.
— 136 —
many cases to consider how the principles in question might
be applied t o general economic problems. They realise—as they
themselves have repeatedly told us—that their own efforts are
paralysed owing t o thie inertia displayed by their caterers and
their customers. Everything pulls together in industry. Thus
some of them, who are satisfied with the experiments they have
made in the m a t t e r of methods derived from American experience,
readily devote part of their time to propaganda in favour of
these new ideas 1.
This has resulted in the establishment of a number of
propaganda committees which are supported by the large
manufacturers, and in certain proposals, some of which
appeared singularly bold at the time they were formulated.
We might mention in passing the proposals which were p u t
forward just after the War b y an important French engineer 2 ,
who, after having experimented in his own works with some
of the principles governing the best American undertakings,
submitted a scheme for national organisation, designed t o coordinate the efforts already accomplished and any further efforts
t h a t might be made, and t o increase output in the large-scale
industries of his country.
He recommended in particular—and
we find from a recent conversation with him t h a t his opinion has
not changed—the establishment of a number of district institutions, whose task it would be to study workshop conditions for
the various trades, and t o assist manufacturers in finding or
training workers fitted to promote the development of their
undertaking. These institutions were t o be equipped with
special laboratories according t o the different industries, which
would make a methodical study of the best conditions of labour.
The funds were to be supplied by means of contributions from
industrial employers, which would be proportionate t o the
number of workers in their employ. The workers were to be
asked to organise study meetings in their unions with the object
of defining their suggestions concerning the organisation of
work in the shops. The State was to extend the teaching
of scientific management in the trade schools, engineering
schools, etc., and to introduce the new methods into its industries
by way of example.
1
Among the most enthusiastic may be mentioned Michelin in France,
Rowntree in England, and Basta in Czechoslovakia.
2
André CITROËN : Report presented in 19i8 to the Social Museum of Paris.
— 137 —
This bold plan which did not, however, result in immediate
action, shows t h a t there are employers who are persuaded of the
necessity of the organisation of production on some scientific
lines. There are some who do not hesitate to view production
in its widest sense and under its general aspects of standardisation, mass production, industrial agreements, and national or
international cartels. The same ideas are frequently found at the
present day in Germany, where Rachenau's ideas have made
themselves felt, while Duisberg has put t h e m into practice. Only
a short time ago, at the annual Congress of the Handels- und
Industrietag, one of their best-known advocates, Dr. F . Siemens,
spoke eloquently in their defence before an audience composed
exclusively of employers 1.
A few years ago it would have been practically impossible
to give these ideas international expression, b u t to-day this is an
accomplished fact. I n Austria, France, Germany, and Switzerland at all events, the opinion is gaining ground among employers
t h a t it is time for Europe to organise her production on a new
and scientific plan by which artificial industries and the customs
barriers and superfluous machinery both public and private
protecting them, would be swept away, and transport would be so
organised as to promote international exchanges and not to
obstruct them. Some employers p u t their faith in the United
States of Europe modelled on the lines of the United States of
America, and are of opinion t h a t if all the obstacles which stand
between us and our object are to be overcome, the diffusion of
scientific methods in industry, commerce, banking, agriculture, etc., and their general application are the best means of
making public opinion alive to the absurdities of the present
system and of preparing it for a new order. They consider
further t h a t this is the only means of putting an end to the social
disputes which are a menace t o Europe 2 .
Thus every kind of opinion is to be found among employers
with regard to scientific management, and among t h e m are
1
8
28 April 1926, Berlin.
The Pan-European Movement, which is directed by CondenhoveKalergi, adopted this theory in Vienna in October 1926 and set up an
economic committee, with its headquarters in Brussels, to promote it.
The breaking down of customs barriers is also sought, and without any
ulterior political motive, be it said, by the International Chamber of Commerce, and this subject was one of the principal aims of the International
Economic Conference.
— 138 —
some who are entirely in favour of its general application. I t is
impossible to determine the exact proportion at the present day
between those who are won over to the idea and those who are
indifferent or hostile t o it. The important point is t h a t its
adherents are every day increasing in number and giving fresh
evidence of their progressive views.
A decisive proof of their predominance is t o be found in the
recent marked tendency of the big employers' organisations
to declare themselves in favour of scientific management and its
diffusion. We have already mentioned their attitude in passing
and shall not revert to it. I n Sweden, as in I t a l y and Austria,
the employers' organisations may be said to be the leaders of the
national movement. I n Germany, Switzerland, and Poland they
support it t o a very considerable extent, while in France, Belgium,
and Czechoslovakia they encourage it. I n every country their
members learn from their periodicals of the works which have
appeared and what progress is being made in the application of
the new system. Their policy, which is still not yet properly
defined, is marked by a certain caution, but their interest
is being aroused and is influencing the tendency of their
members.
On the whole, the opinion of employers, taken individually
and collectively, now appears to be in favour of the application
and extension of scientific management. I t would be going too
far to say t h a t the majority realise the social and economic
improvements t h a t it may bring about. I t would be equally
rash to claim t h a t they all understand t h a t their personal interests
are at stake. Many are still hesitating from indecision and the
lack of adequate preliminary training. What there is most call
for among employers is reliable and practical information. Every
innovation is dreaded, and scientific management is still an
innovation. Nevertheless, it proves attractive to energetic and
enterprising industrial employers. I t quickly wins t h e m over,
and others less decided follow their example. Its popularity in
employers' circles is in proportion to its success, and since success in this case depends upon the technicians to introduce and
apply the system, it is time to turn to their opinion.
— 139 —
TECHNICIANS
The opinions of technicians are not as varied as those of the
employers. The vast majority of them are interested in scientific
management, and, in so far as they have been able t o study it at
close quarters and to experiment in it, they are completely won
over to the cause. From the technical point of view scientific
management has nothing to fear from their discussion of it, at
all events as regards the expediency of employing it, and it is
among the technicians t h a t the most enthusiastic propagandists
have been found in all countries. In Europe t h e y were the first
apostles of Taylor, and nowadays it is only necessary to meet
young engineers in order to realise their interest in these problems
and their anxiety themselves to find some solution for them.
I t is the technicians who have provided the most abundant
literature on scientific management and its application. I t is
they who have in m a n y cases founded special institutes for
research and information. All t h a t we have described in the
earlier chapters of this study, both as regards application and
institutions, goes to prove the preponderating part which they
have played in the progress of the movement for scientific
management.
But though they all support the principles of scientific management and recognise their value, there is an infinite variety of
opinion among them concerning the methods of application.
This is t o be explained by the diversity in their training and
business experience.
Among the many subjects which come up for discussion among
technicians are several which it may be well t o mention here.
In the first place their opinion varies as to the best conditions
of the introduction and application of the new methods in the
workshops.
Most of them, judging by our private conversations with them,
appear t o think t h a t scarcity of labour, high wages, and the
necessity of paying quickly for costly material are the best
arguments to convince industrial employers. Others think t h a t
in actual practice there is only one reason for introducing the
system, namely, the necessity of reducing the cost of production
on account of competition or adverse financial conditions. To
— 140 —
discuss the controversy might lead us too far. All are agreed,
however, as to the qualities necessary in those called upon to
introduce the system. Patience, tenacity and t a c t , both as
regards the subordinate workers and the management, are as
important, if not more so, as technical training. Hence the
technicians attached to an undertaking—especially those best
informed in the m a t t e r of scientific management—show less
mistrust t h a n might be imagined as regards the specialist
efficiency engineers, whose intervention appears likely at first t o
reduce their importance, b u t whose services and experience are
soon appreciated. On getting into touch again with their shops
after the specialists have left, engineers frequently do their best
t o continue the improvements which have been introduced on the
lines already indicated. Some of t h e m devote themselves t o the
improvement of instruction cards and graphs, acknowledging
their debt t o their foreign colleagues. Thus, despite the danger
of competition, the general opinion of technicians appears t o be
in favour of the maintenance of efficiency engineers who have
specialised in the technique of organisation.
Technicians are generally agreed as to the benefits which they
derive from the application of scientific management. They
regard it primarily as a means of simplifying their work b o t h in
the m a t t e r of supervision in the shops and in t h a t of administration. The development of planning departments, routing systems,
and specialisation of foremen relieves them, without involving
any risk for the specialised elements, of duties which previously devolved entirely upon them. I t becomes possible for
t h e m t o carry out research into the actual work and the methods
to be adopted, and, from the general manager to the head of
the shop, t o work less mechanically and more intelligently—an
essential factor in management.
Opinions vary again as to the degree of organisation desirable
in an undertaking. Some who are still suspicious and bound by
tradition, are of opinion t h a t foreign methods should be introduced with great prudence and never if possible at one and the
same time. They admit t h a t these methods may be of great value
in America. B u t we have heard t h e m say t h a t scientific management in America was the outcome of disorganisation and waste,
just as Roman law owned its origin t o the number of thieves in
ancient times. Again, American organisation is often, in their
opinion, scientific only in name ; European factories, they allege,
— 141 —
have always emerged victorious from any comparison with
American factories so far as it has been possible t o compare them.
Despite their national or professional amour-propre, however, they
frequently greet the introduction of new processes, but refuse
t o admit t h a t these are anything but technical improvements.
In addition to those who are of this opinion, there are others
who willingly admit the expediency of introducing foreign
methods, but demand t h a t they should be carefully adapted
to local customs, either because the employer is not entirely
won over, or because the workers or foremen may be hostile,
or again because of the novelty of the methods proposed.
For others, on the contrary, the only way of salvation lies
in the strict application of Taylor's principles. Some experts
have acquired the reputation of fanatics and make out t h a t
salvation is not to be found except b y their methods and with
their assistance. Most technicians admit t h a t scientific management calls for greater elasticity in application and t h a t it can
be extended, if intelligently understood, further t h a n is done by
the fanatics among Taylor's disciples. Hence there is an infinite
variety of opinion as to the best method of application in the
various services and different industries, and this is reflected in
the technical reviews and special works on the subject.
Another debated point is whether scientific management is
suited only to mass production or is also applicable to works
manufacturing a variety of lines and changing their models.
The question is an important one and it. is indeed a commonplace t o say t h a t mass production and scientific management
are bound up with one another and t h a t it is consequently impossible t o a d a p t scientific management to European systems of
manufacture. The most competent technicians, t h a t is t o say,
those who have had the longest personal experience in scientific
management, are of an entirely different opinion, which, as we
have seen, is confirmed by the application of the system in
industries in which mass production is unknown. Some of our
correspondents in France, Switzerland, Belgium and Germany
have given us categorical answers in the same sense. Certain
of them even declare—we will not follow t h e m so far—that
contrary to the general belief it is easier to carry out methodical
organisation in a factory where the production varies in quantity
and quality t h a n in an undertaking for mass production. Organisation represents a daily effort and a continual search after
— 142 —
improved methods, so t h a t there is no reason, they allege, to
prefer mass production to any other form of production. A
factory for mass production by its very definition lends itself less
readily t o continual changes owing to the outlay on costs of
material, this being so especially in Europe, where one is more
economical t h a n in America with the capital of an undertaking.
This idea of continuous research is a t the basis of a philosophy
of production which is peculiar t o the technician. Scientific
management, which facilitates and promotes such an effort,
appeals to him, as it ennobles his t a s k and enhances his
professional qualities.
Of the questions most debated among experts, one other is
deserving of mention, namely, the extent t o which scientific
management should be applied in an undertaking. B u t as this
is really a question which must be settled in each individual case,
we cannot discuss it in these pages. W h a t is of interest for our
present purposes is the opinion of experts who, after long experience, consider t h a t even the most perfect technical organisation
in manufacture is of no value unless t h e markets have been
previously studied and sales can be counted upon t o meet an
increase in production. Hence it is upon master-planning, as it
is called b y t h e Americans, t h a t t h e attention of experts is chiefly
directed to-day. Certain admirably organised undertakings, as
we ourselves have noted, have been involved in difficulties of
all kinds for lack of a definite programme of manufacture. The
most minute preparation of the work in t h e shops is of no value
unless the preparation of sales is equally thorough 1 . As one
engineer said to us. " W h a t is the use of turning a perambulator
into a lorry if you have nothing heavy t o transport? I t is better
to keep the perambulator." Thus it is t h a t the technicians
have come t o consider t h a t one of the advantages of scientific
management in the works is t h a t it relieves the manager of the
various tasks of supervising the manufacture and allows him
to devote his attention to the business policy 2 of his concern.
1
Among experts the example is often quoted of the Holt Manufacturing
Company, of Peoria (Illinois), which, under the management of Babcock,
its engineer, has worked out its regular programme of work in advance
with amazing accuracy. The workers can find out every day from the
figures posted up at the entrance to the shops the number of regular days'
work upon which they can count. When the author of this enquiry visited
these works the figure exceeded 400.
2
This opinion has recently been expressed by Mr. Hoover in the following
— 143 —
This conception is by no means so widespread in Europe as
in America. The reason is assuredly because it is more difficult
to make estimates in advance in the European countries, owing
to the fluctuations in the exchanges and in customs tariffs and
to the variations in the purchasing power of money on the internal
markets. Apart from a few isolated attempts in different countries, the study of economic conditions which may influence the
markets in future has not yet been as systematically pursued
as in America. Hence technicians are of opinion t h a t it is
expedient to encourage efforts to collect official or private documentation on the subject and regard this as one of the best means
of promoting scientific management. I t may be added t h a t
it is generally those who see clearly to what extent the technical
development of scientific management is bound up with the
preparation of markets who are in favour of the general organisation of production and urge an economic reorganisation of Europe
which would break down internal barriers and create a single
market, as in the United States.
I n this connection we have also obtained the opinion of specialists of scientific management, who felt t o what extent their
efforts depended upon factors independent of their will—taste
and education of customers, bad habits of routine on the part
of caterers—in a word, lack of organisation, and urged t h a t the
first thing to be done was t o educate producers and the public.
The influence of technicians is of special value in regard to
quite a different point. Situated as they are in the undertaking
between the employer and the workers—as some say, between
the hammer and the anvil—their views as t o the possibility of
the extension of scientific management in relation to the human
factor are deserving of consideration.
Their opinion of employers is not always a favourable one.
terms : " . . . the pre-war scientific management devoted itself chiefly to
minutiae of shop and office routine, rather than to broad questions of policymaking. Post-war developments have led to more scientific business
administration, thus expanding, supplementing, and guiding the development of the earlier types of scientific management. The development of
more science in business rests fundamentally on the encouragement of
industrial research. To carry over promptly the results of scientific determinations into the field of administrative and managerial practice is the
best possible evidence of sound industrial progress. This progress shows
itself in improved processes and methods, in elimination of waste, in greater
security of employment, in higher wages, and in higher living standards."
Cf. Bulletin of the International Committee for Scientific Management, Vol. I,
No. 1.
— 144 —
Some engineers, including t h e most conscientious and most
enthusiastic, admit t h a t they have been able to apply scientific
management only as the result of the support of broadminded
employers who, undeterred b y partial failure or slow results, were
ready, if need be, t o encourage them in carrying out difficult
experiments, the outcome of which might be uncertain. Others,
on the contrary, complain of the lack of perseverance shown
by their employers who, after having agreed to the introduction
of new methods simply from curiosity or a desire t o increase
their profits, refuse t o continue the experiments when positive
results were not obtained immediately, and who even went so
far in certain cases as t o destroy all traces of what had already
been done. Others inveighed against the spirit of routine, the
indifference, and the narrow-mindedness which certain owners
exhibit as regards any innovation. They sometimes accused
t h e m of being more concerned with increasing the output of their
workers t h a n with the increase which they might themselves
obtain by the introduction of improved methods or equipment,
or, to put it briefly, improved management. The opinion was
repeatedly expressed t h a t the workers could only reasonably be
expected t o follow where the head of t h e undertaking showed
t h e way.
These engineers were even more emphatic in their condemnation of the abuse of the system with the sole object of increasing
output by means of bonuses payable when the worker had furnished his maximum efforts, or of the use of time studies simply
for the purpose of keeping a watch over t h e worker and convicting
him of laziness. Cases are also frequently found of the partial
application of the new system to the works without the knowledge of the employer or the board of directors from fear of incomprehension or ill will. According to the technicians, who expressed themselves freely t o us, t h e employer, a t all events in the
case of the average sized undertaking, is not so much a support
as an obstacle in the introduction of methods of scientific management. The engineers are unanimous as t o the necessity of first
convincing employers of the value of t h e new methods ; "Taylorising must begin from the t o p " as one of them put it. Such
an opinion appears to us somewhat pessimistic, especially as the
technicians are the first to declare t h a t in the application of new
methods no factor is more important t h a n the personality of the
person introducing them, and in this case the employer is in
— 145 —
question just as much as the technical expert. Their opinion
may perhaps be more correct as regards certain boards of directors which are more anxious to obtain immediate profits for
the shareholders t h a n to carry out a carefully thought-out
programme.
Generally speaking, the technicians' opinion is not any more
favourable as regards the foremen and various persons engaged
in the execution of the work. They say t h a t it is difficult to
convince t h e m of the value of scientific management, either
because they are bound by routine or because they are afraid
t h a t their authority or interests may be undermined. Some
experts declare, however, t h a t if they proceed with tact and
caution, they can win over the foremen by arousing their professional interest and holding out the offer of material benefits.
Technicians readily admit t h a t scientific management means
a considerable reduction in the rôle of the foremen as understood
to-day, and express no surprise at their opposition.
*t
As regards the workers, opinions are on the whole more favourable. Technicians, who are prepared t o find the workers opposed
in principle t o any innovation suggested by the management,
are all the more ready to recognise t h a t provided improvements
are not imposed brutally and everyone is given a fair explanation
of the new duties he will have t o perform and the material and
moral benefits to be derived from them, the introduction of
scientific management has not in the majority of cases encountered serious difficulties from the workers. This—and we wish
to emphasise it—is one of the most positive results of our. enquiry.
The need for tact, skill, and slow individual and collective education is generally recognised, but efficiency engineers are of
opinion t h a t if a policy of frank discussion and patient collaboration is afforded, all misunderstandings may be avoided.
Although more concerned with the technical aspect of the
problems of scientific management t h a n with their social repercussions, technical experts are not unaware of the latter. Their
daily contact with the workers necessarily brings this to their
notice. Most are of opinion as the result of experience t h a t
scientific management entails real benefits for the worker.
Apart from the increase in well-being which must result for him
from the application of the new methods, owing to the increase in
wages and reduction in prices, they consider t h a t in work which
is scientifically organised the worker obtains real professional
11
— 146 —
satisfaction; his work is better prepared and consequently
fatigue is reduced, a spirit of research is aroused and every
worker feels a pride in belonging to a well-disciplined gang and
in doing his pre-arranged work well and quickly.
From the economic point of view, technicians as a whole do not
appear t o trouble about the general repercussions of scientific
management, concerned as they are with its application in their
own particular branch. Some, however, guided b y their own
experience, arrive at the conclusion t h a t the reduction in the
costs of production as the result of experimental methods must
be made the basis of general economic life just as it forms the
basis of private industry.
I n the course of our enquiry more t h a n one technician declared
t h a t what he owed to Taylor above all was the realisation of the
fact t h a t improvements in organisation mean a continual reduction in costs, and, at the same time, higher wages and an increase
in the general well-being. They declare t h a t once this t r u t h
is borne in upon the technician it stimulates the spirit of research
and becomes an absolute rule of conduct from which he never
departs. If every expert were convinced of this, many economic
and social problems would quickly be solved. Indeed, the
characteristic feature of technicians is t h a t with the best of t h e m
these social and economic considerations take on a definite
moral significance. Regarding scientific management from the
American point of view, they hold t h a t every producer, no
matter what his position, should make it his object to serve the
collectivity, and, for a producer to serve the collectivity is t o
place the best possible products a t its disposal a t the lowest
possible prices, and to increase the purchasing power of the
consumer by reducing prices. In addition to this principle of
collective economy, they hold, from the individual point of view,
t h a t scientific management, which appeals in its various forms
of application, from the highest to the lowest, t o the spirit of
method, research and reflection, is calculated to develop in every
human being t h a t scientific spirit which is the mainspring of all
progress.
Such convictions are marked by a certain policy which is calculated to make those who possess t h e m forget many daily
sources of bitterness and t o enable t h e m to overcome many
psychological and material obstacles even at the cost of real
sacrifice.
— 147 —
The desire most frequently expressed b y technicians m a y be
described as the necessity for information and organisation. All
express a unanimous desire for information, to be informed of
technical processes and methods of application of the new system
in their profession in their own countries, or better still, abroad
and especially in America; information which should be devoid
of a suspicion of bluff and which has stood the test of criticism.
They want more and more information as to the social and
economic reactions of t h e problems with which scientific management is concerned. They want information as to the various
ways in which scientific management is interpreted in the different
countries, this being an index of the need which is felt in these
circles to build up a definite doctrine from all t h a t has been
written on the subject since Taylor. Further, they want this
information not only for themselves b u t for the public.
Their desire for organisation is the outcome of the conviction, found more particularly among the young and more a i d e n t
members of their calling, of the increasing importance of the p a r t
which they are called upon t o play in the industrial production
of the future. The engineer, who is a t the same time an inventor,
an adapter, a teacher, and, t o an increasing degree an administrator, sometimes feels t h a t owing t o lack of organisation his actual
participation in production does not always stand out as clearly
as it should do.
At the Prague Congress the idea of an international federation
of engineers was put forward. I t has not as yet been taken up, b u t
consulting engineers who have specialised in scientific management are endeavouring to link u p across the frontiers of their
several countries. I t is this tendency t h a t has made the technicians the strongest partisans of all proposals to establish a national
or an international institution for the study of problems of
scientific management 1 .
1
Specialists in psycho-technology have a very definite attitude as regards
the scientific organisation of labour, as is natural considering t h a t their
work is the study of one of its branches. They are naturally active
partisans for its realisation, and we have previously pointed out that almost
all cases of application initiated by them meet in general with but feeble
resistance from the workers, a fact which makes their task comparatively
easy. Moreover, the same questions arise for them and are answered in
the same way as by the technicians : very often they are themselves technicians, that is to say, professional engineers who have specialised later
in other domains of psycho-technology.
— 148 —
WORKERS
I t is of interest to note t h a t the opinion of labour circles on
scientific management was formed far sooner and far more unanimously t h a n in the case of employers and technicians. The
last-named groups were still discussing the value of the new
methods, or were even ignorant of them, when the worker's
attitude was already clearly defined. Moreover, there is no
category of producers in which one finds a more remarkable
evolution of tendencies as regards social management; after
unreservedly condemning the movement, the workers have now
adopted far more moderate views.
We have already noted t h a t labour opinion had, as it were,
received its cue from America, a n d t h a t all the objections of the
American workers had found an echo in Europe. The great
objection to speeding u p was the fear of fatigue ; on both continents there was also the fear of loss of employment, loss of professional skill, and a reduction of wages. Even more marked t h a n
this, especially in Europe, was the fear of automatism and
monotony. This similarity in t h e objections raised is clearly
the result of an inspired policy, especially as the collective opinion
appears to have been formed even before the first experiments
in application had been made. The best proof of this general
feeling is to be found in the book of the French worker Pouget,
which appeared in 1914, L'Organisation
du Surmenage, the
argument of which is not very convincing. The opposition of
the workers at this time appeared to be instinctive and sentimental, and very similar in character to t h a t previously aroused
by the introduction of machinery. The new methods disturbed
their professional routine just as they did t h a t of the employer.
The sentimental, character of the objections raised at the
outset persisted in workers who had no opportunity of seeing
scientific management in practice. These objections, however,
assumed a more ordered character when p u t forward with full
knowledge of the case by the workers who were better informed.
We shall deal with t h e m one b y one, examine them closely, and
see how they gradually evolved.
The objection concerning fatigue, which was the most violent
a t the outset, is now the one of which least is heard, this being
— 149 —
either a result of the intervention of psycho-technical experts
who are anxious t o improve the conditions of work, or a consequence of the reduction in the hours of work since the war.
Nevertheless, the European worker is not accustomed t o the
intensive work which is usual in America; he has to get used to
his job, and it has been impossible in Europe to obtain as definite
results as in America with regard to intensification of the methods
of work. I t is extremely likely, moreover, t h a t this classic
objection would again come to the fore if any attempt, unaccompanied b y due precaution, were made to subject European
workers to the system of intensive work practised in factories
on the other side of the Atlantic.
Nothing more is heard in labour circles of the loss of professional skill ; it has been realised t h a t this objection was applicable
to mass production rather t h a n t o scientific management in
general, and a very clear distinction is now beginning to be
established in competent circles between these two conceptions.
There still remain the almost invincible objections relating to
the reduction of wages and unemployment. The first of these
objections is based upon the numerous cases in which employers,
after having stimulated the workers to increase their output by
establishing output bonuses, have suddenly cut down wages by
basing the new prices for piecework on the new output averages.
This procedure is condemned b y the technicians themselves as
unscientific. I t is time-study experiments—aided b y psychophysiology—which should be the basis of job analysis a n d not
output bonus. Such misapplication of the bonus system should
certainly not involve the wholesale condemnation of scientific
management, b u t one can readily understand how it has irritated
workers who are often ill-informed and ready to generalise.
The objection relating to unemployment is in itself much
better founded. Scientific management certainly means a
reduction in staff, and this would even appear t o be one of the
objects of the employer who is anxious t o reduce his costs of
production. This argument had great weight for a long time in
the United States, where labour is scarce, and is even more
pertinent in the case of Europe, where labour is plentiful. I t
might be retorted t h a t scientific management aims not so much
at the reduction of staff as a t the elimination of waste of labour
like any other waste of production, t h a t it ensures more permanent
work for the workers who are kept on, since a well-organised
— 150 —
undertaking is carried on under much sounder conditions t h a n
a badly organised one, in which the whole of the staff may be
dismissed sooner or later ; and lastly, t h a t even if the introduction
of rational methods means a temporary suppression of posts, it
soon creates new ones owing to the prosperity which it entails.
America affords sufficiently conclusive proof of this. At the
same time, it must be admitted t h a t when unemployment is rife,
it is very difficult for the workers to accept, without strong
preliminary guarantees, a system, the first result of which a t least
appears to be a reduction in the number of persons employed.
As is it not our purpose in this Chapter to give the reply direct
to objections, we shall confine ourselves to drawing the attention
of the partisans of scientific management to the importance
rightly attached in labour circles to obtaining the necessary
guarantees.
Further, even before the war, certain labour leaders had refused
t o accept the opinion prevalent in other circles and to reject
Taylor's system en bloc. They regarded scientific management
as a natural development of industry, like t h e introduction of
machinery, and thought t h a t it was vain for the working classes
t o a t t e m p t t o arrest its progress ; their d u t y was simply to see
the new movement was not turned b y the employers to their
t h a t own profit at the expense of t h e workers.
Merrheim wrote and spoke in support of these ideas in France,
where Pouget's book had previously been published 1. His love
for impartiality forced him to accept, with certain reservations,
the majority of Taylor's principles. He repudiated in a categorical manner the objections raised, and even refuted t h a t
concerning unemployment.
I t was only after the war, however, t h a t labour opinion really
began to evolve. A distinction must still be made between the
collective opinion of the trade unions and the individual opinion
of the workers who have been affected b y the introduction of
1
Cf. La Vie ouvrière (March 1913): " I t is my opinion (wrote MERKHEIM)
that the Taylor system, adapted to the French mentality, will penetrate
more and more into industry. I t therefore appears to me t h a t it is in the
interests of the workers to supervise this introduction and to favour it
in so far as it is not contradictory to their moral, financial and physical
interests . . . I consider (he added) t h a t the employers ought to have made
efforts to make the worker understand the economic reasons and the
industrial and commercial necessities which compel them to adopt the
Taylor system."
— 151 —
scientific management in the factories. These workers, and
more particularly those who had become acquainted with the
new methods in the course of the experiments carried out during
the war under State control, had realised the efforts made by the
technicians to ensure their being paid a fair wage, and t o prevent
fatigue in order t h a t their output might be permanently improved,
and m a n y of them have changed their earlier opinions. Since
then, t h e opinion of workers affected by a general or partial
application of the new measures has depended largely on the
sincerity of the attempts made, and on the educational qualities
and tact of the technicians responsible for their introduction.
We saw, when dealing with the application of the system, t h a t
the great post-war innovation was the introduction of methods
of time study. This was a very delicate matter. The best
method appears to have been to train workers as observers;
such workers have obviously a good knowledge of their fellowworkers who, on the other hand, find in the feeling of solidarity
which exists between them, a guarantee and pledge of good faith.
Time study in itself—the workers whom we consulted confirmed
this—aroused less protest t h a n the manner in which it was applied.
The worker must be prepared and made to understand t h a t
there is no question of control or vexatious supervision, but t h a t
he himself will profit by the results of the system, if this is carried
out as it should be, t h a t is to say, so t h a t the worker actually
gives his best, his t o p speed, without fear of intimidation or irritation. Subject t o this reservation, it may be said t h a t the stop
watch, while not popular, has not aroused insurmountable
objections. An English engineer who had much experience in
such experiments, told us in this connection t h a t "the worker
agreed t o the use of the stop watch, b u t did not like it."
After investigations carried out on the spot, it becomes evident
t h a t the objections raised as regards wage systems are of the
same general character. Except in the case of countries in which
such questions are settled by means of collective agreements
between employers and trade unions, the workers, considered
individually, are not opposed either t o piece rates or t o output
bonuses, but they are very emphatic on the subject of abuses t o
which reference has already been made. Here again, it is essential to fix in advance and in a precise and equitable manner the
bonus systems t o be adopted, to make the workers realise t h a t
they will benefit by the scheme, and above all, not to go back on
— 152 —
promises t h a t have been made. Of the various systems in use,
the Halsey and Rowan systems would appear t o have led to
frequent disappointment.
Technicians recommend the intelligent adaptation of the Gantt and Galbreth formulae. But it is
essential t h a t the worker should understand the system which
is being applied, and t h a t he should himself be able to calculate
his pay, as was urged by Lenoir (secretary of the Federation of
French Metal Workers).
As for the introduction in the works of various time-saving
methods and methods for improving the organisation of the work
(distribution, routing, preparation of the work, establishment of
a central repair shop for tools), this has generally been effected
without objection on the p a r t of the workers who, indeed, often
exhibited a certain pride in belonging t o a well-organised undertaking (although they are still afraid of the bogey of dismissal).
On the other hand, even taken individually, they are somewhat
jnistrustful of aptitude tests and vocational selection; only
the more intelligent and ambitious see in them the possibility of
promotion and gain, the general mass regarding them unfavoura b l y . Experience has proved, moreover, t h a t it is easier to
employ methods of selection with workers who are just entering
the undertaking t h a n with those who have been engaged in it
for some time. Here again, the essential thing is to proceed
tactfully and intelligently.
Another aspect of scientific management should be mentioned
which, unlike the others, rapidly won the support of active and
capable workers ; this is the decrease in the power of the foreman
t o take arbitrary decisions, which results from the precise division
of authority between the different foremen and a reduction of
their authority following the introduction of methods of routing,
the preparation of work, and-the scientific assessment of wages.
Moreover, intelligent workers are not blind to the opportunities
of promotion which these methods offer them.
In concluding our observations on the attitude of the workers
considered individually, it may be stated t h a t the employer or
technician always has t o deal at first with a certain amount of
mistrust on the part of the workers, this being a relic of professional routine and of the latent hostility against any change,
especially a change proposed from above. If, however, a few
experiments are carried out and the first difficulties surmounted,
and if trouble is taken to educate the workers by explaining the
— 153 —
methods and describing the advantages which they may derive
from them, it can hardly be said nowadays t h a t the workers
are, in the workshops, deliberately hostile to the scientific organisation of labour. The consent of the workers to the introduction of new methods is so important t h a t it is sufficient to
justify the increasing attention which is being paid to the various
guarantees offered them by pyschologists and physiologists, and
gives a capital importance to the various studies relating to
what the Americans call the human factor.
Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the fact t h a t the
introduction of the new methods is largely a m a t t e r of skill,
elasticity, and generosity on the part of the person responsible
for their application. Moreover, this fact has long been recognised by the technicians.
We have now to consider the opinion of the trade unions.
Since the war there has been a considerable change in their
attitude. Although not entirely free from mistrust, and not
completely won over to scientific management, they no longer
condemn the system en bloc1. They seem to tend more and
more towards a policy, the main lines of which are somewhat as
follows: Scientific management in itself, in so far as it represents
industrial progress and actually contributes towards a reduction
in the costs of production, is ,not to be condemned. On the
other hand, the abuses which have arisen, especially those
designed to p u t all the profits of scientific management into the
pockets of the employers and to increase production at the
expense of the working classes, call for the fullest condemnation.
Such being the case, the trade unions must intervene, here, as in
all other domains, in defence of the interests of their members.
1
Certain labour leaders make a point of replying to the charge of prejudice so often brought against the trade unions by their political opponents.
One of them, H. Dubreuil, of the French General Confederation of Labour,
recalling the controversy aroused in 1913 by Taylor's system, expressed
himself as follows: "One only needs to refer to these discussions to see that
the workers have never manifested towards scientific management the
narrow-minded and prejudiced opposition with which they are generally
credited. One would find, on the contrary, that those best qualified to
represent them have repeated over and over again that their opposition
was due simply to the monopolisation of profits by the industrial employers.
Some of them even went further. With remarkable foresight they declared
that they would agree to the application of the system if they were assured
that the general public would benefit by the reduction effected in the cost
of production, explaining that they would be satisfied with the profits
which would accrue to them in their capacity of consumers." H. DUBREUIL:
La République industrielle, p. 65.
— 154 —
This attitude was defined directly after the war by Lenoir in
the following terms :
Scientific methods of time study and assessment, the system of the coefficient of increase of time, and the methods of calculating do actually
constitute a guarantee and contain the germ of an equalising system for
the assessment of human effort. Scientific methods are not a solution
for the vast problem of production or t h a t of wages; they are simply
systematic means which open up a vast field for the activities of workers
and trade unions.
The trade unions have slowly b u t surely come to understand
t h a t the logical consequence of this attitude for t h e m was the
necessity to make a careful study of the social aspects of scientific
management. I t is this conviction which has recently led the
Chamber of Labour of Vienna to set up a special service in this
connection. I n Germany, Oik, when dealing with these questions
in an article which appeared last February in Die Arbeit, the
official organ of the Federation of German Trade Unions, urged
the parallel development of measures for protection of the workers
with the generalisation of scientific management, which is proceeding very rapidly in Germany. The International Federation
of Trade Unions of Amsterdam in April 1926 drew the attention
of the International Labour Office to the growing impoitance of
the movement in favour of the scientific organisation of labour,
and requested it to undertake the study of their social value.
This is evidence of t h e positive attitude adopted b y t h e labour
organisations of to-day with regard to scientific management,
an attitude which is, perhaps, still more pronounced among the
Christian workers. I t m a y be of interest t o note in this connection t h a t a French concern, which is under the management of
a Christian workers' trade union, has undertaken to adopt
methods of scientific management and has called in t h e services
of technicians who are specialists in the matter.
I n addition to the question of unemployment, there is one
other point in regard t o which the trade unions have maintained
a certain amount of mistrust, and t h a t is, the question of wages.
Having acquired the right to fix wage tariffs b y agreement with
the employers, the trade unions are afraid lest the general introduction of a system of wages based upon effort may reduce the
need for their intervention, and hence their authority and their
strength which they regard as the surest defence for labour
interests. This objection might be refuted by the argument
— 155 —
t h a t even in the event of the introduction of new wage systems
becoming general, it would still remain within the power of the
trade unions to fix minimum tariffs, and to select the systems for
the assessment of bonuses.
The way had been prepared for the evolution of trade union
opinions directly after the war by the introduction of the eighthour day, which had led the trade union leaders t o agree as tö the
necessity of greater individual output if a drop in production
were to be prevented.
This increase in individual output was to be brought about,
on the p a r t of the employers, by an improvement in material,
and on t h a t of the workers b y the acceptance of improved methods
of work 1 . This evolution seems likely to end in Europe, as in
America, in the labour organisations claiming, as they have
already done in England, a right to control the application of
scientific management both in the works and in industry. Finally,
the growing interest taken by the workers' organisations in the
national and international solution of general problems of production is leading them t o pay more and more attention t o the
questions dealt with in this study. At the present time there
can be no solution to these problems which does not take into
account the American methods which Taylorism has so widely
influenced. The German workers' delegates of the Allgemeiner
Deutsche Gewerkschaftsbund have brought back from, their voyage
in America striking examples of industrial organisation which
they regard as acceptable and usetul for the production of their
country 2 .
The presence of authorised representatives of trade unionism
in the Preparatory Committee for the Economic Conference, the
important part played by J o u h a u x in its creation, a n i the
preliminary discussions indicate t h a t the workers' movement
is interested in a very positive manner, from t h e organisation
of the workshop to the general organisation of production, in
the development of the movement of which Taylor was the
founder^3.
1
" T h e application of scientific improvements t o mechanical equipment
and methods of production, and the reduction of fatigue as a result of the
decrease in hours should have, as a natural corollary, a general increase
in the power of consumption..." JOUHAUX : The Conditions of Labour
during the War and Post-War Prospects, p. 37.
2
Cf. Amerika Reise Deutscher Gewerkschaftsührer, 1926.
3
The most recent, and perhaps the most striking evidence of this positive
— 156 —
PUBLIC OPINION
In the early days public opinion showed an interest in problems
of industrial organisation only in so far as such problems were
bound u p with some event calculated t o arouse attention. Thus
it is only at certain periods and at different moments according
to the various countries t h a t public opinion has concerned itself
at all with scientific management. Before the war, for example,
there was a lively controversy in France on the subject of Taylorism and its application to which we have already referred
incidentally when quoting the opinion of Merrheim. In the
press, in various reviews, and even in a form of theses, we find
evidence of the interest which was displayed a t t h a t time. Owing
to the fact t h a t there were certain political and social considerations in the workers' opposition, this controversy assumed a
really lively character.
I t can hardly be said t h a t the general feeling was in favour of
scientific management at t h a t time, but we would draw attention,
in passing, to the opinion of a Socialist economist, Mr. Fournière,
who in 1913 wrote as follows in the Revue Socialiste:
Scientific organisation does not consist in increasing the workers' effort,
but in directing it, in replacing unintelligent effort by one in which each
element is so ordered as to avoid waste of labour.
The opinion of a man who was particularly alive to the claims
of labour is well worth quoting.
After the war, in connection both with problems of economic
reconstruction and with the application of t h e eight-hour d a y
system, questions concerning scientific management again
attracted public attention, especially in France and Belgium. The
attitude of the organised workers' movement is the acceptance by the
Workers' Group in the Governing Body of the International Labour Office
of the draft agreement between this Organisation, the XXth Century Fund,
and the International Committee for Scientific Management, with a view to
the creation of an institute in Geneva. During the discussion, Mr. Jouhaux
declared, in the name of the Workers' Group, that his colleagues and
he himself saw in the scientific organisation of labour one of the most
legitimate means of safeguarding the eight-hour day, and that they were
therefore prepared to support the new institution.
The reasons which have led the Workers' Group to adopt this attitude
are fully described in the October 1926 issues of the review L'Atelier, which
is directed by Mr. Jouhaux.
— 157 —
controversy was less keen t h a n before, as everyone was agreed
t h a t an effort had to be made to make up for the drop in production. Discussion was practically confined t o the value of American methods, the best means of adapting them t o the national
mentality, the importance t o be attached to the various systems
of piece rates, the training of technicians, the rôle of the head
of the undertaking, etc.
. I n Czechoslovakia public interest was aroused in scientific
management about 1922 on the occasion of the creation of the
Masaryk Academy of Labour, and again in 1924 on the occasion
of the Prague Congress. Here the predominant feeling was of
the need for national organisation to safeguard t h e country from
the disastrous effects of German competition, which had been
stimulated as a result of the depreciation of the mark.
In Russia deliberate efforts were made by t h e Government
to rouse t h e public from their apathy with regard t o the organisation of production. Mention has been made of the propaganda
carried on by the "League of T i m e " and special institutions,
while the press has always devoted particular attention to this
class of question.
To take more recent examples, mention might be made of
Germany, where, since the stabilisation ot the mark, public
opinion—either by means of the press, the utterances of politicians, or the intervention of large industrial employers—has been
brought to take an interest in problems connected with the organisation of production in their general aspect and even in their
more technical aspects. In Italy, under the influence of technicians and employers, a movement has recently been started in
favour of scientific management and is rapidly gaining ground.
In England these questions have come to the fore more t h a n ever
since the recent general strike, owing to the necessity, which was
publicly demonstrated, of reorganising the more important
national industries.
While circumstances have from time to time roused the interest
of the public in the various European countries, this interest has
rarely been concerned with scientific management in itself, and
few efforts have been made, except in Germany and Russia, to
bring out its technical value or its economic or social significance.
Scientific management or, as it is called in certain countries, the
rational organisation of production, has appeared in most cases
either as a weapon of economic defence against foreign competi-
— 158 —
tion, or as a means of stimulating industrial activity after the
depression resulting from various causes, or again—this applies
to the majority of cases—as an example from America which
it might be well t o follow.
I t is this fragmentary and episodic presentation of the subject
t h a t has caused certain impatient technicians to declare t h a t the
public as a whole takes very little interest in scientific management, t h a t it does not realise the importance or significance of the
movement, and t h a t this sometimes makes t h e m despair of the
possibility of ever educating the public. Others, however, are
of opinion t h a t , in view of the importance attached since the warboth in the daily press and in the technical reviews to economic
problems of every description, it would not be difficult to convince
the most ignorant and most indifferent elements of the value
of scientific management.
While it is somewhat difficult to estimate the opinion of the
public, it is less so t o ascertain the opinion oí those who, by reason
of their position, guide or represent it.
There is no need t o revert to the question of the producers'
attitude. Its influence is not so far-reaching as might be
imagined, except perhaps in t h a t the workers' opinion, the
evolution of which we have traced, was formerly so hostile t h a t
many prejudices still exist in the general opinion. I t still remains
to consult the Governments or their representatives, politicians,
economists, and publicists. Lastly, as there is as tendency to give
an ever-increasing social significance t o scientific management,
we considered it desirable t o consult the qualified representatives
of the consumers who, after all, may be said to get the ultimate
benefits resulting from any general organisation of production.
I n order t o ascertain the opinion of the Governments, we
applied to certain officials and heads of departments in the Ministries of National Economy and Labour. We found it impossible
within this special field to discover any real unanimity. Some
of those who were consulted were almost entirely ignorant of
the subject, while others were fully alive to its social signific a n c e 1 ; others, again, were concerned only with the technical
or purely economic aspect of the question. I n this connection
some difference of opinion appears to exist between the officials
1
Cf. more particularly in this connection the articles published in het
Reichsarbeitsblatt.
— 159 —
of the departments of national economy and labour. Generally
speaking, we found more curiosity t h a n real knowledge and,
while considerable interest was as a rule displayed in scientific
management from the national point of view, there was no definite
plan of action, except in Russia, Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Switzerland. I n the last named countries a policy
is being evolved which tends towards Government intervention
in the study of these various problems, on account of their social
importance and economic significance. This intervention generally takes the form of the institution of special services attached
to the departments concerned, as in Russia, Poland, and Switzerland, or the granting of subsidies and official support to special
institutions, as in Germany.
I n various Ministeries of Labour suggestions worthy of note
were put forward concerning the part t h a t factory inspectors
might play in the propagation and the application of these questions. Certain high officials are of opinion—and we have found
this opinion re-echoed among industrial employers and technicians—that provided they were given the necessary training,
factory inspectors might assume, in addition to their present
duties of supervision, t h a t of advising in the m a t t e r of organisation. Without going beyond their proper sphere of competence,
they might, in virtue of their experience, give valuable advice,
not so much with regard t o the best means of utilising technical
material as in the m a t t e r of the best methods of managing the
staff.
One meets with very few definite opinions concerning scientific
management among politicians. Except in Russia, where the
opinion of the Government and t h a t of the Communist P a r t y
are one, scientific management does not actually figure in any
political programme, and this is one of the points upon which its
supporters lay most stress, urging t h a t it is a matter t h a t concerns
everybody. The attitude of the Socialist P a r t y is the most
interesting. The theorists of the party, who are always interested
in questions concerning the general organisation of production,
realise the positive value of methods of scientific management.
Several of them, as we have seen, have publicly adhered t o the
movement. Among the religious parties and Christian trade
unions, the tendency is rather.in favour of scientific management,
although it is impossible to quote any categorical statement on
the subject.
— 160 —
I t was only incidentally in an article in a review t h a t Herriot,
the leader of the French Radical P a r t y , and the author of a
well-known b o o k 1 on the national organisation of production,
spoke in favour of Taylor's system. I n Germany, a number of
politicians have recently expressed themselves more decidedly 2.
Generally speaking, politicians appear to have some hesitation
in giving an opinion, no doubt owing to the recollection which has
been left in the public mind b y the earlier controversies concerning Taylorism, or t o the fact t h a t the object and philosophy
of the scientific organisation of labour have not yet been everywhere clearly expressed.
Publicists do not need to observe the same prudence. Articles
frequently appear in papers of every political colour—quite
apart from any event calculated t o attract the attention of the
public—concerning scientific management as such, or concerning
one of its particular aspects such as wages, methods of work, etc.
Many of these articles are nowadays inspired by information
obtained on the spot in America, or by books dealing with
American methods of work. I n all European countries may be
noted a certain amount of anxiety in regard t o the superiority
of industrial organisation in the United States. Certain authors
are struck by the superiority of the technique in the United
States, others by the well-being of the working classes and the
high wages, others b y the greater output of the American worker,
others by the decrease in the spirit of antagonism between
workers and employers, and others, again, by the success of
employers such as Ford, and by the results obtained b y means
of mass production.
From the economic and social point of view all are agreed t h a t
America is undoubtedly superior to Europe and t h a t if the latter
does not adopt similar methods of work and break away from
routine, it will become more and more difficult for her t o compete
with American products. This anxiety is accompanied by keen
interest in all the processes and methods t h a t have enabled
America t o reach her present high level of production. Some
authors give this as an argument for the constitution of a single
European market, or, a t all events, for the breaking down of
1
Ed. HERRIOT: Créer. 2 Vols. Paris, 1920.
During the last few months declarations in favour of the system have
been made by the Chancellor Luther and the Democrat Deputy, Erkelenz.
2
— 161 —
customs barriers and the development of international agreements ; others are in favour of a social policy directed less towards
class hatred than towards co-operation between all producers,
while others again are in favour of technical improvements.
All, however, regard scientific management as one of the things
which Europe should at once adapt to her own production.
Of the numerous books and newspaper articles urging this
point of view, we shall mention here as examples in view of their
importance and of the notice which they have attracted, in the
case of France, the works and articles of two professors at the
Sorbonne, Cestre and Fernand Hauser; in the case of Germany
and Austria the recent book of the ex-Secretary of State, Julius
Hirsch, Das Amerikanische Wirtschaftswunder ; and in the case
of England the book which we have already mentioned, The Secret
of High Wages, by Bertram Austin and Francis Lloyd.
Scientific management, in its extended form, is thus regarded
by public opinion just as it was at the outset, that is, as an
American export. This standpoint is not unattended by danger.
While technicians, as we have seen, have endeavoured to adapt
scientific management to the national temperament and national
economy and have succeeded in certain spheres, especially in that
of psycho-technology, in obtaining results superior to those
arrived at in America, there is the risk that public opinion may
be led to judge scientific management according to its feeling
towards America at the given moment. And, as is well known,
this feeling varies in the different countries and at different periods
in accordance with a multitude of political, economic and social
reasons. The fear of Europe becoming Americanised has already
become acute in certain countries. Generally speaking, however,
it may be said that the fear of American competition marks the
beginning of wisdom, so far as public opinion is concerned.
As in the case of politicians, so in that of economists, judgment
is on the whole reserved. Economists are acquainted with
scientific management, but the majority of them exhibit a certain
caution and tend to regard it primarily as a technical factor in
the whole body of economic problems. Those who are most
concerned with its social aspects are struck by the criticisms of
labour and confine themselves to reproducing these, mentioning
the replies given in the course of previous controversies but without definitely taking sides. A number of them are concerned
not so much with the method of organising production as with
12
— 162 —
the question as t o whether or not it is wise to increase it. Their
whole outlook is coloured by the fear of Europe becoming over
industrialised. They are not familiar with the essentially
American idea t h a t increased production means increased wellbeing. This is, in m a n y cases, at t h e back of t h e caution which
so many exhibit in regard t o scientific management.
The importance now attached to the teaching of scientific
management in technical schools and faculties, however, is compelling economists t o abandon their reserve and to engage in a more
profound analysis of economic and social repercussions which
the new systems involve. Germany, in particular, affords proof
of this growing interest.
We have, to our great surprise, had great difficulty in obtaining
a definite opinion on scientific management from co-operative
organisations. As producing and distributing concerns they
have the occasion, like all private undertakings, t o apply certain
of these direct methods. Some of the organisations in France,
England, Germany, and Russia have made most interesting
experiments in this direction.
Generally speaking, however, co-operative workers do not yet
appear, except in Russia, to have given a categorical opinion on
the merits of scientific management in so far as it concerns
consumers. We have only met with somewhat vague though
encouraging statements, and opinion appears to us still to be
ill-informed in most of the European countries.
This ignorance is regarded by certain supporters of scientific
management as a peril t o European civilisation ,and this idea is
especially prevalent among those who hold the view -that the
ultimate benefit derived from the general application of the system
should go to society as a whole. If, t h e y allege, the consumer
had a clear view of the increase in well-being, which he would
obtain from scientific management, he would inevitably bring
energetic pressure to bear on producers in order to oblige them
t o reduce their costs of production by improved organisation.
This summary analysis of the opinion of the different circles
leaves one with the impression t h a t a growing interest is being
taken in the question. Education appears to be practically
complete as far as technicians are concerned, and fairly advanced
in the case of employers, while in t h a t of the workers it is tending
— 163 —
to become sufficiently objective to justify the hope t h a t they may
co-operate with producers in promoting the movement for scientific management. As regards t h e general public, while not yet
realising the significance of these problems, it is not entirely
ignorant of them.
The fact t h a t emerges most clearly from this survey is t h a t
there is not yet sufficient liaison between the different circles.
The interest of experts is still too technical, while t h a t of employers
and workers is influenced by considerations which are too different in character for it to be possible, without liaison, .for them
t o determine on what points their efforts should be brought to
bear—not to speak of pursuing a common policy.
This divergence of opinion and interests is the real reason for
the uncertainty t o which we drew attention at the beginning of
this study as to the object and actual substance of scientific
management. Here opinions are unanimous and no matter where
one turns there is a call for greater precision in the definition and
the terms of the principles and programme of scientific management. This desire is strong enough to justify the efforts made
in all countries to bring into touch one with the other the various
circles of which we have spoken, not only in a national b u t also
in an international scheme of things.
V
CONCLUSION
Having reached the conclusion of this enquiry, it now remains
for us to reply to the questions which occasioned it.
Are the forces at the back of the movement for scientific
management in Europe adequate ? Is this movement sufficiently
far advanced? Has the moment come for the creation of an
international institution?
Our reply to all these questions is in the affirmative.
We have passed briefly in review the forces a t the back of the
movement, namely, the institutions which serve as a rallying
point and which are now to be found scattered through every
country. They are increasing in number, their functions are
being defined and their field of action is expanding every day,
while their activities are tending to become co-ordinated. Behind
t h e m is a body of technicians who are steadily increasing in
number and who follow their work and profit by their researches.
While many employers and workers are still on their guard or
indifferent, there are countries in which their interest in questions
of scientific management is rapidly increasing. We have already
mentioned several important employers' organisations which
keep closely in touch with scientific management and endeavour
t o bring its benefits within reach of their members. The workers,
in their turn, are beginning to show anxiety to profit by the
system. The interest of the public is being aroused and in several
countries is reflected in t h a t of the Governments.
These signs would appear to denote an important evolution
in the movement for scientific management in Europe. This
movement, which was originally bound up with a desire to
increase the prosperity of industrial undertakings, and was then
undertaken for purposes of national interest, is now acquiring the
— 165 —
definite status of a factor which is necessary for purposes of
international economic organisation. I t is just this characteristic
which stands out when a comparison is made with the evolution
of the American movement. Coming into being much later, and
held back for a considerable period by psychological factors, the
European movement has blossomed out since the war and has
lead to an infinite variety of examples of application and research.
Governed largely in its earlier days b y economic and social
considerations in the different countries, it now appears t o be
shaping itself into an element of rapprochement and unity between
the European countries.
This phenomenon was quite recently illustrated by the
attitude of the Preparatory Committee for the International
Economic Conference. I t was not mere coincidence t h a t lead the
members of t h a t Committee to mention scientific management
as one of the means calculated to promote the economic reconstruction of Europe and to propose a study of the question.
Circumstances made the choice of this means incumbent on the
financiers, economists, officials, employers and workers who had
met at Geneva. Anxiety to build up general prosperity again is
directing attention to the method best calculated to reduce the
costs of production, t o eliminate waste, and to increase the
purchasing power of the masses—without sacrificing the social
conditions acquired by the workers since the war. The problem
of the economic reconstruction of Europe, which is present in the
minds of all concerned, is calculated to facilitate efforts to reorganise production on more scientific lines. No one realises this
more fully t h a n the Americans, who owe their industrial prosperity to it t o a large extent and are anxious, if only in their own
interests, t h a t the European countries should follow their
example. Abundant literature, afresh institutions and better
informed public opinion—these are the positive forces upon
which the movement for scientific management can count in
Europe.
The movement appears, moreover, to have reached the stage
of maturity. The technical considerations which originally
promoted its development have been extended. Economic and
social tendencies, which are taking on a more concrete form, lend
it further significance. No one now disputes the determining
influence of scientific management on the evolution of social
problems or the need of including the scientific study of the
— 166 —
human factor in the general application of modern methods of
production.
Further, the interest of the collectivity in scientific management is becoming more and more apparent, and its utility from
the point of the consumer and not only from t h a t of the producer
is beginning to be considered.
Moreover, the need is being felt for international co-ordination
between the scattered efforts of the various countries. We
referred in passing to the evidence of this tendency during the last
two years: the international congresses at Prague and Brussels,
the Conference of Lucerne, the constitution of a permanent
international committee, the interest displayed b y the more
important international institutions, the International Labour
Office, the Economic Committee of the League of Nations; the
International Institute of Agriculture, and the International
Chamber of Commerce, not t o speak of the growing sign of a
desire for co-ordination outside the limits of the different countries
which is found in the technical domain in the form of an increasing
tendency to establish contact on the part of the specialists.
I t is not enough, however, to reply in the affirmative. We
would urge the necessity of immediate steps being taken under
proper guidance. There is the risk t h a t the normal development
of the movement for scientific management on international and
social lines may be compromised or delayed b y certain psychological obstacles which cannot be ignored.
There undoubtedly exists in Europe, both among employers
and workers and among the general public, a feeling of opposition as regards the introduction of American methods of work.
There is much talk and much anxiety concerning the danger of
the Américanisation of Europe and the necessity of preserving
European civilisation with r q j industrial traditions and social
conquests.
Even admitting t h a t this feeling is justified, nothing could be
more futile t h a n t o adduce it as an argument for opposing the
adoption in Europe of practices which have won for America
undoubted economic superiority. Those who share this anxiety
might with benefit consider the example of J a p a n . If they
desire to preserve European civilisation, they must realise t h a t
they can only persuade the masses of the superiority of our
civilisation by first procuring for t h e m a state of well-being equal
to t h a t enjoyed by the American workers.
— 167 —
In addition to this sentimental argument, one frequently
hears it stated that scientific management is hardly applicable
in Europe owing to the impossibility of mass production and
distribution as carried out in America, this impossibility being
due at the same time to the smallness of the markets and to the
individualism of Europeans, who are not accustomed to standardised products. As regards the smallness of the markets, there is
a growing feeling in Europe that only one remedy for this now
exists. Many are of opinion that high tariffs, which are due
largely to an anxiety to protect artificial industries, are leading
Europe to her ruin. The talk is nowadays of industrial agreements. The scheme of a single market, on the lines adopted in
the United States, where production and exchanges are governed
only by natural laws, is even beginning to appear to be the only
means calculated to ensure increased and stable production by
means of a reduction in the costs of production and the consequent
increase in the purchasing power of the masses.
As regards individualism, which is opposed to the standardisation of products, it is surely possible to educate consumers and
to show them where their true interests lie. The Americans
have done this. There will be an automatic discrimination
between articles suited to mass production and distribution and
those which call for greater variety in manufacture if their
quality is to be maintained. It is absurd, however, to talk of
individualism in the case of lead pipes or machine tools. Opposition to standardisation is, in many cases, simply a pretext for
disguised protectionism. Moreover, as we have mentioned
incidentally, experts are not of an opinion—and there are cases
of application to prove this—that mass production is a necessary
condition for the successful application of scientific management.
The objections of labour, based as they are upon deep-rooted
and sometimes justifiable mistrust, appear to be more serious.
It is obvious that scientific management cannot be developed
at the expense of the workers. Not only should its generalised
application entail the increased prosperity of the worker in his
capacity as a consumer, but it should, by a proper utilisation of
its aptitudes, increase his interest in his work and satisfy his
sense of professional dignity. Psycho-technical science is sufficiently advanced to-day to guarantee him from excesses. As
regards wages, he has nothing to fear and everything to gain
when these are assessed in accordance with tried experimental
/
— 168 —
methods and under the supervision of his trade union organisation.
There still remains the fear of unemployment, as it has always
been alleged t h a t a reduction in the number of posts is an inevitable consequence of improved organisation. Nevertheless, this
strict formula, which may formerly have been correct, is no longer
so to-day. I n an undertaking which is organised on really scientific lines the work would be distributed according to aptitudes,
and any workers whose services were dispensed with would
systematically be given fresh employment. The workers' organisations should make it their business t o collaborate in the
matter of re-distribution and re-employment. To pass from
the factory to industry, a far-sighted policy would ensure the
worker against the risk of unemployment b y means of general
organisation carried out by easy stages and not with brutal
suddenness. Once this re-organisation has been effected, the
increase in consumption consequent upon the reduction in the
costs of production will constitute the soundest guarantee t h a t
the worker can have for the permanence of his employment.
These various psychological obstacles which stand in the way
of the extension of scientific management, although not actually
decisive, demonstrate the necessity of co-ordinated action in the
matter of research, information, and education. These are the
essential and immediate needs t h a t we have found expressed in
every country and in the most varied circles. I t is in answer t o
these requirements t h a t the International Management Institute
was founded in Geneva on 31 J a n u a r y 1927, thanks to the
common effort of the International Labour Office, the X X t h
Century Fund, and the International Committee for Scientific
Management 1 .
1
For the constitution of the new Institute, see Appendix V, p. 257.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX
I
Definition and Aims of Scientific Management 1
Scientific management is the science which studies the relations between
the different factors in production, and especially those between the human
and the mechanical factors. Its object is to obtain, by the rational utilisation of these various factors, the optimum output. At the present day
it constitutes a separate branch of ordered study with a clearly defined
scope.
J u s t as geography, in studying the relations between the human being and
his physical surroundings, draws on various sciences, such as climatology,
geology, and botany, so the science of management uses the results obtained
from industrial technique, psychology, physiology,. and economics. Like
medicine, it does not merely enquire into the causes of the phenomena it
studies ; it is also a practical science. Its field of experience is extremely
varied, and is continually changing with economic and social conditions,
the state of technical progress, the development of occupations, and national
or individual aptitudes. I t deals with individual cases. On the basis of
numerous daily observations, it draws up the rules and methods which it
advocates. By means of a fuller knowledge of the factors of production, its
aim is gradually to replace industrial empiricism by increasingly exact rules
of conduct.
Scientific management owes its existence as a separate science to the
work of Frederick W. Taylor, whose spirit of scientific investigation and
tenacity of purpose enabled him not only to perfect equipment and improve
processes, but also to devise new methods of directing and economising
human effort. Since his day scientific management has considerably
evolved, and is now no longer to be confused with what was originally known
as "Taylorism." From the time of Taylor to t h a t of Hoover great progress
has been made in America in the study both of technical processes for improving output and of the means of obtaining a rational use of labour power.
1
Extract from the memorandum, entitled Scientific Management in
Europe, presented to the Preparatory Committee of the Economic Con-
ference by the INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE.
— 170 —
I n Europe, especially since the war, similar efforts have been successfully
made. Scientific management long ago overflowed the limits within which
it was originally applied by Taylor, and its activities and doctrines now
cover all departments of the factory, all forms of manufacture, all forms of
economic activity, banking, commerce, agriculture, and the administration
of public services 1.
But to-day, as in Taylor's time, the claim of scientific management to
be considered as a separate science can only be understood if it is constantly
borne in mind t h a t its object is not the improvement of machinery, nor
scientific laboratory work, nor pyscho-physiological research, but rather
the practical utilisation of the results of other sciences with a view to
systematising and improving production.
I t appears particularly necessary to give a clear definition of scientific
management, seeing t h a t its real nature and scope are still frequently
misunderstood. I t is too easily confounded with industrial efficiency,
the elimination of waste, or other similar attempts to improve production,
which are only particular aspects of scientific management properly understood. On the other hand, a tendency is sometimes shown to regard it
as a means of solving all economic problems, without distinction. This
is obviously impossible. But it is natural, in view of the growing interdependence of the factors of production and the increasing complexity of
industrial problems, t h a t a science which studies those problems in all
their various aspects should more and more direct the activities of those who
aim a t economic reorganisation. Already there is in certain countries a
tendency to call scientific management by the more appropriate name of
rational organisation of production, and the various branches of the movement known in Germany as "industrial rationalisation"—standardisation,
industrial concentration, mass production, and distribution—are already
to a large extent borrowing the methods and profiting by the results of
scientific management as defined above.
Understood in this sense, scientific management, in its practical and
theoretical applications, may be sub-divided as follows:
Technique
Production planning ; choice of site and construction of buildings ; arrangement of workshops, choice and lay out of equipment and raw materials,
organisation and maintenance of store-rooms ; transport within the factory ;
supply of materials and tools.
Research and planning offices; routing, use of card indexes, classification,
use of statistics and charts.
Accountancy, costing; purchasing and sales departments; advertising.
1
Mention may be made here of Henri Fayol's doctrine
which has had considerable influence in France.
administrative,
— 171 —
Psycho-Physiology
(a) Psycho-Physiology of the Individual
Time study (by stop-watch); motion study.
Vocational selection; vocational education; study of the functions of
management.
Fatigue study: attention, monotony, absentmindedness.
Study of optimum material, working conditions: improvement of equipment, lighting, heating, ventilation, general workshop hygiene, as affecting
the human factor.
Occupational diseases; safety.
Welfare (housing, transport, co-operative restaurants).
(b) Collective Psychology
Study of the different systems of wages payment, profit sharing and
copartnership.
Industrial relations (study of the various theories and their practical
application).
Personnel department, workers' representation.
Study of methods of collaboration inside and outside the factory, with
a view to improving output.
General Organisation of Production
Study of methods for stabilising production and employment.
Standardisation (normalisation, unification, simplification).
Elimination of waste.
Horizontal and vertical combination: national and international industrial
agreements, cartels, trusts, syndicates; action by Governments, by public
services, by employers' and workers' organisations.
Specialisation; mass production and distribution; study of the general
problems of the distribution of raw materials, the organisation of markets,
transport power, and labour supply.
Of course, each of the problems enumerated above may be considered
from a point of view other than that of scientific management, and lies
within the scope of scientific management only in so far as some question
of analysing the various factors in production and harmonising their mutual
relations arises.
APPENDIX II
A. — Systematic Bibliography of Works and
Articles Recently Published in German on
Scientific Management 1
GENERAL FEATURES
The literature on scientific management, which has been particularly
abundant since the end of the war, continues to increase daily with the
growing interest of the general public. Since 1924 the stability of the
financial markets and the improved business outlook has led to the issue
of a large number of new reviews and periodicals devoted to the subject,
and these are constantly being supplemented by the publicists. The
natural outcome of this has been t h a t the originality of the works has
suffered somewhat, and one frequently finds the same subject treated
several times by the same author or by different authors with but slight
variations.
The only compensation for this repetition is the gradual breaking away
from foreign influences which characterises many of these works. Indeed,
it is most noteworthy t h a t , while in the early days special literature was
almost entirely confined to critical translations of the ideas of Taylor and
Gilbreth, to-day efforts are being made to study the conditions and possibilities of scientific management in Germany itself, although the progress
of the movement abroad is being by no means neglected. That German
authors are fully aware of what is being done in America is proved by the
establishment of close relations with the Ignited States by missions of
enquiry, in which the general public show the liveliest interest, and by the
large number of translations of American works.
The chief distinction between the German publications and those issued
in other countries and especially in the United States is t h a t no indication
of the methods of application is given; but this is merely a result of the
essential difference between the methods of research in use in the two
countries. In Germany efforts have always been directed towards the
establishment of standard or fundamental laws of organisation, from which
suitable methods of application might be deduced for each particular case.
A whole series of general principles has thus been evolved which might
well be described as the algebra of scientific management. The publication
of methods of application is left to the Reichskuratorium für Wirtschaft1
This bibliography was composed a t the end of July 1926 by Miss L.
Rabinovitch.
—- 173 —
lichkeit, which during the last few months has been issuing practical instructions in the form of leaflets. But the large bulk of the literature published
continues to confine itself to a description of the scientific research work
undertaken and the results of cases of application.
An analysis of the more important works published is to be found in the
technical reviews mentioned below, especially in Die Arbeit, Industrielle
Psychotechnik, V. D. I. Zeitschrift, etc.
1.—PERIODICALS
Die Arbeit. A. D. G. B.
Der Arbeitgeber.
Archiv für Elektrotechnik. J . Springer, Berlin.
Archiv für Wärmewirtschaft. V. D. I.-Verlag, Berlin.
Autotechnik. Hektor-Verlag, Berlin.
Der Bauingenieur. J. Springer, Berlin.
Betriebsführung. G. Braun, Karlsruhe.
Betriebstechnik. D. Polytech. Gesellschaft, Leipzig.
Betriebswirfschaftliche Rundschau. G. A. Gloeckner, Leipzig.
Betrieb und Organisation. Hess, Stuttgart.
Deutsche Buchhaltungszeitung. A. S. C.-Verlag, Leipzig.
Der Elektrische Betrieb. Reichsverband der Elektrizitätsabnehmer, e. V.,
Berlin.
Das Geschäft. Carl Heymann's Verlag, Berlin.
Gesundheits-Ingenieur. Oldenburg, München-Berlin.
Gewerkschaftszeitung. A. D. G. B.
Giesserei-Zeitung. Verlag Rud. Mosse, Berlin.
Glückauf. Verlag "Glückauf", Essen.
Haustechnische Rundschau. Marhold, Halle.
Industrielle Psychotechnik. J. Springer, Berlin.
Maschinenbau, V. D. L, Berlin.
Organisation. "Verlag Organisation", Berlin.
Der praktische Maschinen-Konstrukteur. J. J. Arud, Leipzig.
Psychotechnische Zeitschrift. Oldenburg, München-Berlin.
Reichsarbeitsblatt.
Seidels Reklame. Spaeth & Linde, Berlin-Vienna.
Soziale Praxis. Fischer, Jena.
Technik und Wirtschaft. V. D. I.-Verlag, Berlin.
V. D. ¡.-Mitteilungen. V. D. I.-Verlag, Berlin.
V. D. I.-Zeitschrift. V. D. I.-Verlag, Berlin.
Weltwirtschaftliche Nachrichten. Weltwirtschafts-Gesellschaft, Berlin.
Werkstattstechnik. J. Springer, Berlin.
Wirtschaftsdienst. Hamburg, Weltwirtschaftsarchiv.
Zahlungsverkehr. Robert Yürgers, Berlin.
Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie. Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig.
Zeitschrift für Betriebswirtschaft. Industrieverlag Spaeth & Linde, Berlin.
Zeitschrift für handelswissenschaftliche Forschung. G. A. Gloeckner,
Leipzig.
Zeitschrift für Handelswissenschaft und Handelspraxis. C. V. Poeschel,
Stuttgart.
— 174 —
2.—GENERAL QUESTIONS.—DISCUSSION OF METHODS
ACHELIS, Werner. "Die Psychotechnik und ihre Gefahren für den deutschen
Volkscharakter." Dt. Wille, 5. 11. 205-209.
Archiv der Fortschritte betriebswissenschaftlicher Forschung und Lehre.
Poeschel, Stuttgart, 1924. (1925 to appear.)
BECHTOLD, Franz Anton. "Taylor und Ford." Kohle und Erz, 22. 834-838.
BERNAYS, Marie. "Frauenfabrikarbeit und Taylor-System." In Neue
Bahnen, 53. 15/16. 50.
BODE, Carl. Freie Bahn dem deutschen Unternehmergeist. Organisationstechnik. Bode, Oerlinghausen, 1919.
BOOM, Emil van den. "Industrieprobleme." (Kartelle—Rationalisierung.)
Soz. Kultur, 46. 1/3. 1-13.
BORST, H. Mechanisierte Industriearbeit. Muss sie im Gegensatz zu freier
Arbeit Mensch und Kultur gefährden? Springer, Berlin, 1925.
"Wissenschaftliche Betriebsorganisation, Taylor-System und Sozialpolitik, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Kleinbetriebs." SonderDruck : Evangelist-Sozial, 1914. Willisch, Chemnitz.
BORST, Hugo, MATT, Heinz. "Kriegsbeschädigte und Taylor-System."
Gemeinnützige Blätter für Hessen-Nassau.
BRAUER, Th. Produktionsfaktorarbeit. Erwägung zur modernen Arbeitslehre. Fischer, Jena, 1925.
"Gedanken zum Problem der Rationalisierung." Wirtschaftswissensch.
V. J . H. 2. 1. 25-36.
BÜRGER. Die deutsche Industrie und Ford. Vortrag, Dresden, 1925. Gesellschaft z. Verbreitung volkswirtschaftl. Kenntnisse.
CHRISTIAN. "Arbeitswissenschaft." Zeitschrift für ärztl. soz. Versorgungswesen, 10. 361-375.
DIEHL. "Die sozialpolitische Bedeutung des technischen Fortschritts."
Jahresbericht für Nationalökonomie, 1909.
DODEN. Gewerbelehre, Organisation und Rechnungsführung in Gewerbebetrieben. Oldenburg, Munich, 1920.
"Bericht über die 54. Hauptversammlung des Vereins deutscher Ingenieure." (Vorträge von James Mapes DODGE und von Prof. SCHLESINGER
über das Taylor-System.) Siehe Technik und Wirtschaft. August 1913,
501-568.
DODGE, James. (Vortr. gehalten in Leipzig.) Springer, Berlin, 1913.
DORST, Otto. "Arbeitsreform nach dem Kriege." I n Vortrupp, 7. 17.
330-335.
EHLERS, H. "Das Problem der Leistungssteigerung durch Arbeitsgestaltung oder durch Menschengestaltung?" Braunkohle, 23. 559-561.
ERDMANN, Rolf. Grundlagen einer Organisationslehre. Gloeckner, Leipzig,
1921.
ERMANSKI. Wissenschaftliche Betriebsorganisation und
Taylor-System.
3. H. Dietz, Berlin, 1925.
EULENBURG, Franz. ' 'Neue Wege der Wirtschaft. ' ' Der Neue Geist, Leipzig,
1918.
FEILER, A. "Das laufende B a n d " (als Prinzip der Arbeitsrationalisierung).
I n Der eiserne Steg. 1926. 157-166.
FISCHER, Richard. "Grundplan für den Aufbau der Betriebsorganisation."
Zeitschrift für Gesellschaftswesen, 34. 12. 431-444.
FREISLER, Roland. Grundsätzliches über die Betriebsorganisation. Fischer,
Jena, 1922.
— 175 —
FRENZ. Kritik des Taylor-Systems. Springer, Berlin, 1920.
GERHARDT, Johannes. Arbeitsrationalisierung und persönliche Abhängigkeit.
I. C. B. Mohr, Tübingen, 1925.
VON GOTTL-OTTILIENFELD, Fr. "Wirtschaft und Technik." I n Grundriss
der Sozialökonomik.
Fordismus? Fischer, Jena, 1924. 2. Auflage 1925.
HÄNCHEN, R. Das Förderwesen der Werkstättenbelriebe. Sein gegenwärtiger
Stand. Ausschuss für wirtschaftl. Fertigung, Berlin, 1923.
Was will Taylor? "Die arbeitsparende Betriebsführung" von W. H E L L MICH, und kritische Bemerkungen über das "Taylor-System" von E . H U H N .
V. D. I.-Ausschuss für wirtschaftl. Fertigung, Druckschrift 3, Berlin, 1919.
HELLPACH. "Die Arbeitsteilung im geistigen Leben." Archiv für Sozialwissenschaften. 1912-1913.
HELLWIG, Alexander. "Organische Betriebsdisposition." Z. / . Betriebswirtschaft. 3. 1. 49-57.
HERKNER, Heinrich. "Arbeit und Arbeitsteilung." I n Grundriss der
Sozialökonomik.
Die Fabrik in Wirtschaft und Technik. Quelle & Meyer, 1925.
HERMANN, J . F . u. MAURITZ, H . "Beschäftigungsgrad und Betriebs-
kontrolle." Z.f. Betriebswirtschaft, 3. 2.109-115.
HIRSCH, J . "Die überlegene Arbeitsorganisation Amerikas."- Soziale
Praxis, 34. 33. 720-722.
Das amerikanische Wirtschaftswunder. Fischer, Berlin, 1926.
HULTZSCH, Hellmut. "Eine Studienreise zu F o r d . " Sachs. Industrie,
21. 19. 525-529.
ISAAC, Alfred. Betriebswirtschaftliche Statistik. Spaeth & Linde, Berlin,
1925.
Die Entwicklung der wissenschaftlichen Betriebswirtschaftslehre in
Deutschland. Spaeth & Linde, Berlin, 1923.
JUSTUS. Kaufmännische Betriebsführung und Organisation. Herausg. von
der Zentralgewerkschaftskommission des Deutschen Gewerkschaftsbundes
in der Tschechoslowakei. Reichenberg, 1922.
KLAGES, Ferdinand. Das moderne Arbeitssystem. Potsdam und Leipzig,
1920.
KLEINSCHMIDT,'Edmund. "Der Fordismus in der Praxis." Der Kaufmann
in Wirtschaft u. Recht, 5. 1. 11-19.
KÖTTGEN, Carl. "Staatliche und privatwirtschaftliche Aufgaben der
deutschen Rationalisierung. " Technik und Wirtschaft, 18. 5. 133-136.
"Das Ford'sche System." Arbeitgeber, 15. 9. 201-203.
Das wirtschaftliche Amerika. V. D. I.-Verlag, Berlin, 1925.
KRAUSS, Hans. Betriebsrat und Arbeitswissenschaft. (Arbeitswissenschaftliche Besprechung an der Berliner Betriebsräteschule.) Verlagsgesellschaft
für Erziehung, Berlin-Fichtenau, 1922.
"Arbeitswissenschaft." In Archiv der Fortschritte betriebswirtschaftlicher Forschung und Lehre. Poeschel, Stuttgart, 1925,1. 124-147.
KROMER, Carl, Th. Grundriss technischer wirtschaftlicher Probleme der
Gegenwart. Springer, Berlin, 1925.
KRONENBERG, Max. "Arbeitsteilung bei Massen- oder Reihenfertigung."
Betrieb, 2. 3. 78-82.
KÜHLMANN, C. E . von. "Das Taylor-System in seiner Bedeutung für den
Sozialismus." Sozialist, 5. 17. 238-251.
LANG, R. U. HELLPACH, W. Gruppenfabrikation.
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LANG, Otto. Internationale technische Arbeitsgemeinschaft für wissenschaftliche Wirtschaftsordnung. Anzengruber-Verlag, Vienna, 1925.
— 176 —
LEHMANN, M. R. "Zur Systematik der Industriebetriebslehre. "Zeitschrift
für Betriebswirtschaft, 2. 3. 250-260.
LIEFMANN, Robert. "Wirtschaftlichkeit und Gewinn." Zeitschrift für
Betriebswirtschaft, 2. 2. 140-148.
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der sozialpsychologischen Seite des modernen Grossbetriebs und der psychophysischen Einwirkungen auf den Arbeiter. Reinhardt, Munich, 1912.
LUSERKE, Johannes. Rationelle Betriebstechnik. (Grundlagen der wissensch.
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und
Verkehrslehre. Springer, Berlin, 1925.
MAYER, Max. Betriebswissenschaft. Springer, Berlin, 1926.
MODE, W. "Ergebnisse der industriellen Psychotechnik." I n Praktische
Psychologie, 1921, VII.
MOSES, F . "Amerikanische Geschäftsmethoden." Zeitschrift für Betriebswirtschaft, 2. 1. 73-81.
MÜLLER, Otto. Elemente der Betriebswissenschaft. C. Heymann, Berlin, 1923.
MÜLLER, G, "Die Grenzen der Rentabilität bei der Rationalisierung von
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ZUR NEDDEN, Franz. Energiepolitik und
Produktionskosten-Verminderung.
Verlag Dt. Kohlen Zeitung, Berlin, 1924.
NICKLISCH, Heinrich. Wirtschaftliche Betriebslehre. Poeschel, Stuttgart,
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OBERST, Oskar. Betriebsorganisation. Genossensch.-Verlag, Berlin, 1922.
P A P E , Ernst. Wie studiert man Betriebswissenschaftslehre? Blazek & Bergmann, Frankfurt a. M., 1922.
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PEISER, Herbert. "Fragen zur Produktionssteigerung im Lichte Ford'scher
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Der Einfluss des Beschäftigungsgrades auf die industrielle Kostenentwicklung. Springer, Berlin, 1924.
PLENGE, Johann. Drei Vorlesungen über allgemeine Organisationslehre.
Baedecker, Essen, 1919.
POLLITZER, Hans. "Die Amerikanisierung wissenschaftlicher Betriebe."
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PONTOW, Ludwig. Die betriebswirtschaftliche Organisation in Speditionsgrossbetrieben. Springer, Berlin, 1922.
POTHMANN, W. "Grundzüge wissenschaftlicher Betriebsführung." Braunkohle, 24. B. 309-318.
PRÄTZEL, Oswald. Von der Fabrik-Organisation. Westermann, Braunschweig, 1919.
PRELINGER, Wolfgang. "Neue Wege der Betriebstechnik." Edeka Bundschau. 18. 25. 1114-1117.
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— 177 —
R I E B E , A. "Organisatorische Beobachtungen aus amerikanischen Betrieben." Organisation, 27. 5. 177-181.
R I E D E L , Johannes (Herausg.). Arbeitskunde : Grundlagen, Bedingungen
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Teubner, Leipzig u. Berlin, 1925.
RIEPPEL, Paul. Ford-Betriebe und Ford-Methode. R. Oldenburg, Munich
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SEUBERT. AUS der Praxis des Taylor-Systems mit eingehender Beschreibung
seiner Anwendung bei der Tabor Manufacturing Company in Philadelphia.
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SINNER, Georg. Betriebswissenschaften. Berliner V. D. I., 1920.
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— 178 —
SORGE. "Über das technische Unterrichtswesen in Frankreich." Z. d. V.
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W I T T E , J. M. "Frank Bunker-Gilbreth." Betriebswirtsch. Rundschau, 1.
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"Die Kernprobleme der amerikanischen und europäischen Arbeitswissenschaft unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Russlands." Belriebswirtschaftl. Rundschau, 1. 12. 277-281.
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Berlin, 1921.
3.—HISTORICAL ARTICLES ON T H E MOVEMENT ABROAD
BAUMGARTEN, Franziska. Arbeitswissenschaft und Psychotechnik in Russland. R. Oldenburg, Munich-Berlin, 1924.
BABIN-KORENJ; B. "Die arbeitswissenschaftliche Bewegung in der
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— 179 —
4.—OPINIONS
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WALCHER, Jakob. "Ford oder Marx." Die prakt. Lösung der sozialen
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5.—PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Engineering, Foundries, Motor and Motor-Car Works,
Shipbuilding, Electrical and Heating Apparatus
AHRENS, Werner. "Aufgaben und Ziele der Massenfertigung" (unter
besonderer Berücksichtigung der Feinmechanik). Technik und Wirtschaft,
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20. 23. 293-295.
BLEIBTREU, Hermann. "Wesen und Betrieb amerikanischer Eisenhüttenwerke. Hüttenwerksanlagen und ihre Organisation. Betriebswirtschaftliche
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GEIGER, C. (Herausg.) Handbuch der Eisen- und Stahlgiesserei. G. Springer,
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HALL, Herbert W. Selbstkostenberechnung und moderne Organisation von
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HEIDEBROEK, E. Industriebetriebslehre. (Die wirtschaftstechnische Organisation des Industriebetriebes mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Maschinenindustrie.) Springer, Berlin, 1923.
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9. 11. 206-207; 13. 247-248; 14. 270-271; 15. 295-296.
HORNEMEIER, Emil. Die Ford Motor Company. Ihre Organisation und ihre
Methoden. List, Leipzig, 1925.
HöTKENS,Thile. "Die kaufmännische Organisation einer Maschinenfabrik. ' '
Organisation, 19. 23. 486-488.
H U H N . "Die Anwendungsmöglichkeiten neuer amerikanischer Arbeitsmethoden im deutschen Werkzeugmaschinenbau."
Maschinenbauwirtschaft,
4. 11. 546-548.
LAUFER, A. Die moderne Betriebsorganisation in mittleren Maschinen- '
fabriken und ihre Einführung. Jänecke, Leipzig, 1914.
LAUFFER, Adolf. Die wirtschaftliche Arbeitsweise in den Werkstätten der
Maschinenfabriken, ihre Kontrolle und Einführung mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Taylor-Verfahrens. Springer, Berlin, 1919.
"Lien, Otto. Zeitgemässe Leitungeiner
BetriebswerkzeugmachereiundInstandhaltungsabteilung im allgemeinen Maschinenbau. (Abbildung, Tabellen, Formulare.) C. Hackebeil, A. G., Berlin, 1925.
MEVENBERG, Friedrich. Einführung in die Organisation von Maschinenfabriken mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Selbstkostenberechnung. Springer,
Berlin, 1919.
Ueber die Eingliederung der Normungsarbeit in die Organisation
einer Maschinenfabrik. Springer, Berlin, 1924.
MÜLLER, Hans. Untersuchungen über den Begriff der Produktivität in der
— 180 —
Sozial- und Betriebswissenschaft mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Organisation der mechanischen Werkstatt der Maschinenindustrie. Otto, Darmstadt, 1917.
MÜLLER, Walter. Wissenschaftliche Betriebsführung, ihre Einführung und
Durchführung in einem Betriebe der Elberfelder Kleineisenindustrie. Greven,
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NEUMANN, E . "Eine neuzeitliche Automobil-Giesserei" (Fordsche Giesserei-Anlage am River Rouge.) Z. Bl. der Hütten- und Walzwerke, 29.
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5. 4.
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RUMMEL, Kurt. Erhöhung der Wirtschaftlichkeit in den technischen Betrieben
der Grosseisenindustrie. Verlag Stahleisen, Düsseldorf, 1926.
SCHLESINGER, Georg. Wirtschaftliches Schleifen, Springer, Berlin, 1921.
103 pp.
—•— Die Normung der Gewindesysteme. Normenausschuss d. deutschen
Industrie, Berlin, 1922.
(Herausg.). Berichte des Versuchsfeldes für Werkzeugmaschinen an
der technischen Hochschule Berlin. Springer, Berlin.
"Untersuchung von Spreizringkupplungen." I n Forschung und
Werkstatt. Springer, Berlin, 1916.
SCHLESINGER und K U R R E I N , Max. Schmierölprüfung
für
den
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SCHLIPKRÖTER, Max. "Wirtschaftlichkeit neuzeitlicher Hochofengaseinrichtungen im Ruhr- und Minetten-Bezirk." Stahl und Eisen, 42. 8. 285-290;
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SIEGRIST, M., BORK, F . Die moderne Vorkalkulation in Maschinenfabriken.
Handbuch zur Berechnung der Bearbeitungszeiten an Werkzeugmaschinen.
M. Krayn, Berlin, 1922.
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WEGELEBEN, Fritz. Die Rationalisierung im deutschen Werkzeugmaschinenbau ; dargestellt an der Entwicklung der Ludwig Loewe A.- G. Berlin. Springer,
Berlin, 1924.
WERNER, Siegfried. "Die Grundlagen für die Anwendung betriebswissenschaftlicher Verfahren in der Giesserei." Stahl und Eisen, 38. 48. 1097.
WIDMER, M. Der wirtschaftliche Aufbau der elektrischen Maschine. Springer,
Berlin, 1918.
WOLFENSBERGER, Fritz. Organisation der Maschinenfabrik. Beitrag zur
Betriebslehre. V. D. I.-Verlag, Berlin, 1925.
Building and Public Works
AGATZ, A. Organisation und Betriebsführung der Betontiefbaustellen,
Springer, Berlin, 1923.
APPEL, Emil. "Wissenschaftliche Betriebsführung, unter besonderer
Berücksichtigung der sozialen Baubetriebe." I n Soziale
Bauwirtschaft,
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BALTZER. "Typisierung der Kleinwohnungsbauten." Mitt. über Wohnungswesen, 10. 9. 34-36.
LEINER. "Wirtschaftlichkeitsuntersuchungen beim Wasserkraft- und
Kraftwasserstrassenausbau." (Vortrag.) Tiefbau, 35. 87. 368-369; 88.
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— 181 —
MICHEL. "Das Taylor-System im Hochbau." Aligera. Industrie- und
Gew.-Zeitung, 1919. 24. 12.
SCHIIADER, Fritz. Praktische Preisermittlung sämtlicher Hochbauarbeijien,
Ermittlung der Arbeitszeiten und des Materialverbrauches in Goldmarkpreisen
für...
sowie der verschiedenen Mörtel- und Betonmischungen und überschlaglicher Baukostenermittlung. Geissler, Berlin, 1925.
SCHULTZE, R. W. "Arbeitswissenschaftliche und psychotechnische Untersuchungen im Baubetriebe." Baugilde, 7.14. 962-966; und in Tiefbau, 38. 66.
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Mines and Quarries
BERGHEIM, K. und TAMM.A. "Ergebnisse der zahlenmässigen Erfassung
des Arbeitsvorganges auf den Gruben der Gewerkschaft Eisenzecherzug."
Glückauf, 62. 5. 133-140; 6. 167-173.
EHLERS. "Der Tagebaubetrieb und die rationelle Betriebsführung."
Braunkohle, 23. 35. 649-651.
HERBIG und MÄNICKE. "Taylors 'Wissenschaftliche Betriebsführung'
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KEGEL. "Anwendung der wissenschaftlichen Betriebsführung auf den
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LEHMANN, M. R. Das Rechnungswesen auf Bleihütten. Eine wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Studie. Ehering, Berlin, 1921.
R O D E , Otto. "Das Arbeitsbureau im Baubetriebe." Soz. Bauwirtschaft,
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SIEBEN, K. "Umriss und Erfolgsmöglichkeiten einer wissenschaftlichen
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T e x t i l e s a n d Clothing
BINNS, H. "Psychotechnik im Wollhandel." Industr. Psychotechnik, 2.
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EICKE, Karl. Kaufmännische Organisation und Verrechnungswesen in der
Textil-Industrie. Staate-Verlag, Barmen-Elberfeld, 1925.
KUAIS, Paul. Textilindustrie. (Technische Fortschrittsberichte.) Steinkopff,
Dresden u. Leipzig, 1924.
MAUER, Bernhard. Die deutsche Herrenkonfektion. (Organisation und
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STERN, Siegbert. " I s t das Taylor-System für die deutsche Textü- und
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T r a n s p o r t and Forwarding Industries
BRIX, Otto. "Das Taylor-System für die Seeschiffahrt." Hansa, 56. 43.
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DÖRFEL, Franz. "Die Verkehrswissenschaft im Rahmen der Betriebswirtschaftslehre." In Entwicklung der Betriebswirtschaftslehre, 63-80. Weiss,
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DURING, V. Die Organisation der Arbeit im Hamburger Hafen. O. Meissmer,
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— 182 —
H E Y N I G , W . "Vergleichung der Transportkosten bei verschiedenen
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Various Industries
BOBE, Carl. "Wissenschaftliche Betriebsführung in der Möbelindustrie."
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HELLER, Karl. Taylorische Grundsätze in einer englischen Schokoladefabrik. R. Lotties, Vienna-Leipzig, 1924.
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Agriculture and Forestry
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— 183 —
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— 184 —
Commerce, Banking, and Insurance
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Artisans
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6.—OPERATIONS
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—— Einführung in die Fabrikbuchhaltung. Spaeth & Linde, Berlin, 1925.
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PIESCHEL, Ernst. Die Kalkulation
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"Grundsätzliches zur Organisation der Kostenermittlung." Z. / .
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Purchasing and Sales Departments—Advertising
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7.—PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
General Principles
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14
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Vocational E d u c a t i o n — S t u d y of the Rôle of the E m p l o y e r — S t u d y
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•
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Ueber Eignungsprüfungen für Uhrmacherlehrlinge. Verlag des Zentralverbandes der deutschen Uhrmacher, Halle, 1924.
GLÄSEL. "Ueber den Einfluss des Alters auf die Eignungsprüfungen zum
Lokomotivführerberuf." Verkehrstechn. Woche, 19. 1. 7-8.
GOLDBECK. "Begabungsirrtümer und Berufsberatung." Geisteskultur und
Volksbildung, H . 4-6. Herausg. : Comenius-Gesellschaft, 1922.
— 206 —
GRÜNBAUM-SACHS. "Fortschritte der psychologischen Eignungsprüfung
mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Frauenberufe." Soz. Praxis, 34. 45.
1005-1007; 46. 1037-1041.
HANSEN. "Die Berücksichtigung der Ergebnisse von Leistungsprüfungen
auf landwirtschaftlichen Ausstellungen." I n Zwölf Vorträge... auf dem
Lehrgange der Tierzuchtinspektoren in Wesel. Parey, Berlin, 1922.
HEINITZ, Wilh. Vorstudien über die psychologischen Arbeitsbedingungen
des Maschinenschreibens. ("Schriften zur Psychologie der Berufseignung und
des Wirtschaftslebens," H. 4.) Barth. Leipzig, 1918.
HILDEBKANDT, H. "Psychotechnische Erfolgskontrollen in der mechanischen Industrie." Industr. Psychoiechnik, 1. 9. 291-294.
HUTH, Albert. Die Münchner Eignungsprüfungen für Buchdrucker und
Schriftsetzer ("Schriften zur Psychologie der Berufseignung und des Wirtschaftslebens," H. 21.). Barth, Leipzig, 1922.
HYLLA, E . Die Bedeutung der Begabungsforschung für die Berufsberatung.
Julius Beltz, Langensalza, 1922.
JAHN, M. "Psychologische Eignungsprüfungen für Verwaltungsanwärter."
Kommunales Echo, 55. 37.
KLOCKENBEEG, Erich. "Beiträge zur Psychotechnik der Schreibmaschine
und ihrer Bedienung." I n Industr. Psychotechnik, 1. 7/8. 209-246.
KNOFF, P . "Berufsberatung und deren Organisation." Staats- u. Selbstverwaltung, 3. 3. 51-57; 4. 76-79.
KONER, Raoul. Betriebswissenschaftliche Untersuchung über die Arbeitsfähigkeit amputierter Arbeiter. Druck von Herberger, Schwerin, 1914.
KBAIS, Dora. Eignungsprüfungen
bei der Einführung von weiblichen
Ersatzkräften im Stuttgarter Buchdruckgewerbe. ("Schriften zur Psychologie
der Berufseignung und des Wirtschaftslebens," H. 3.) Barth, Leipzig, 1918.
KRETJSCH, Max von. "Moderne Personalauswahl. Berücksichtigung der
Handschriftspsychologie." Produktion, 2. 65-69. 1925.
KURTH, Bruno. "Zur Berufseignungsprüfung der Versicherungsagenten."
Z.f. d. gesamte Versich.-Wiss., 25. 2. 196-200.
LAHY; J . M. "Psychotechnische Untersuchungen über das Maschinenschreiben." Industr. Pmjchotechnik, 2. 5. 142-155.
LÄMMEL, Rud. Intelligenzprüfung
und psychologische
Berufsberatung.
157 S. Selbstverlag, Meilen, 1922. 2. Aufl., 193 S. R. Oldenburg, Munich,
1923.
LAZAR, E . u. TREMEL, F . "Berufsberatung für handwerksmässige Ge-
werbe." Z.f. Kinderschutz, 14. 8/9. 146-151.
LIEBENBERG, Richard. Die Berufsberatung der Schüler und Schülerinnen
höherer Lehranstalten. Simion, Berlin, 1922.
"Der gegenwärtige Stand der Berufsberatung unter besonderer
Berücksichtigung des weiblichen Geschlechtes." Jahrbuch für Frauenarbeit.
Verb. d. weibl. Handels- und Büroangestellten, Berlin, 1925.
Berufsberatung. Methode und Technik. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig,
1925.
LIEBMANN, H. "Die psychotechnische Eignungsprüfung der Metallhandwerkerlehrlinge bei der Badischen Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik, Ludwigshafen
a. Rhein." Werk-Ztg. d. Bad. Anilin- u. Sodafabrik, Ludwigsh. a. Rh.,
13, 9. 130-133.
LIPMANN, Otto. Die Berufseignung der Schrifsetzer. ("Schriften zur Psychologie der Berufseignung und des Wirtschaftslebens," H. 3. Barth, Leipzig,
1918.
"Die für einige Handwerke bedeutungsvollen psychischen Eigenschaften und ihre Erkennung." Arbeitsnachweis in Deutschland,5. 6. 108112.
Die psychotechnische Eignung zum Funkentelegraphisten. ("Schriften
— 207 —
zur Psychologie der Berufseignung und des Wirtschaftslebens," H. 3.)
Barth, Leipzig, 1919.
Berufseignung, Berufswahl, Berufsberatung. Siegfried Seemann,
Berlin, 1922.
LYSINSKI, E . "Die Erforschung der Arbeits- und Berufseignung." Z. / .
Handelswiss. u. Handelspraxis, 11. 10/12. 203-210.
MENNE, Otto. "Die Berufsberatung auf der Tagung des Deutschen
Gewerbesehulverbandes zu Frankfurt a.M. "Ar beit und Beruf, 1.10. 394-397.
MOEDE, W. "Die Arten der Eignungsprüfung." Werkstattstechnik, 16. 18.
521-530.
"Die psychotechnische Eignungspmfung des industriellen Lehrlings." Praktische Psychologie, 1. 1/2. 6-18.
PiOBKOwsKi, Curt. Beiträge zur psychologischen Methodologie der wirtschaftlichen Berufseignung. J . A. Barth, Leipzig, 1915. 2. Aufl. 1919.
POPI'ELKEUTER, Walter. Wissenschaftliche Begutachtung von Arbeitern und
Angestellten in Grossbetrieben. Vortrag. Verlag Stahleisen, Düsseldorf, 1925.
Allgemeine methodische Richtlinien der praktisch-psychologischen
Begutachtung. A. Kriner, Leipzig, 1923.
REINHOLD, W. "Berufswahl und Gärtnerei." Arbeit und Beruf, 1. 7.
265-268.
R I E S S , L. W. 'Eignungsprüfungen für landwirtschaftliches Personal."
Landarbeit, 2. (Beilage z. Dt. Landw. Presse) 1. 15-16.
ROCKE, Paul. Zur Aufklärung und Berufsberatung über die kaufmännische
Lehre. Handelskammer, Hannover, 1919.
R U F E R , W. "Ueber die Organisation und Bewährung der Eignungsprüfung
der Fabrik der Osram-Kommanditgesellschaft, G. m. b. H . " Industr.
Psychotechnik, 3. 2. 35-46.
"Ueber die Anwendung psychotechnischer Verfahren bei der
Auswahl von Büroangestellten." Staats- u. Selbstverwaltung, 6. 15. 433-436.
R U P P , Hans. "Statistik über Eignungsprüfungen bei den öffentlichen
Berufsberatungsstellen Deutschlands." Reichsar
beitsblatt,N.F.6.8.133-136.
"Wie entwickelt man psychologische Eignungsprüfungen?" In
Betrieb, 4. 4. 96-105.
"Eignungsprüfungen." In Hütte, Taschenbuch für Betriebsingenieure. (Herausg. vom Akad. Verein " H ü t t e " E. V. u. H . Schauch.) 2. Aufl.
Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, 1924.
—— "Methodik der psychologischen Eignungsprüfungen." I n Arzt und
Berufsberatung. Simion, Berlin, 1922.
SACHS, Hildegard. Psychologie und Berufsberatung. Julius Beltz, Langensalza, 1925.
"Die Unternehmer als Träger der experimentellen Eignungspsychologie." Dtsche Arbeitsgeber-Ztg., 21. 37. Beiblatt.
"Psychologische Berufseignungsprüfungen an Frauen." In Jahrbuch
für Frauenarbeit, 1924, 7-22. Verb. d. Weibl. Handels- u. Büro-Angestellten,
Berlin-Wilmersdorf.
SCHACKWITZ, Alex. Ueber psychologische Berufseignungsprüfungen
für
Verkehrsberufe. Springer, Berlin, 1920.
SCHNEIDER, A. "Eignungsprüfung und Erfolgskontrolle in einem Grossbetriebe der Elektroindustrie." Industr. Psychotechnik, 2. 4. 108-118.
SCHULTE, R. W. "Der praktische Psychologe." I n Reichsarbeitsverwaltung
und Landesberufsamt Sachsen-Anhalt. (Herausg.) Berufskundliche Unterlagen für die Berufsberatung. Akademische Berufe. 3. Aufl. 1925.
SCHWEICKERT, Hans. Eignungsprüfungen für den Kriminaldienst.
Anleitung mit Aufgaben und Uebungsbeispielen. A. W. Hayn's Erben, Berlin, 1923.
SKATSCH, R. ''Lebensalter, Berufsleistung und Eignungsprüfung. ' ' Industr.
Psychotechnik, 2. 3. 90-91.
— 208 —
STÄ3LER, F . Vom Beruf und von den Berufen. 4. Aufl. Kohlhammer,
Stuttgart, 1923.
STREN, Erich. Die Feststellung der psychischen Berufseignung und die
Schule. Leipzig, 1921.
STERN, William. \" Veranstaltungen und Veröffentlichungen zur Psychologie der Berufsberatung in Deutschland." Z. / . pädag. Psychologie, 18,
11/12. 433-442.
Ueber eine psychologische Eignungsprüfung für Strassenbahnfahrerinnen. ("Schriften zur Psychologie der Berufseignung und des Wirtschaftslebens," Ht. 2.) Barth, Leipzig, 1918.
STETS, Walter. "Zur Frage der Angliederung der Berufsberatung und der
Lehrstellenvermittlung." Soz. Praxis, 31. 2. 51-54.
ULRICH, Marthe. Die psychologische Analyse der höhern Berufe. ("Schriften
zur Psychologie der Berufseignung und des Wirtschaftslebens," H . 5.)
Barth, Leipzig, 1918.
Berufswahl und Berufsberatung. Trowitzsch, Berlin, 1919.
WACKERZAPP. "Ueber Berufsberatung, insbesondere in ländlichen Kreisen." Z.f. Selbstverwaltung, 8. 2. 31-35.
W E I G L , FRANZ. Berufsanalysen
als Grundlage einer psychologisch
und
pädagogisch eingestellten praktischen Berufsberatung. Kösel & Pustet, München, 1926.
"Ausbau der Einrichtungen für Berufsberatung." Glaube u. Arbeit,
I. 3. 113-124.
"Psychologische Methoden zur Feststellung der Berufseignung."
Glaube u. Arbeit, I. 4. 173-181.
W E I S S , Rudolf. "Berufsberatung und Lehrstellenvermittlung." Jugendfürsorge, 6. 24-32.
W E I S S , Fritz. "Die psychotechnische Eignungsprüfung unter besonderer
Berücksichtigung der Textilindustrie." Der Deutsche Leinenindustrielle, 43.
1. 8-9.
WINCKLERJA. "Eignungsprüfung im Kleinbauwerk der Siemens-SchuckertWerke, G. m. b. H . (Prüfung, Auswertung, Bewertung.)" Industr. Psychotechnik, 2. 9. 257-276.
ZWIEDINECK-SÜDENHORST, von. "Veranlagung oder Schulung." Beitrag
zur Frage der Besetzung "leitender Stellen". Technik u. Wirtschaft, 11. 5,
145-152.
Berufsberatung, Berufsauslese, Berufsausbildung. Hobbing, Berlin, 1925.
Die bergbaulichen Berufe. (Beiträge z. Berufskunde.) Bochum i. W., Landesarbeitsamt. Abt. Bergbau, Westfalen u. Lippe, 1921.
Die praktische Berufsberatung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der
körperlich oder geistig Anormalen und Erwerbsbeschränkten. Herausg. vom
Landesamt f. Arbeitsvermittlung. Abt. Berufsberatung. Arbeitsministerium
des Freistaates Sachsen. Dresden, 1922.
8.—GENERAL ORGANISATION OF PRODUCTION 1
Standardisation—Unification
BiAGOscH, Heinrich. Normung, Typung, Spezialisierung in der Papietmaschinenindustrie. Springer, Berlin, 1924.
BÜCHER, Karl. "Spezialisierung, Normalisierung, Typisierung." Z. / . d.
ges. Staatswiss., 76. 4. 427-439.
i We have purposely omitted from the present bibliography all works and articles on
industrial concentration. In this connection there is a very abundant German literature;
the main works have, however, already been mentioned in § 2.
— 209 —
D. I. N. Normblattverzeichnis. Beuthverlag, Berlin, 1925.
DOBBELER, C. v. "Normung von Modellreihen." Technik und Wirtschaft,
18. 3. 77-82.
FISCHER, VENTZKI U. PUTLIK. Mitt. des Verbandes
Landwirtschaftlicher
Maschinen, 10. 15. 3-13.
FISCHER, Gustav. "Einheitsformen für landwirtschaftliche Maschinen."
I I I . Landwirtzeitung, 38. 49-50. 207-208.
FRIEDRICH; Adolf. "Produktionssteigerung durch Typung." Dt. Arbeitgeber-Ztg, 24. 31.
GARBOTZ, Georg. Vereinheitlichung in der Industrie. Die geschichtliche
Entwicklung, die bisherigen Ergebnisse, die technischen und wirtschaftlichen
Grundlagen. Oldenbourg, München-Berlin, 1920.
HELLMICH. "Normalisierungsbestrebungen in der Papierindustrie."
Wochenblatt für Papierfabrikation, 49. 33. 1607-1610.
HUMMEL. "Vom Wesen der Normung, Typung und Spezialisierung und
ihrer Anwendung auf die Landwirtschaft." Dt. Landw. Presse, 52. 46. 539540.
JAENICHEN, E. "Zur Frage der Neuorganisation und Normalisierung der
Kraftwagen-Industrie." Allg. Automobil-Zeitung, 20. 18. 21-22.
KIENZLE. "Normen und ihre Bedeutung für die Allgemeinheit und
insbesondere für die Industrie." Weltmarkt, 6. 11/12. 179.
KLEMENT, W. u. PAULUS, C. Zur
Vereinheitlichung
des
Installations-
materialsfür elektrische Anlagen. Springer, Berlin, 1919.
LEYSER, Erich. Die Typisierung im Bauwesen. Laube, Dresden, 1918.
NEUHAUS, F . "Die deutschen Normungsarbeiten." Technik und Wirtschaft, 19. 1. 31-34.
R E D E R , Rudolf. "Eine moderne Auftragsorganisation in Verbindung mit
einer vorteilhaften Zeichnungs- und Normalienordnung." Werkstattstechnik,
12. 17. 193.
RUNGE. "Typenbau und Baustoffwirtschaft." Baugilde, 7. 10. 643-644.
SANDER. "Die Normung im Bauwesen." Techn. Gemeinde-Blatt, 25. 11.
81-85.
SANTZ, Adolf. Die deutschen Industrienormen. Springer, Berlin, 1919.
SCHLESINGER, G. "Praktische Ergebnisse der Normalisierung." Z. d.
V. D. I., 62. 50. 887-896; 51. 915-926; 52. 938-948.
SCHULZ-MEHRIN, O. "Arbeitsteilung und Arbeitsverbindung." Technik
und Wirtschaft, 12. 10. 663-671.
Die industrielle Spezialisierung, Wesen, Wirkung, Durchführungsmöglichkeiten und Grenzen.
"Normalisierung und Spezialisierung als Mittel zur Steigerung und
Verbilligung der Gütererzeugung." Z.f. Handelswiss. u. Handelspraxis, 11.
4/6. 76-80.
"Mitwirkung der Fachverbände des Maschinenbaues bei der Normung, Typung und Spezialisierung." Maschinenbau-Wirtschaft. 3. 30. 11871188.
SINGER, Felix. "Die Normung der Keramik." Bauwelt, 14. 46-47. 656-657.
SINNER, Georg. "Die Bedeutung der Normung für den Kaufmann." Welt
des Kaufmanns, 6. 8. 245-250.
SUTTER, Otto. "Deutsche Industrienormen (D. I. N . ) . " Europ. Staats- u.
Wirtsch.-Zeitung, 3. 19. 371-373.
TULOSCHINSKI, Willy. "Organisation und Normung im Konstruktionsbureau (Zeichenkniffe)." Arbeit, Lohn und Zeit sparende Vorrichtungen.
R. C. Schmidt, Berlin, 1923.
ULLSTEIN, Rudolf. "Spezialisierung, Typisierung und Normalisierung (im
Druckereigewerbe)." Z. f. Deutschlands Buchdrucker, 30. 40. 297.
15
— 210 —
Voss, K. "Normalisierung und Typisierung, ihre Bedeutung für Privatund Volkswirtschaft." Deutsche Fortbildungsschule, 31. 7. 145-153.
WLACH, Fritz. Die Vereinheitlichung des Geschäftsbriefes. Radelli, Leipzig,
1922.
Berichte des Hauptausschusses
des Normenausschusses der deutschen
Industrie. V. D. I.-Verlag, Berlin, 1917.
Bericht über die Gründungssitzung vom 14. Okt. 1918 des Normenausschusses
für das graphische Gewerbe. Deutscher Buchdr.-V., Leipzig, 1918.
Bericht über die Gründungsversammlung
des Normenausschusses der
deutschen Industrie am 22. Juli 1917. V. D. I.-Verlag, Berlin, 1918.
Papierformate im Auftrage des Normenausschusses der deutschen Industrie
bearbeitet. Normenausschuss der deutschen Industrie, Berlin. 1923.
R a t i o n a l U s e of F u e l — E l i m i n a t i o n of W a s t e
ARNOLDT. "Die laufende vergleichende Betriebskontrolle von Brennstoffverbrauch und Heizkosten der Gebäude nach einheitlichem Schema zwecks
Brennstoffersparnis." Gesundheits-Ingenieur, 48. 21. 249-259.
BARTH, Frd. Wie erzielt man Kohlenersparnisse bei industriellen Feuerungen? Koch, Nürnberg, 1919.
DOLCH, M. "Kohlenvergasung und rationelle Ausnützung der Brennstoffe." In Montanist. Rundschau, Jahrg. 11. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 und 10.
GERBEL, M. Kraft- und Wärmewirtschaft in der Industrie. (AbfallenergieVerwertung.) Springer, Berlin, 1918.
GRÜNEBAUM, Hedwig. Abfall und Abfallverwertung. Lucas, Elberfeld,
1918.
HARTMANN. "Die wirtschaftliche Verwertung von Metallabfällen."
Industr. Bedarf, 10. 20. 1-2. 23. 10-11.
RASSBERG, F . Wie ist die Drucksachenherstellung billigermöglich? Ronniger,
Leipzig, 1919.
WAFFENSCHMIDT, W. C. "Wirtschaftliche und technische Verlustquellen
in der Industrie." (Eine amerikanische Enquête.) Weltwirtsch.-Archiv, 2 1 .
1. 155-171.
Die rationelle Ausnutzung der Kohle. Herausg. vom Reichsschatzamt.
Heymann, Berlin, 1918.
Förderung der praktischen Wärmewirischaft in der Industrie. Reichskohlenrat. Technisch-wirtschaftlicher Sachverständigenausschuss für Brennstoffverwendung, Berlin, 1922.
9.—TRANSLATIONS OF AMERICAN AUTHORS
CLARK, Wallace. Leistungs- und Materialkontrolle nach dem Gantt-Verfahren. (Tr. J. M. Witte.) Oldenburg, Munich, 1925.
DRURY, H. B. Wissenschaftliche Betriebsführung. (Tr. J . M. Witte.) (Scientific Management, a History and Criticism.) Oldenburg, Munich-Berlin,
1922.
F I L E N E , E. A. Ein Weg aus dem Wirrwarr. (The Way Out.) Sozietätsdruck.,
Frankfurt a. M., 1925.
FREDERICK, Chr. Die rationelle Haushaltführung. (The New Housekeeping.
(Tr. J. M. Witte.) Springer, Berlin, 1922.
F R E Y , John F. Die wissenschaftliche Betriebsführung und die Arbeiterschaft.
Lindner, Leipzig, 1919.
GANTT, H. L. Organisation der Arbeit. (Tr. F . Meyerberg.) Springer,
Berlin, 1922.
GILBRETH, F. B. Verwaltungspsychologie. (Tr. J. M. Witte.) V. D. I.,
Berlin, 1922.
— 211 —
GILBRETH, F. B . Das "ABC'' der wissenschaftlichen Betriebsführung. (Tr.
Colin Ross.) Springer, Berlin, 1920.
Ermüdungsstudium. (Tr. J . M. Witte.) V. D . L , Berlin, 1921.
Angewandte Bewegungsstudien. (Tr. J . M. Witte.) V. D . I., Berlin,
1920.
Bewegungsstudien. (Tr. Colin Ross.) Springer, Berlin, 1921.
K E N T , William. Warum arbeitet die Fabrik mit Verlust? (Tr. K. Italiener.)
Springer, Berlin, 1925.
L I N K , W. C. Eignungs-Psychologie. (Tr. J . M. Witte.) Oldenburg, Berlin,
1922.
SCOTT-TAGGART, W. Betriebsleitung der Baumwollspinnerei. (Tr. Bauer.)
Oldenbourg, München, 1925.
TAYLOR. Die Grundsätze wissenschaftlicher Betriebsführung. (Principles
of Scientific Management.) (Tr. R. Rosier.) Oldenburg, Munich-Berlin, 1922.
TJeber Dreharbeit und Werkstühle. (Tr. Wallichs.) Springer, Berlin,
1920. 4. Aufl.
Die Betriebsleitung. (Shop Management.) (Tr. Wallichs.) Springer,
Berlin, 1920.
WATTS, Fr. Die psychologischen Probleme der Industrie. (H. Grote.)
(A. d. engl. Uebers. von Herbert Frh. Grote.) Springer, Berlin, 1922.
B. — Short Summary of French Literature
on Scientific Management 1
(1) P R E - W A R
PERIOD
The first works introduced among the public were translations of Taylor's
books and notes, made by Mr. H E N R Y L E CHATELIER, member of thé
Institute. I n 1911: Principes d'organisation scientifique des usines; in 1913:
La direction des ateliers.
Mention should also be made of several less-known works, such as:
D E RAM. 1909. "Notes sur un essai d'application du Système Taylor
dans un grand atelier de mécanique (Usines Renault)." Revue de Métallurgie,
Vol. 6.
SAINT-PAUL, R. Thèse. 1910. Les primes à la production et à l'économie
dans l'industrie.
As well as of a certain number of studies on labour physiology:
AMAR, J . Le rendement de la machine humaine, 1909. — L'organisation
scientifique du travail et le Système Taylor, 1913 (Technique moderne). —
Le moteur humain et les bases du travail professionnel, 1914.
IMBERT, A. "L'étude scientifique expérimentale du travail professionnel,"
1907 (Année psychologique). — "L'étude expérimentale du travail professionnel," 1909. (Revue d'économie politique.)
LAHY, J.-M. Recherches sur les conditions du travail des ouvriers typographes composant à la linotype, 1910.
I n 1913, t h e strikes caused by the misplaced application of the Taylor
system resulted in a violent controversy marked by numerous review
and newspaper articles.
J B y J. MUhaud.
— 212 —
For example, the articles by BRACKE in L'Humanité of 26 and 28 February
1913; by POUGET in Le Matin of 4 March 1913; unsigned articles in Le Temps
and L'Auto of 4 March and 19 January; articles by P . MULLER, in the
Journal des Economistes (an analysis of Taylor's book), and by MERRHEIM,
in La Vie ouvrière of March 1913; an article by LESCURE entitled "Une solution de la question sociale" in the Revue d'Economie politique of MarchApril; articles by LAHY in the Revue socialiste of August and December
1913 and in the Mouvement socialiste of September 1913.
The workers' opposition led to a small controversial volume: POUGET.
L'Organisation du surmenage, 1914.
At this period, the technicians were endeavouring to give impartial
descriptions of the Taylor system, see notably:
FREMONT. La Technique moderne, November 1913.
ABAUT. "Travail d'usine." Revue de Métallurgie, September 1913.
The author calls attention t o an article by Captain P L Y , which appeared
in the same review in 1888, on methods of work similar to the Taylor System
which were employed in a French arms work.
I t was a t this period also t h a t the French predecessors of Taylor came
into prominence: VAUBAN, BÉLIDOR, PERRONET, COULOMB, PONCELET and,
later, Commandant HARTMANN (Puteaux), CHARPY, RIMAILHO, etc.
In 1914, L E CHATELIER and DE FBÉMINVILLE submitted several studies
to the Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale, the first of which
was published under the title of Science expérimentale et psychologie ouvrière.
In a thesis on the Taylor System published the same year, VIEILLEVILLE
gives the results of a rapid enquiry into the application of the system and
the attitude of the producers.
(2) D U R I N G T H E W A R
The works published during the war have a more practical purpose than
those of the pre-war period, and were written mainly to stimulate the output
of war materials, to give information to industrial employers engaged on
war work, and to generalise American methods of production. The questions
concerning wages were also better studied. Through the medium of the
Bulletin des Usines de Guerre, the Government endeavoured to extend the
knowledge of methods calculated to increase output. Among the more
important works appearing during this period should be mentioned:
BAYLE. Etudes sur les salaires, 1916-1917.
BRETON. L'organisation scientifique du travail et le Système Taylor,
CAMBON, V. Le Taylorisme.
DE FLEURY, R. La production intensive. Son influence sur le prix de
revient. 1917.
DELTHIL. Les problèmes de la rénovation industrielle.
DENIS, Commandant. "L'organisation scientifique de l'usinage." Le Génie
cimi. 1917-1918.
Janvier, juin 1914. Ibid., Conférence éditée par Citroën sur le
même sujet, 1918. Revue de Métallurgie.
HOURAT. La Taylorisation et son application aux conditions industrielles
d'après guerre. 1916.
LAIIY. Le Système Taylor et la physiologie du travail professionnel, 1916.
(Livre écrit en 1914).
MAYER, Lieutenant L.-G. "Publication des œuvres de Taylor (1915
à 1917)" — "Exposé du Système Taylor." Revue de Métallurgie.
— 213 —
THOMPSON, Bertrand. Le Système Taylor. Conférences faites au Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers en 1916.
VERDURAND. La formation du personnel pour Vobservation aérienne.
To these should be added the works of :
FAYOL, Henri; whose most important book, Administration
industrielle
et générale, defines the principles of administration. This book, which is
the result of 25 years' observation, had an immediate influence on the organisation of the industries engaged in war work.
(3) P O S T - W A R
PERIOD
Literature becomes more and more abundant, and in future it will be
possible to classify it more thoroughly.
I.—Discussion of t h e R e s u l t s O b t a i n e d D u r i n g t h e W a r by t h e
Application of Scientific M e t h o d s of P r o d u c t i o n
Bulletin de la Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale, 1919.
Special number containing five lectures on "Les applications faites dans les
usines de guerre".
(a) NUSBAUMER. Poudrerie du Rìpault.
(b) COMPAGNON. Atelier central de réparation des automobiles.
(c) LAVALLÉE. Chantiers de Penhoët.
(d) LECLER and CHARPY. Métallurgie. (Two lectures.)
ASTRUC. Comment fai compris le Système Taylor, 1920.
FONTAINE, A. L'industrie française pendant la guerre, 1921.
FROIS et CAUBET. Résultats d'observations sur la fatigue à la poudrerie du
Ripault, 1919.
GUIIXET. La fabrication des obus pendant la guerre.
I I . — T h e o r e t i c a l W o r k s . Study of t h e Possible R e s u l t s of t h e
Application of t h e T a y l o r S y s t e m i n t h e P o s t W a r R e o r g a n i s a t i o n
of I n d u s t r y , a s r e g a r d s t h e E l i m i n a t i o n of L a b o u r T r o u b l e s
a n d Competition with A b r o a d , e t c .
ANTOINE. Organisation générale des entreprises aux Etats- Unis, 1923.
CAMBON, V. L'industrie organisée suivant les méthodes américaines, 1920.
GRÉBER. Organisation des travaux d'architecture aux Etats-Unis.
LEFORT-LAVAUZELLE. L'organisation scientifique des usines, 1920.
NÉGRIER. L'organisation scientifique des usines, 1921.
RIMAILHO. Conférences faites aux officiers en 1918-1919.
ROUSSET. Comment les Américains économisent la main-d'œuvre, 1924.
I I I . — T r a n s l a t i o n s of A m e r i c a n W o r k s
BUXTON GOING, C. Principes de l'organisation industrielle, 1922.
FILENE. La solution du problème européen, 1925.
FORD. Ma vie et mon œuvre, 1923.
Aujourd'hui et demain, 1926.
GANTT. Travail, salaires, bénéfices, 1921.
TARBELL, Ida. La règle d'or des affaires, 1921.
— 214 —
IV.—Technical Application of Scientific Management
ANDROUIN. Evaluation rapide des temps d'usinage, 1919.
BENOIST, L. Les méthodes modernes d'organisation industrielle. Calcul de
temps.
BONNET, C. Une étape vers le Système Taylor, 1921.
CHARPENTIER. Organisation industrielle, 1919.
GAIIXAULT-WARIN. Pratique de l'organisation des ateliers modernes.
MATTERN. Création, organisation et direction des usines. 1925.
RAZOUS. Applications aux scieries, etc.
SIMONET. Etudes sur l'organisation rationnelle des usines.
VIDAL, G. Organisation du travail dans les ateliers de fonderie de l'Ecole
des Arts et Métiers de Paris, 1923.
V.—Works Containing Information on Special Cases of Applications
NUSBAUMER. L'organisation scientifique des usines', 1925.
THOMPSON, B. La réorganisation des usines, 1926.
VI.—Reports and Memoranda Submitted to Congresses
Comité consultatif des arts et manufactures. Rapport général sur l'industrie
française, 1919.
Musée social. — CITROËN. Rapport sur l'organisation scientifique du travail,
1918.
Congrès des ingénieurs civils. — D E FRÉMINVILLE. La mise en pratique
des nouvelles méthodes de travail, 1918.
Congrès de l'organisation scientifique, Paris, 1923 and 1924. Two volumes
containing all the reports presented.
VII.—Wage Questions
BAYLE. Les salaires ouvriers et la richesse nationale, 1919.
BLONSTEIN. Travail à prime dans l'industrie électrique, 1923.
DANTY-LAFRANCE. Systèmes de salaires, 1925.
HUMERY and JULOT. Précis d'application pratique du salaire à prime
Rowan à toutes les industries, 1920.
LAURAS, X. Organisation et rémunération du travail, 1921. (Action populaire.)
Louis. Etudes sur les prix de revient.
PAINVAIN. Formules de salaires, 1921.
THOMPSON, B. Méthodes américaines d'établissement des prix de revient.
VIII.—Economie and Social Studies
CAVALLIER, C. Notes économiques d'un métallurgiste.
CESTRE. Production industrielle et justice sociale aux Etats-Unis, 1921.
COQUELLE et VALOIS. La nouvelle organisation économique de la France.
DELAISI. Les contradictions du monde moderne, 1925.
LEMAIRE. La productivité et l'après-guerre.
OTLET. Technique générale de l'action.
— 215 —
IX.—Lectures G i v e n i n I n s t i t u t i o n s a n d Schools
CAMBON, V. et NUSBAUMER. Conférences du Comité Michelin.
CARLIOZ. Le gouvernement des entreprises. (École des Hautes Études commerciales.)
GAGES, Général. Organisation des fabrications mécaniques. (École des
Travaux publics.)
Cours de M. AUCUY : Conférence sur les prix de revient. (Conservatoire des
Arts et Métiers.) (École des Hautes Études commerciales féminines.)
Conférences spéciales. (École des Arts et Métiers.)
Organisation des entreprises, etc. (École Wilbois.)
X.—Principles of A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , O r g a n i s a t i o n of t h e P u b l i c
Services, e t c .
PUBLICATIONS OF THE CENTRAL BUREAU OF INDUSTRIAL AND GENERAL
ADMINISTRATIVE STUDIES
FAYOL, H . Administration industrielle et générale, 1920. L'incapacité
industrielle de VEtat : les P. T. T.
Works inspired by the administrative doctrine, by Messrs. WILBOIS and
VANUXEN, PALEWSKI, P E Z E U , FRANCHET, BILLARD, H . LAURIER, etc.
X I . — P s y c h o - T e c h n i c a l Q u e s t i o n s , Vocational G u i d a n c e a n d Selection
AUGE DE BERNONVILLE. Le travail professionnel. Les nouvelles méthodes
d'organisation des ateliers, 1919. Résumé de toutes les études parues jusqu'à
1919 sur le travail professionnel au point de vue physiologique.
CHAVIGNY. Organisation du travail intellectuel, 1925.
FONTEGNE. Avant d'entrer en apprentissage. L'organisation professionnelle
et la détermination des aptitudes.
Series of articles in VEcole chez soi (École des Travaux publics).
LACOIN. Réorganisation de l'apprentissage au P. 0., 1920, et conférences,
1925.
Articles by L A H Y , F R O I S , etc.
XII.—Commercial Organisation
Studies on commercial organisation, by WILBOIS, MAMET, MAURICE,
FAURE, etc., 1922. (École Wilbois.)
Studies by F É J E S , E D O M , GUTJAHR, CAREL, BURSAUX, SCIOT, CHAMBONNAUD, BERRAN,PONTHIÈRE,MÌSS BERNÈGE. (Organisation ménagère, etc.)
Articles by Me. THUMEN, G. BENOIST, L E V Y , B . T H O M P S O N , e t c . , p u b l i s h e d
in the review Mon Bureau.
XIII.—Official D o c u m e n t s
Enquiry by the Ministry of Labour into t h e application of-the EightHours Act, 1925-1926.
APPENDIX
III
A. — Table of the Principal Institutions
of Scientific Management 1
INTERNATIONAL
International Committee for Scientific Management *.
International Institute of Scientific Management ».
AUSTRIA
CENTRAL ORGANISATION
Oesterreichische Haupstelle für -wirtschaftliches Schaffen (Vienna).
ex.
R. I. P. A.
OTHER INSTITUTIONS OF AN OFFICIAL OR SEMI-OFFICIAL CHARACTER
(a) Independent Institutions:
Verein deutschösterreichischer Ingenieure.
Verein technischer Anwälte.
Institut für Wirtschaftstechnik.
(b) Study Courses and Lectures given in the Higher
Educational Establishments:
Hochschule für Welthandel (Vienna).
(c) Institutions Dependent on other Institutions:
Ausschuss für wirtschaftliche Betriebsführung
Gesellschaft für Wärmewirtschaft.
Oesterreichischer Normenausschuss für Industrie
und Gewerbe (Hauptverband der Industrie).
Arbeiter-Kamer.
Berufsberatungen.
pa.
pa.
ex.
R. P. A.
R. P. A.
R. I. P. A.
pa.
R. i.
)
f
(
)
R
. . .
pa.
ex.
P . I.
R. A.
PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS
Vereinigung oesterreichischer Betriebsorganisatoren.
ex. • A.
I In this attempt at Classification of the institutions of the principal European countries
we have adopted the following abbreviations :
(1) ex. = exclusively; pa. — partly,
showing that the institution devotes itself exclusively or partly to the study of
scientific management;'
(2) R >= research; I = information; P *• propaganda; A •= application.
s Cf. p. 223.
s Cf. p. 257.
— 217 —
BELGIUM
CENTRAL ORGANISATION
Comité national belge de l'organisation scientifique
(Brussels) (member of the International Committee).
OTHER INSTITUTIONS OF AN OFFICIAL OR SEMI-OFFICIAL
(a) Independent Institutions:
Société belge des ingénieurs et des industriels.
Commission technique pour l'étude des services
administratifs.
(6) Study Courses and Lectures given in the Higher
Educational Establishments:
Institut Solvay (Brussels).
Université du Travail de Charleroi.
Institut supérieur de commerce d'Anvers.
Institut des hautes études (Brussels).
École des sciences commerciales et consulaires de
l'Université de Louvain.
PRIVATE
ex.
R. I. P. A.
CHARACTER
pa.
P. A.
ex.
R. A.
pa.
pa.
pa.
pa.
R. i.
R. I.
i.
i.
pa.
i.
INSTITUTIONS
L'organisation scientifique (groupe de spécialistes).
L'Organisatrice (société coopérative d'organisation).
ex. R. P. A.
ex. A.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
CENTRAL
ORGANISATIONS
Masaryk Labour Academy (subsidised by the State).
National Committee for Scientific Management
(member of the International Committee).
OTHER INSTITUTIONS OF AN OFFICIAL OR SEMI-OFFICIAL
(a) Independent institutions:
Institute of Technical Industrial Economy (affiliated to the Masaryk Academy).
Institute for the Rationalisation of Agricultural
Labour (affiliated to the Masaryk Academy).
Psycho-Technical Institute (affiliated to the Masaryk Academy).
Normalisation Society of Czechoslovakia (affiliated
to the Masaryk Academy).
(b) Lectures given in the Higher Educational Establishments:
Universities of Brunn and Prague.
(c) Various Institutions:
Federation of Offices of Vocational Guidance.
Institute for the Improvement of Small-Scale
Industry (attached to the Chamber of Commerce
of Prague).
Institute for the Improved Utilisation of Fuel
(attached to the Ministry of Public Works).
ex.
R. I, P. A.
ex.
p. A.
CHARACTER
ex.
R. A.
ex.
R. A.
ex.
R. P. A.
—
218
—
FRANCE
CENTRAL
ORGANISATION
Comité n a t i o n a l d e l'organisation française * (Paris)
( m e m b e r of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e ) .
O T H E R INSTITUTIONS O F AN OFFICIAL OR SEMI-OFFICIAL
ex.
R. I. A.
CHARACTER
(a) I n d e p e n d e n t I n s t i t u t i o n s :
Société d ' e n c o u r a g e m e n t à l ' i n d u s t r i e n a t i o n a l e .
Office d e chauffe rationnelle.
p a . A.
U n i o n t e c h n i q u e d u b â t i m e n t e t des t r a v a u x
publics.
p a . A.
Office d ' é t u d e d u m a t é r i e l des c h e m i n s d e fer.
p a . A.
I n s t i t u t L a n n e l o n g u e d ' h y g i è n e sociale.
ex. R . I .
Comité Michelin.
ex. R. I . P . Í
( b) I n s t i t u t i o n s A t t a c h e d t o H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n a l E s t a b l i s h m e n t s , S t u d y Courses, a n d L e c t u r e s :
L a b o r a t o i r e d u Conservatoire n a t i o n a l des a r t s e t
métiers.
• e x . R . I.
L a b o r a t o i r e d e l'école p r a t i q u e des h a u t e s é t u d e s .
ex. R. I .
École des h a u t e s é t u d e s commerciales (Paris).
p a . R. I.
École d ' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n e t d'affaires (Paris).
ex. R . I .
(c) I n s t i t u t i o n s D e p e n d e n t o n O t h e r I n s t i t u t i o n s :
Commission générale d e l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n scientifique d u t r a v a i l (Confédération générale de
la p r o d u c t i o n française).
Commission d ' é t u d e d e la Confédération n a t i o - } ex. R. A.
naie des Associations agricoles.
Comité d ' é t u d e d e l ' U n i o n des i n d u s t r i e s m é t a l lurgiques e t minières.
PRIVATE
Compagnie franco-américaine
nelle.
INSTITUTIONS
d'organisation
rationex.
R. A.
GERMANY
OFFICIAL
CENTRAL
(Subsidised
by the
ORGANISATION
Government)
R e i c h s k u r a t o r i u m für W i r t s c h a f t l i c h k e i t ( B e r l i n ) 2 .
O T H E R I N S T I T U T I O N S OF AN O F F I C I A L OR S E M I - O F F I C I A L
(a) I n d e p e n d e n t I n s t i t u t i o n s a n d V o c a t i o n a l G r o u p s :
Forschungsinstitut
der
Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft.
Verein D e u t s c h e r I n g e n i e u r e .
Verein D e u t s c h e r M a s c h i n e n b a u a n s t a l t e n .
D e u t s c h e Gesellschaft für B a u i n g e n i e u r w e s e n .
Ausschuss für W ä r m e w i r t s c h a f t .
ex.
R I . P . A.
CHARACTER
pa.
pa.
pa.
ex.
R . I . P . A.
R. I. P. A.
R. I. P. A.
R. A.
i The French National Committee of Organisation was formed by the amalgamation of
two organisations, namely, the Conférence de l'Organisation française and the Centre d'Études
administratives,
founded by H. Fayol.
2
Cf. p. 225. Various committees named further on are attached directly to the Reichskuratorium für Wirtschaftlichkeit.
219
Deutscher Verband für Materialprüfung in der
Technik.
Deutscher Ausschuss für technisches Schulwesen.
Institut für Betriebswissenschaftliche Forschung
im Handwerk (Karlsruhe).
(6) Institutions Attached to Higher Educational Establishments:
1. Institutes attached to the Technische Hochschulen of:
Aix-la-Chapelle.
Berlin-Charlottenbourg.
Dantzig.
Darmstadt.
Dresden.
Karlsruhe.
Munich.
Stuttgart.
2. Institutes attached to Handelshochschulen of:
Berlin.
Manheim.
Leipzig.
3. Institutes attached to the Universities of:
Berlin.
Bonn.
Hamburg.
Halle-Wittemberg.
Jena.
Cologne.
Munster in Westphalia.
(c) Institutes
for Vocational Guidance Institutes
Wurzbourg.
attached to Berufsämter of:
Berlin.
Bremen.
Breslau.
Hanover.
Cologne.
Munster in Westphalia.
PRIVATE
ex.
pa.
R. A.
R. E .
R. i. P. A.
ex.
ex.
ex.
ex.
R. i.
i. A.
R. i.
R.
R. i.
R. i.
R. I. A.
R. i. A.
R. I.
R. I.
n. i.
R. I.
A.
R. A.
A.
R. A.
R. A.
R. A.
INSTITUTIONS
Institut für angewandte Psychologie (Dr. Lipmann),
Berlin.
Organisations-Institut (Dr. Piorkowski), Berlin.
Taylorix Organisation (sections at Berlin, Hamburg,
Cologne, Leipzig, Stuttgart).
Organisatoren-Verband.
Gesellschaft für Betriebsforschung (Frankfort-onthe-Main).
ex.
ex.
R.
i. p. A.
ex.
ex.
p. A.
p. A.
ex.
R. p.
ex.
R. i. P.
GREAT BRITAIN
OFFICIAL CENTRAL .ORGANISATION
{Dependent on the State)
Industrial Fatigue Research Board.
— 220 —
OTHER INSTITUTIONS OF AN OFFICIAL OR SEMI-OFFICIAL CHARACTER
(a) Independent Institutions:
National Institute of Industrial Psychology
(London).
Institute of Production Engineers.
Institute of Industrial Welfare Workers.
Industrial Welfare Society.
' Institute of Works and Costs Accountants.
Railway Information Bureau.
Agricultural Economics Institute.
Association for Education in Industry and Commerce.
Royal Economic Society.
Royal Statistical Society.
( 6) Study Courses given in the Higher Educational Establishments:
1.—Scientific Organisation of Industry:
Universities of Bristol and Nottingham.
R. I.
ex.
ex.
pa.
ex.
ex.
pa.
pa.
P. A.
pa.
pa.
pa.
I. P.
R. I.
R. I.
A.
p.
A.
A.
A.
2.—Scientific Organisation of Industry and Applied
Psychology:
Universities of Aberdeen, Cambridge, Edinburgh,
Glasgow, Liverpool, London, and Manchester.
ITALY
CENTRAL ORGANISATION
Ente Nazionale Italiano per l'Organizatione scientifica del Lavoro (Enios) (member of the International
Committee).
R. I. P. A.
OTHER INSTITUTIONS OF AN OFFICIAL OR SEMI-OFFICIAL CHARACTER
(a) Independent Institutions and Vocational Groups:
v
Confederazione generale Fascista dell' Industria
Italiana (affiliated to the Enios).
Associazione Nazionale degli Ingegneri ed Architetti (affiliated to the Enios).
Associazione Nazionale per la prevenzione degli
infortuni sul lavoro (affiliated to the Enios).
Comitato Nazionale scientifico tecnico (affiliated
to the Enios).
Comitato generale per la unificazione dell' industria
mecánica (affiliated to the Enios).
Società promotrice dell' Industria Nazionale (affiliated to the Enios).
Associazione Italiana per lo studio dei materiali da
construzione (affiliated to the Enios).
(b) Study Courses and Lectures given in the Higher
Educational Establishments:
Istituto Italiano di Igiene Providenza ed Assistenza
Sociale (Rome).
p. A.
R. I. P. A.
R. A.
R. P. A.
R. A.
n. p .A.
K. A.
i. p.
— 221 —
PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS
(ö) Study Courses and Lectures given in the Higher
Educational Establishments:
Istituto italiano di Igiene, Previdenza ed Assistenza sociale (Rome).
Istituto professionale Omar (Novaro).
Istituto per l'orientamento professionale (Milan).
Società umanitaria (Milan).
i. p.
R. I. A.
R. P. A.
NETHERLANDS
INSTITUTIONS OF AN OFFICIAL OR SEMI-OFFICIAL CHARACTER
(a) Independent Institutions:
Corps of Municipal Inspectors.
Institute of Efficacity.
'
(b) Lectures given in the Higher Educational Establishments:
Universities of Amsterdam, Delft, and Rotterdam.
ex. R. P. A.
ex. R. P. A.
PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS
Raadgevend Bureau voor Organisatie (Amsterdam).
ex. R. A.
POLAND
OFFICIAL CENTRAL ORGANISATIONS
(Subsidised by the State)
Department of Scientific Management attached to the
Ministry of Labour.
Institute of Scientific Management (Warsaw).
ex. R. I. P. A.
ex. R. A.
OTHER INSTITUTIONS OF AN OFFICIAL OR SEMI-OFFICIAL CHARACTER
(a) Independent Institutions:
Association of Organising Engineers (Warsaw).
Association of Technicians (Warsaw).
Committee for the Investigation of Waste in
Industry.
League of Labour.
Polish Technical Committee for the Standardisation
of Industrial Products and their Delivery.
Society of Scientific Management i .
(b) Lectures given in the Higher Educational Establishments:
Polytechnical College of Leopold (Warsaw).
School of Higher Commercial Studies of Warsaw.
(c) Private Institutions:
Office óf Vocational Guidance.
Psycho-Technical Bureau of the Society for the
Protection of Young Craftsmen.
Psycho-Technical Laboratory of the School of
Building Industry.
i Formerly Society ol Technical Cour jes.
ex.
ex.
R. p . A .
R. p . A .
ex.
ex.
R. A .
ex.
ex.
R. A .
p . I.
p.
ex. A.
ex. R. A.
ex. R. A.
— 222 —
RUSSIA
OFFICIAL CENTRAL ORGANISATION
Council for the Scientific Management of Labour
(Sovnot) 1 .
ex. R. I. P . A.
OTHER INSTITUTIONS OF AN OFFICIAL OR SEMI-OFFICIAL CHARACTER
Bureau for the Organisation'of War Industries.
Central Labour Institute of Moscow.
Institute for the Application of Methods of Scientific
Organisation to State Administrations (Moscow).
Laboratory of Industrial Psycho-Technical Studies
(Moscow).
League of Time Studies.
Pan-Ukrainian Labour Institute.
Psychoneurologic Institute of Moscow.
Station of Normalisation Experiments in Agricultural
Labour.
Technical Committee of Communications and the
Organisation of Stations.
SWEDEN
ex. A.
ex. R. I. P. A.
ex. R. A.
ex. R. A.
ex. R. P .
ex. R. I. P.
ex. R.
ex.
R. A.
ex. A.
INSTITUTIONS OF AN OFFICIAL OR SEMI-OFFICIAL CHARACTER
(a) Independent Institutions:
Section of Scientific Management of the Federation of Swedish Industries.
( b) Lectures given in the Higher Educational Establishments:
Academy of Technical Sciences (Stockholm).
Institute of the Technic of Labour (Stockholm).
ex.
R. A.
pa. R. I.
ex. R. I. P .
SWITZERLAND
INSTITUTIONS OF AN OFFICIAL OR SEMI-OFFICIAL CHARACTER
(a) Independent Institutions:
Bureau of the Association of Swiss Machine
Builders.
Society of Swiss Friends of the United States.
Society of Swiss Engineers and Architects.
(b) Study Courses attached to the Higher Educational
Establishments:
Institute of Psycho-Technics of the University of
Zurich.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau Institute (University of
Geneva).
pa. R. A.
ex. P . I.
pa. R. P .
ex.
R. I. P . A.
pa.
R. I.
1
Over sixty local institutions in various towns in Russia, Siberia, and the Caucasus are
affiliated to the Sovnot.
— 223 —
B.—Notes on the Constitution and Activity of the
Various Institutions of Scientific Management
1 . — T H E INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR SCIENTIFIC
MANAGEMENT
The International Committee for Scientific Management owes its existence
to the following resolution adopted by the first International Congress on
Scientific Management held at Prague in 1924 :
The delegates present at the International Congress which closes to-day,
realising the utility of the free discussion and exchange of ideas and experiences in which they have had the advantage to participate;
Considering t h a t such meetings are of great economic and social value
to the countries taking part :
Request that similar congresses be held whenever the moment is
favourable.
As the result of this resolution, the delegates from Czechoslovakia, the
Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom, Poland, and Rumania decided to set up a
permanent- committee to facilitate an exchange of views between those
interested in future congresses on scientific management, and requested
the Masaryk Academy of Labour to take the necessary steps for the formation of this committee.
The constitution of a permanent committee having been accepted in
principle by the institutions and associations specialising in scientific organisation in Czechoslovakia, the Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom, Poland, and
Rumania, a temporary committee was formed in April 1925. This committee received assurance of the support of the American institutions
most representative of the movement in favour of scientific organisation,
and of the personal collaboration of Mr. L. W. Wallace. The first meeting
of the committee was held on 19 June 1925, when Mr. Francesco Mauro,
president of the Association of Italian Engineers, was elected president,
and Dr. Verunac, of Prague, secretary. The Masaryk Academy of Labour
agreed to support the cost of the committee, which adopted the official
title of the Permanent International Delegation for Scientific Management.
The first care of the Delegation was to undertake the preparatory work
for the International Congress on Scientific Management which was to be
held in Philadelphia in 1926. When the proposal to hold this congress
fell through,.the Delegation got into touch with the Belgian and French
organisations, which were than organising an international congress to be
held in Brussels on 14 October of the same year. The result of these
negotiations was the adoption by the Brussels congress of a resolution to
the effect t h a t the congress "associated itself with the resolution adopted
by the International Congress of Prague and relating t o the formation of
a permanent international body entrusted with convening periodical
international congresses".
— 224 —
The congress invited "competent bodies not represented on the Permanent
Delegation of Prague to nominate delegates empowered to constitute, in
co-operation with the Delegation, a temporary committee which would
be empowered to ensure the formation of a permanent international committee for scientific organisation, and to draw up the programme of action
and the constitution of such committee".
After the Brussels congress, the Belgian, French, and Spanish organisations resolved to send delegates to the Permanent International Delegation.
The constituent assembly of the temporary Committee for Scientific
Management was held in Paris on 11 June 1926 at the offices of the International Chamber of Commerce. The new committee, successor to the
Permanent International Delegation of Prague, strengthened by the adherence of the Belgian, French, and Spanish organisations, took the name
of the International Committee for Scientific Management.
The following summary of the resolutions adopted by the constituent
assembly is taken from the Bulletin d'Organisation scientifique, No. 3, of
September 1926 :
The International Committee for Scientific Management has been formed.
It will act as a temporary committee until the congress to be held in Italy
in 1927, when the Permanent Committee will be constituted. This provision is made so as to allow the various national committees to ratify the
constitution of the committee, and to give those countries not represented
at the meeting of 11 June the time to form national committees and to
affiliate to the committee.
The International Committee shall not be entitled to interfere in any
way in the administration of the national committees.
Its rôle will be :
(1) To decide every second year in what country the next congress will
be held and to link up the various congresses.
(2) To organise the exchange of information between the different national
committees and to be the moving spirit in this exchange.
(3) To publish a quarterly periodical which will ensure the diffusion of
general information of an international character.
The International Committee shall be composed of delegations from the
various countries, and each delegation shall consist of a t most five members
and shall have one vote.
The various national committees shall be asked to decide by referendum
whether delegations from the International Chamber of Commerce and the
International Labour Office, each having one vote, shall be admitted to
the International Committee.
The bureau of the committee shall consist of a president, six vicepresidents, and a secretary-general. In cases of absence on holiday, the
bureau shall appoint a temporary secretary-general or members from
among the members of the executive committee.
The executive organ of the International Committee shall be an executive committee which will be composed of the president, the secretarygeneral, and three members of the International Committee.
The executive committee of the temporary International Committee shall
include the president, the secretary-general, and one delegate from each
nation affiliated to the International Committee.
The cost of the general secretariat and the publication of the quarterly
bulletin shall be met for the time being, and until the definite constitution
of the International Committee, by the Government of the Czechoslovak
Republic. The various national committees shall, however, contribute
towards the general expenditure during 1926 and 1927 by paying a yearly
— 225 —
fee of from 15 to 30 dollars in accordance with the economic importance
of their country.
Mr. Francesco MAURO is elected president of the International Committee
until 1927.
Dr. VERUNAC (Czechoslovakia) is appointed secretary-general.
The members of the executive committee are:
Belgium :
(to be appointed by the Belgian National
Committee).
Bulgaria :
Czechoslovakia :
France :
Mr. KANTCHEFF.
Mr. HASA.
Mr. Ch. de FRÉMINVILT.E.
Italy :
Mr. Carlo TERANTO.
Poland :
Mr. ADAMIECKI.
Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom : Mr. PILAR.
Spain :
(to be nominated).
United States :
Mr. WALLACE.
2.—REICHSKURATORIUM FÜR WIRTSCHAFTLICHKEIT
Tlie Reichskuratorium für Wirtschaftlichkeit is the central office responsible for the promotion, co-ordination, and direct and indirect supervision
of all activity in favour of the development of scientific organisation in
Germany.
Its creation was the logical consequence of the institution of a number
of official committees appointed after the end of the war, and even in 1917,
to study the rational reconstruction of German national economy. The
most noteworthy of these committees were the Normenausschtiss der Deutschen
Industrie, which in 1917 took the place of a standardisation committee
dependent on the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (V. D. I.) and the Ausschuss
für Wirtschaftliche Fertigung, which was set up in 1918 a t the suggestion of
the Reichswirtschaftsministerium.
The activity of the Reichskuratorium.,
which on its inception was financed by the Ministry and by private industry,
only really became important after the stabilisation of the German currency
and the improvement in the industrial outlook, that is t o say, during the
early part of 1925.
At present the Reichskuratorium für Wirtschaftlichkeit has close on
200 members, including savants, technicians, industrial employers, financiers, politicians, and accredited representatives of the consumers. I t is
directed by a management board, of which one of the members is responsible
for the strict observance of its constitution, the execution of decisions taken,
and the judicious use of the funds at its disposal. According to its constitution, two plenary sittings must be held every year, when the work accomplished under the auspices of the Reichskuratorium is examined and reports
on scientific organisation submitted by experts.
In addition to the principal official and private institutions engaged wholly
or partly in the promotion of the teaching, propaganda, and application of
methods of scientific management (a list of these is to be found in another
Appendix), and dependent on the Reichskuratorium für Wirtschaftlichkeit,
there are also a certain number of committees working more or less permanently on the study of aspects of scientific organisation considered important
by the Reichskuratorium, which assumes towards these committees the
1C
— 226 —
functions of a governing body. These committees consist of members
of the Reichskuratorium, to whom may he added young engineers and
students engaged in research work. Their work is purely honorary, and the
results of their research are published, after being submitted to general
criticism, through the good offices and a t the expense of the Reichskuratorium.
At the present time the most interesting work is carried out by six different
committees, a description of which will be found below.
(a) The principal work of the Normenausschuss der Deutschen Industrie
is to establish industrial standards and to make the public understand the
necessity and advantages of standardisation. With these aims in view it
publishes, as a supplement to the review Maschinenbau (V. D. I. Verlag),
a bulletin called Die N. D. I. Mitteilungen, where information is given relating
to proposed methods of standardisation as well as to results obtained in
Germany and other countries. I t is this committee which drafts, publishes
and supervises the sales of the Normblatter (models of standardisation),
and close on 1,500 models have so far been established. Thus in February
1926 there had already been published:
710 proposals relating to general engineering,
180
,,
,,
„ the building industry,
138
.,
,,
,, the electrical industry,
130
„
„
,, locomotive building.
(b) The activity of the Ausschuss für Wirtschaftliche Fertigung also covers
industry as a whole, the committee studying all branches with a view to
rendering the industrial processes as rational as possible. This vast general
sphere of activity includes a number of sub-sections relating more particularly to the study of material, technique, labour planning, processes of
manufacture, costing, etc., and special sub-committees have been formed
to deal with these various questions. Here, again, the results of the
research work are published either in the technical reviews or in the form
of leaflets, graphs, or plans dealing with a certain specified question, or in
pamphlets and booklets treating the question in a general manner.
(c) The Ausschuss für Wirtschaftliche Verwaltung does similar work as
regards administration, devoting particular attention to office work, accountancy, questions of routing and storage, etc.
(d) The Reichsausschuss für Lieferbedingungen endeavours to draw up
homologous conditions of delivery in the different branches of industry
and commerce in Germany. I n fixing these standards it bases itself on
the experience of producers, merchants, and consumers, who are asked to
examine and criticise the proposals submitted to them by experts in the
matter.
(e) The Reichsausschuss für Arbeitszeitermittlung makes a speciality of time
studies which serve as a basis for the establishment of wage rates, and fixes
the time necessary for the various operations according to industries and
trades. The results of its work are published similarly to t h a t of the other
committees. This institution also organises time study courses in the
industrial towns and, during 1925, 49 courses were attended in 26 different
towns by 2,500 persons.
(/) Finally, the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Technik in der Landwirtschaft studies
— 227 —
the adaptation to agriculture of all methods of scientific organisation
applied to industry. Its work is made known to the public through the
medium of a review, Technik in der Landwirtschaft (V. D. I. Verlag).
In addition it publishes a series of propaganda leaflets, graphs, diagrams,
and posters, which explain and demonstrate the rational use of agricultural
machinery and technical appliances.
I t is difficult after only some 20 months' experience to pass judgment
on the work accomplished by the Reichskuratorium and especially on t h e
practical results achieved. But even now it tnay be said that the work
of this institution is attracting public attention to methods of scientific
management and is contributing to the extension of their application.
Moreover, the work of the institution has been recognised as a public service
by all political parties, and the Reichstag has been able to grant it credits
for the present year greatly in excess of those previously accorded and
amounting in all to about 1 £ million gold marks.
3 . — T H E COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC ORGANISATION (SOVNOT)
The Central Council of Scientific Organisation of Labour Production and
Administration, set up by a Decree of the Council of People's Commissaries
on 6 September 1923, is at the present moment the centre of the movement
in favour of scientific organisation of labour in Russia. I t is a permanent
body attached to the Commissariat of Workers' and Peasants' Inspection,
and includes representatives of institutions of scientific organisation and
central organisations of labour and production, in all 70 members.
Its duty is to organise and centralise the activities of the diverse regional
and local organisations, and to direct their work so far as it concerns the
technical side of production, the administration of the undertaking, the
psycho-physiology of the worker (vocational selection and guidance), the
protection of the worker (industrial hygiene and safety), his education in
matters of scientific organisation, the training of the worker and improvement of his professional ability, and the methodology of the subject and
its generalisation. The functions of the Central Council also include propaganda work by means of the distribution of reports concerning questions
of scientific organisation and the organisation of study courses and lectures,
co-operation with foreign institutions studying similar questions, and the
preparation of a bibliography on the subject. The constitution of the
Council, which defines and amplifies this programme, states that a purely
academic character must not be given to this work, which should always
be considered with a view to practical results and applicability.
The general progamme of work of the Sovnot is subdivided according to
the principal divisions of industrial organisation, as follows:
(1) Materials.—Study
and testing of materials, utilisation of waste
materials, standardisation of materials, and establishment of
nomenclature.
(2) Labour, mechanical and human.—Principles of the qualification of
mechanical and human labour, harmony between the two forms
of labour, study of individual labour, psycho-physiology, vocational
selection, study of tools, hygiene and safety.
— 228 —
(3) Overhead expenses.—Production
and distribution of motive power
and their rationalisation, loading and unloading, plant, administrative expenses.
(4) Organisation.—Division and centralisation of labour, specialisation
of workshops, research bureaux in the factories, costing, accountancy, administration, staff services, etc.
The research section is duplicated by a second section entrusted with the
application of the measures recommended. The duty of this section is :
(1) To create and develop a movement in favour of increased output
and professional ability among the workers, salaried employees,
technicians, and employers, by means of the formation of organisations and centres of action, and the publication of periodicals,
booklets, and propaganda leaflets.
(2) To submit the measures proposed to critical examination.
(3) To ensure their practical application by setting up and maintaining
centres of scientific organisation in the larger factories.
The practical work includes the training of a body of workers skilled in
methods of scientific organisation and capable of directing its practica
application in the factories (time studies, photography, etc.), and, for these
ends, the rationalisation of technical education.
The regulations of the Sovnot lay particular emphasis on the fact t h a t the
success of any movement for scientific organisation depends to a very great
extent on national and international co-ordination of the efforts made.
For this reason European and American experiments should be utilised,
partly as they are, and partly in a form adapted to conditions in Russia x.
1
The Central Institute of Labour is the most important of the research
institutions grouped together under the management of the Sovnot. Its
methods of work, which are most original, are worthy of mention. "The
institute of Moscow," says Mr. L. WALTHIER, "has decided to limit its
research work to a restricted number of subjects. In the seven laboratories
of which it is composed, no one trade is studied in its entirety. I n view oí
the complexity of the problem, the institute prefers to choose one, or at
the most two elements of labour, and to devote itself to their study. Its
choice has fallen on the blow of the hammer and the pressure of the file,
two operations common to many trades. These two operations are studied
in the seven laboratories of the institute.
" I t is the duty of the first laboratory to observe and fix, by means of
photography, the two movements studied. The laboratory is also required
to find means to show them on the film.
"The second, or technical laboratory, studies the composition, the shape,
and the weight of the tools used for making the two movements in question.
"The third, or bio-mechanical laboratory, studies the notions of the
worker from the point of view of the trajectory, speed, acceleration, and
strength, and draws up standards (standardisation of the motion of the
operative).
"The fourth, or physio-technical laboratory, deals with the study of
physiological transformations taking place in the body of the worker during
work.
"The fifth, or psycho-technical laboratory, concentrates its attention
on the study of the psychology of labour.
"Once the motion studies have been completed in the first five laboratories, the methods for teaching and practising the standardised movements
are evolved in the sixth, or educational laboratory. These methods aim
— 229 —
4.—THE
MASARYK ACADEMY OF L A B O U R AND
THE
NATIONAL
COMMITTEE FOR S C I E N T I F I C ORGANISATION
Founded in January 1920 by an official Decree, as the results of steps
taken by Czechoslovak engineers, and with the support of Mr. Masaryk,
President of the Republic of Czechoslovakia, the Masaryk Academy of
Labour is an independent institution of a scientific character, "devoted
to the organisation of technical labour and the rational use of the activities
of the population and the natural resources of the whole State".
The constitution of the academy defines its functions as follows:
The Masaryk Academy furthers the systematic study and the scientific
organisation of technical work, as well as the study of the ethics and laws
of labour, and encourages the training of specialists in these matters. I t
supports all measures for the introduction of new methods of manufacture
and of new commercial activities. I t endeavours to help in the solution
of technical difficulties arising in public administration by making
criticisms and proposals. Finally, it endeavours to popularise knowledge
of the value, importance and rational use of labour. With these ends in
view it organises study courses, public lectures, exhibitions, and undertakes the publication of reviews and works relating to these questions.
The membership of the Masaryk Academy of Labour includes technical
experts and members of its scientific council*. The experts are grouped in
sections set up according to requirements; the scientific council has an
equivalent number of sub-committees. The chiefs of the various sections
form the central committee. The scientific council elects its own president,
who is, at the same time, director of the academy, and a secretary-general.
The director, the secretary-general, and the chiefs of the various sections
form the executive committee of the academy, and this body is entrusted
with the supervision of the work of the sections. The period of office for
these various officials has been fixed a t three years. The nomination of
the director and the chiefs of section is subject to the ratification of the
President of the Republic.
The sections work and expand according to necessity, and without being
bound by rigid rules, while the number of sub-committees or special
institutions affiliated varies from one to another. The following are the
more important sections:
(1) The section of natural sciences, which works in co-operation with
four sub-committees and an institute of applied ornithology. I t
is responsible for six publications, edited partly by the Masaryk
Academy.
at establishing more perfect systems of instruction for apprentices than are
at present applied by the foremen instructors.
"The seventh laboratory pursues a social aim, and studies the work,
not of a single man, but of the collectivity of an entire workshop. Questions
concerning the organisation of workshops and places of work, transport
and raw materials come within its competence." L.WALTHIER, La Technophysiologie du Travail industriel, pp. 56-57.
1
At the present time the academy has about 250 national members,
including 40 members of the scientific council and 15 corresponding
members, all Americans.
— 230 —
(2) Thesection of agriculture and sylviculture, which work in close collaboration with the Czechoslovak Agricultural Committee, includes,
inter alia, a sub-committee for the study of scientific organisation
of agricultural labour and a sub-committee for the unification and
standardisation of agricultural produce.
(3) The building trades section, which includes, inter alia, a sub-committee
for the study of the best materials and methods of construction,
carries out research work in laboratories of the Technical College
at Prague. A sub-committee of standardisation and a sub-committee for the scientific organisation of labour in the building
industry are attached to it. The third section, which is very
active, has organised competitions for the improvement of the
output of railways, public highways, etc.
(4) The engineering and electro-technical section was responsible for the
movement t h a t led to the foundation of the Technical Standardisation Society. This society examines proposed reforms in
engineering and electro-technical instruction, gives advice to
inventors, and collaborates in the work of the sub-committee for
rational combustion.
(5) The section of technological chemistry works in collaboration with the
various sub-committees for the sugar industry, the pottery trades,
and the chemical industries properly so called, and carries out its
research work and experiments not only in the laboratories but
also in a practical manner in the factories.
(6) The section of political and social economy has three affiliated institutions, namely, the Psycho-Technical Institute, the Institute of
Town Planning, and the Institute for the Study of Industrial
Relations with Emigrants and Settlers.
The Masaryk Academy possesses a well-stocked library, formed for the
greater part from American gifts, especially from the Carnegie World
Peace Foundation. I t publishes its own periodical, in which it gives a
summary of its activities and general information concerning the movement
for scientific management. Its publication and translation service publishes
in Czech and other languages scientific works, instructive text-books, and
booklets.
A Czechoslovak national committee for the scientific organisation of
labour was founded in Prague in July 1926. This committee is composed
of twelve members and twelve substitute members ; one-third of the members
represent industrial employers and agriculturists, one-third the workers,
and one-third the technical experts.
The committee, which is closely connected with the Masaryk Academy
of Labour, owes its existence to the interest taken by industrial employers
in the questions of scientific organisation, and is in reality the outcome of
the propaganda work which has been carried out for several years by the
Academy. I t is living evidence of the wish of the industrial employers to
be represented in the movement, not only by technicians and men of science,
but also by direct representatives.
The president of the committee is Professor Hasa, a former president of
— 231 —
the Masaryk Academy of Labour. The employers' representatives have
been elected as follows: two by the Confederation of Industrial Employers,
one by the agriculturists, and one by the German industrialists of Czechoslovakia. The Masark Academy is represented in the group of experts by
the president of the committee. Two of the workers' representatives
have been elected by the Czechoslovak Trade Union Federation, one
by the Central Office of National-Social Trade Unions, and one by the
Confederation of Salaried Employees' Organisations.
5 . — T H E ITALIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC
ORGANISATION OF LABOUR
The Ente Nazionale Italiano per VOrganizzazione scientifica del Lavoro
(E.N.I.O.S.) is the central organisation responsible for the encouragement
and co-ordination of all efforts in favour of the development of the scientific
organisation of labour in Italy. Its headquarters are situated in Rome at
the offices of the General Fascist Confederation of Industry. I t lends its
support to all institutions whose aims include the study, propaganda, and
application of new methods, and encourages more directly the popularisation of these principles and their diffusion in the secondary and higher
educational establishments. I t was founded in January 1926, as a result
of steps taken by the General Fascist Federation of Industry. This body
had recognised the necessity of co-ordinating the efforts of industrial associations and societies of a scientific or economic nature with a view to their
better organisation, as up till then the efforts made, although well-meant,
had remained without result owing to their very multiplicity. The foundation members of the E.N.I.O.S. include the General Fascist Federation
of Industry, the Italian Association for the Study of Building Materials,
the National Association for the Prevention of Industrial Accidents, the
National Committee of Technical Sciences, the General Committee for the
Unification of the Engineering Trades, the National Co-operative Group
of Ex-Service Men, and the Society for the Encouragement of National
Industry.
The realisation of the programme of action traced out by the E.N.I.O.S.
has been entrusted to a board of management, the members of which are
elected by the founder societies. Each society is entitled to a number of
votes corresponding to its contribution, with a maximum of five votes.
A single exception to this rule is made in favour of the General Confederation
of Industry, which is entitled to one vote for every 1,000 lire of contribution,
and which, in return, pays the working expenses of the committee. The
reason for thus giving the industrial representatives an absolute majority
on the committee is to guarantee t h a t the activities of the E.N.I.O.S.
will be managed in an essentially practical manner. For the moment it
is hardly possible to give an opinion on the work done by the committee,
which has been in existence only some months.
I t should, however, be stated t h a t the committee has met with a favourable reception on all sides and has been strongly supported by the Government. Since April 1926, the E.N.I.O.S. has been publishing an excellent
— 232 —
review, L'Organizzazione scientifica del Lavoro, in which is to be found the
latest information on scientific organisation and allied questions.
Finally, it should be remembered t h a t the E.N.I.O.S. represents Italy
in the International Committee for Scientific Management.
6 . — T H E N A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T E OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
The foundation in London of the National Institute of Industrial
Psychology, which was decided on in 1919 and definitely realised in 1921,
is due to a common effort of an eminent scientist, Dr. Myers, formerly director
of the Cambridge Psychological Laboratory and now director of the institute,
and a leader of industry, Mr. H. S. Welch, of the firm of Harrisons and
Crosfield, Ltd. This association—scientist and industrialist—is well worthy
of note, as it has left its impression both in the constitution and the activity
of the institute.
The council of the institute, which has the title and quality of a scientific
association not working for profit, counts among its members scientists,
business men, and labour leaders, and carries out its work through an
executive committee and an advisory scientific committee composed entirely
of eminent scientists.
The organisation of the work of the institute is under the control of the
director, who is assisted by an expert staff and by unpaid research workers
on probation.
The work of the institute may be ranged under six heads:
(1) The investigation of the methods of utilising the human factor in
industry.
(2) The elaboration and application of suitable tests to ensure a more
efficient selection of the workers.
(3) The training of specialists in vocational guidance and other investigators, and, training courses for employers and workers.
(4) The determination of conditions calculated to ensure maximal health,
comfort and well being for the workers and the best relations
between management and labour.
(5) The study of factors influencing sales.
(6) The encouragement and co-ordination of research work in industrial
psychology in the United Kingdom.
This programme has been followed and carried out by the institute in a
broad and thorough manner. The following figures will convey some idea
of the rapid development of the institute : In 1921 the budget of the institute amounted to a little over £1,000, while by 1925 it had increased to
£7,000. During the same period the number of members and associates
increased from 100 to 700, while the staff grew from 3 to 27 members.
Investigations undertaken in 39 different industries have given the best
results and have gained for the institute the interest and good-will not
only of the employers but also of the workers. The duration of the enquiries,
which have always been made at the request of industrial employers, varied
from several weeks to three years.
The institute is supported entirely by gift and subsidies.
APPENDIX
A.—Technical
IV
Application in France 1
INDUSTRIAL TECHNIQUE
It is not our intention in this Appendix to give a description of the attempts
at application made in France prior to the war, and in which a systematic
and sometimes rather brusque attempt was made to introduce certain
methods recommended by Taylor. The cases of application of new methods
which had aroused antagonism in workers' circles cannot really be described
as scientific attempts to introduce improved methods of work. A number
of French undertakings, mainly engineering concerns, had managed secretly
to introduce rational methods of work in their workshops without borrowing
from American ideas. But these examples cannot be quoted here, as the
only information we possess concerning such undertakings is that furnished
a t a later date by engineers formerly attached to them, who appear only
too eager to pose as the earliest disciples of the principles known nowadays
under the name of scientific organisation of labour.
During the war, the intervention of the State in the organisation of production, the liberty granted to engineers versed in American methods to
introduce new methods in the workshops under their orders, the daily
increasing intensification of. production, the diversity and low quality of
labour available, were all singularly favourable to the application of new
methods which went hand in hand with the technical improvements introduced. Certain innovations introduced by engineers like Guillet, Charpy,
and Denis 2 had a great influence on the improvement of conditions of
manufacture. But it is common knowledge t h a t improvements made in
the methods of work have often been determined by the work itself. We
emphasise this point because a reproach which is often made against those
1
This Appendix has been composed from information provided by
Mr. J. Milhaud.
2
In his successful study of the thermic treatment in the manufacture
of shells, Mr. Guillet, in particular, made a number of proposals closely
resembling the ideas dear to Taylor. Commandant Denis, by establishing rules recalling those of Taylor, greatly facilitated the calculation of the
duration of manufacturing processes, while Mr. Charpy was responsible
for important research work on analytical organisation of the metal industry.
— 234 —
in favour of improved organisation of work is t h a t they do not establish
sufficiently close contact with the technical conditions of industrial'life,
and appear to believe t h a t the intervention of an organiser is all that is
required to make up for a deficiency in technique. The experience which
we have been able to acquire of the progress of scientific organisation of
labour in France has convinced us of the contrary. Such progress is always
in strict relation to the development of technique, and, in the majority of
cases encountered, an important part of the influence behind this organisation is due to the technicians and inventors.
Further, the war has shown, by examples which date from t h a t period,
t h a t scientific organisation as conceived by Taylor can be applied with as
much facility to articles which are not made in series as to mass production.
There is a tendency in certain circles to believe that scientific organisation
must be accompanied by an increase in output, which alone allows cost
prices to be lowered, and even to confound mass production and scientific
organisation. These beliefs are, of course, contrary to fact. As was
frequently seen during the war, it is perfectly feasible to apply principles
of scientific organisation and lower costs to a considerable extent, even when
the articles manufactured are of a multifarious character.
As an example of the application of the new methods of organisation of
industrial work introduced in several large French undertakings engaged
in war work, let us.take the case of a central automobile repair workshop 1.
In this workshop the operations to be carried out were very varied.
The first step taken by the director, Captain Compagnon, was to establish
specialised gangs of workers for each operation. The various stages of the
work were then methodically arranged. Once the amount of repairs which
each vehicle had to undergo had been established, the work was distributed
in accordance with a'system of routing greatly resembling t h a t recommended
by Taylor. Certain salaried employees were given the opportunity to
specialise in accountancy so as to free the foremen of these duties. The
shop in which all the necessary spare parts were to be found was methodically organised. The internal organisation of the workshop included
vehicle circulation cards which accompanied the vehicle under repairs
from its entry to its leaving the workshop, circulation cards for spare parts,
work sheets, information cards showing the number of repairs, the make,
the type, and the number of the chassis, and of the motor, etc. The information cards also showed when the vehicle was ordered and delivered.
In order to determine what part of the vehicle was to be repaired, a special
1
These efforts, which made a great impression in technical circles, were
made known to the public by a series of lectures organised in March 1918
under the auspices of the Society for the Encouragement of National
Industry, and presided over by eminent politicians and scientists, including
Mr. Millerand, ex-President of the French Republic, Mr. Loucheur, Minister
for Industrial Reconstruction, Mr. H. Le Chatelier, Member of the Institute,
and Mr. L. Lindet, President of the Society for the Encouragement of
National Industry.
— 235 —
service was set up to examine the cars on their arrival. The results of this
examination were noted on a card which enumerated the special points
to which the attention of the technicians was to be drawn. The work of
each of the gang leaders or technical foremen was carefully arranged beforehand so as to strengthen labour discipline and ensure the regular distribution of work. A model list of the various operations included in the
repair of the vehicle was drawn up, and included examination by reception
service, washing of the body, taking down the engine, cleaning, storage
of parts taken down, storage of parts ordered outside the workshop, despatch
to shop of part-lists, circulation of cards relating to manufacture and work
executed, etc.
The accountancy branch was carefully organised by means of a card
index system. The shelves and drawers themselves in the shop were
constructed on a model standard according to the recommendations of
Taylor. The distribution of work was regulated by a work-sheet which
gave to the whole operation the necessary unity and avoided delay and
hesitation. This was, as may be seen, an attempt to realise the rational
organisation of various classes of work which had no resemblance to mass
production. In the beginning, time studies were left on one side, as it was
thought that their introduction would appear too arbitrary. The experimental stage once passed, several time study experiments were made, and
these went to prove t h a t as a result of the new system of distribution of
work, there had been an average time saving of 35 per cent, and a great
economy of material in the complete overhaul of the vehicle. As a result
of the organisation of the workshop, certain technical improvements were
able to be completed, notably the rapid transformation of motor-car bodies
into motor machine gun cars.
With the help of Mr. de Fréminville, similar methods of organisation
were introduced during the war into the shipbuilding yards of Penhoét.
These yards had the reputation of building the best French ships, and it
was there that the largest French liners were built, two of the latest boats
turned out being the Paris and Ile de France. During the war, a great
deal of responsible work fell on the shipbuilding yards of Penhoët. In the
first place they were required to charge their entire plant in order to conform to the requirements of the French Admiralty, and this in the absence
of the greater part of the shop foremen and skilled workers, who had been
mobilised. In order to overcome this difficulty, tried American methods had
to be introduced, and in 1916 the first studies of these methods were begun.
In the task allotted to him, Mr. de Fréminville was able to utilise the great
experience he had gained in America, and subsequently improved in France.
Under his leadership, the whole undertaking began a complete study of the
works of American authors such as Taylor, Gantt, and Harkness, and of
the recent French literature on American methods. The most astonishing
thing is that it was found possible to organise the shipyards as a whole,
notwithstanding the diversity in the character of the work carried out in
them. The extent of this diversity will be understood when it is stated
that during the war at least 55 specialised trades were represented in the
yards. In addition to the different elements included in general engineering,
the construction of a liner necessitates co-operation between skilled workers
in almost all trades, including boiler-makers, sheet iron workers, furnace
— 236 —
men, locksmiths, electricians, carpenters, joiners, etc. The first step was
to reduce the number of operations to a minimum, and to establish the
nomenclature of all the various objects involved in construction. A time
study service was also set up from the very beginning. Some experts
consider that the transformation of an undertaking should begin by changes
of an administrative character. Here the necessity of a rapid increase in
the output of the workers compelled those concerned to begin with the
introduction of methods of work calculated to ensure a constant supervision
of all the operations performed in the different workshops.
Since the war the organisation of this undertaking has continued to develop
and the whole of the yards have remained under the control of the time
study service. The advantages which have resulted from this organisation
are numerous and give great satisfaction both to the personnel, which is
paid in proportion to the effort furnished, and to the management, which
is able to exercise a constant supervision over a complex undertaking where
opportunities for loss and waste are more frequent than in others.
The third example of application is supplied by a report from Mr. Nusbaumer, one of the most renowned French experts on the question of scientific organisation, and the author of a book considered as the most up-to-date
and competent opinion on the movement in France 1.
In 1916, Mr. Nusbaumer was called on to reorganise a large State undertaking engaged in the manufacture of gunpowder. The chief difficulties
with which he had to contend were in connection with the sorting of spoiled
powder, and the making up of the sticks of gunpowder into accurately
weighed bundles. About 3,500 persons were engaged in the powder works
of Ripault, and the duty of Mr. Nusbaumer, who had previously worked
in America with Taylor and had subsequently had an opportunity of applying
the ideas of the famous American engineer in various European factories,
was to reduce the number of persons employed in the various stages of the
manufacture of powder by an improved system of organisation.
He began by making a deep study of the various operations included in the
work such as bundling, sorting, crumbling, drawing, dehydration, etc. As
regards sorting, he succeeded in dividing up the work into elementary
operations so numerous and so dissimilar that, by an improved distribution
of the staff, he was able to eliminate all useless operations and simplify
the work. Previously, the workers had been badly installed. The sorters
worked in gangs and it was impossible to discover their individual productivity. Wages did not correspond to the quality of the elements employed.
The results of the changes introduced by Mr. Nusbaumer were to allow the
more proficient workers to increase their earnings to a considerable extent,
and to eliminate the slower workers by the strict control established in the
sorting operations. Again, the establishment of cost prices which had
practically never been studied, and which was considered impossible,
was so thoroughly gone into t h a t it was found possible to establish the
exact cost of each of the operations. As the cost of labour played a considerable part in this work, the rational organisation of work gave striking
results and rapidly increased output.
1
NUSBAUMER: Organisation scientifique des Usines. Paris, 1925.
— 237 —
The last two examples of application described in the same series of
lectures refer to undertakings in the metal industry. The first gives an
account of the methods Of administrative organisation which were introduced into the Decazeville works during the war, and goes to show what
a great influence a methodically organised management can have on the
development and financial results of a large industrial undertaking. The
impression given by this description is that Taylorism, even when applied
down to the smallest details, can be a complete success only if the management of the undertaking pays great attention to administrative methods.
The other example is a report by Mr. Charpy, who was an outstanding
figure during the war in matters of industrial technique. Some considerable
time before the war, Mr. Charpy had made a study in a gasogene works
of the rational use of the personnel with a view to simplifyng the operations
carried out in the course of the work. In all such attempts the part played
by the technical side of the work is predominant, and it is due to improvements in the disposition of the various checking apparatus that the
scientific organisation of work has been rendered efficacious.
In addition to these typical cases of application which have formed the
subject of detailed monographs, we must mention those which were carried
out in marine engineering establishments at Châlons-sur-Marne, at Guérigny, and at Clermont-Ferrand. The problem which these State enterprises were faced with was the necessity of establishing better conditions
of production which would meet the ever-growing demands of the Army
staff. In certain of these workshops specialists (Messrs. de Fréminville,
Bertrand Thompson, etc.) were called in. Similar methods were recommended in a large number of private shops. The help and advice given by the
Government were transmitted to the factories through the medium of the
Bulletin des Usines de Guerre, which was founded in 1916 to serve as a
constant liaison between the Under-Secretariat of Munitions and Artillery
and the industries working in the national defence.
I t is difficult to define the exact part taken by scientific organisation in
the efforts which date from this period, but it can be said t h a t their general
orientation was favourable to it. Attempts to apply the Taylor system
were, moreover, not limited to the iron production trades properly so
called. They were also put into practice in the military uniform factories
where production had to correspond to the requirements of the newlycreated units. Certain of these factories endeavoured in the first place
to standardise the different sizes of clothing destined for the Army, and
after this preparatory work, to introduce wage rates calculated to stimulate
production and to reduce cost prices. In the aeroplane construction factories, where it was necessary constantly to intensify production, systems
based on Taylor's methods were also introduced. The arms factory a t
St. Etienne, which had, at an earlier period, served as a field for the experiments carried out by Captain Ply, gave the opportunity to several technicians
to apply rational methods of -organisation of production. During the
reorganisation of the workshop with which he had been entrusted, Mr. DantyLafrance was able to introduce the Rowan formula of wages.
**
— 238 —
We have much less information on the few years following the war than
on the period of hostilities itself. After the war people began to work in
their own spheres without making any endeavour to inform others of results
achieved. But, in 1923, after some years of relative silence, reviews, congresses, and, in a general manner, bibliographies began to bring results of
post-war experiments to the notice of the public. All these attempts to
introduce scientific organisation were inspired by one common idea, namely,
that of reducing costs. As regards the methods employed, what has been
said during the course of this study on the subject of scientific organisation
in Europe applies equally well to France.
From the beginning efforts seem to have been mainly directed to the
preliminary planning of the work. Little opposition was met with from
the workers. The technicians responsible for the organisation generally
appear to have used great skill in their experiments. On this point we
have the evidence of a number of consulting engineers and technicians
who were themselves the moving spirits in the progressive transformation
of the works in which they were employed. We would draw attention to
a study by Mr. H. Bender, a graduate of the Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures de Paris, who during 1923 described in a technical review 1 how he
had been able to introduce methods recommended by Taylor in an engineering undertaking in Limoges, where the articles turned out were of an
exceedingly diverse character. The technical and commercial services in
this undertaking were progressively organised and, according to the author,
this reorganisation satisfied the entire staff. About the same period a
number of foundries were similarly reorganised. Mr. Nusbaumer's book 2
gives a typical example of the application of the new methods in a large
foundry in the centre of France. Work in foundries would seem to lend
itself to the introduction of methods of scientific organisation, and several
years ago the National School of Arts and Crafts in Paris founded a workshopschool in which all the methods of work are based on Taylor's ideas.
Numerous cases of application care to be found about this time in the
engineering trades, the automobile industry deserving special mention.
I n France, where this industry is highly developed, both mass production
and the manufacture of multiple types are well known. In both cases the
application of scientific organisation is frequently extremely far advanced.
As an example of mass production, it is only necessary to mention the
Berliet works in Lyons, which have frequently been described in the technical reviews. Since the war only two types of chassis have been kept, one
corresponding to a lorry, the other to a touring car, and the whole system
of construction has been based on the scientific organisation of labour. All
Taylor's methods have been applied in their entirety, especially as regards
functional control. Instruction booklets have been drawn up for the
shop stewards and foremen and standardisation is highly developed. I t is
very difficult to estimate the results obtained, as these have been somewhat
obscured by recent financial and economic conditions. Some aspects of
1
Le Génie civil, 17 Nov. 1923: "Application of Taylor's Methods in Engineering Works of Limoges; Results Obtained."
2
NUSBAUMEB, Op. Cit.
— 239 —
detailed application have, moreover, come in for criticism from the experts.
I t is certain, however, t h a t scientific methods are applied to those works
more rigidly than in the majority of French undertakings.
In another undertaking of similar character but of more recent foundation where Taylor's ideas were introduced from the very beginning, it
was observed t h a t with the development of'business it was more profitable
to reduce to a minimum the number of models built and to effect the gradual
standardisation of the materials, with a view to reducing the chassis to one
standard type. This mass production led to the introduction of methods of
rational organisation, and nowadays a completely installed planning office
directs the whole of the manufacturing services. At present the stores, internal transport services, and the sales branch are being completely reorganised.
In undertakings of the same nature where endeavours are made to adapt
the models to the customer's requirements, or where mass production is
not so fully carried out, the systematic planning of work is of even more
value. Certain firms of excellent repute have made great progress in this
connection. A number of motor works desiring to avoid certain commercial
difficulties have adopted the plan of installing their own smithies and foundries. The problems to which this step gives rise are then generally settled
by means of the scientific organisation of the new workshops. At the
present time the installation of shops and commercial services is of great
concern to the managements of the undertakings, which often call in the
service of expert engineers and accountants.
Rational methods of production are also extending to the organisation
of commercial services. The big automobile firms attach too much importance to satisfying the taste of their customers to neglect the establishment
of permanent co-operation between their commercial and technical departments. The former provide the latter with information concerning the
trend of public requirements and the technical services are thus able to
decide what changes to make in the new models. In this way, the technical
work of the research bureau is influenced by commercial requirements.
This liaison between the technical and commercial departments, which is
far from being general and of which the absence may seriously endanger
the results of industrial enterprise, is considered in France as one of the best
results of industrial rationalisation.
The majority of the undertakings of which we have spoken have introduced wage systems based on methods of work; the fact t h a t workers in
the motor-car industry generally work in gangs reduces the importance
of the wage systems which regard the individual aspects of the work, and
on the other hand adds importance to those applicable to collective work.
A special place must be allotted in this study to certain engineering establishments of various kinds which have come under the direct influence
of Taylorism, owing to the fact that their reorganisation was entrusted to
engineers inspired by the teachings or example of Taylor. To the French
public, the best known of these is Mr. Bertrand Thompson, who since the
war has undertaken the reorganisation of factories of the most varied
character. The great success of the book 1 recently published by him is an
1
La Réorganisation des usines. 2 vols. Paris, 1926.
— 240 —
indication of the interest shown nowadays by French industrialists in the
new methods. Without actually asserting that the factories organised by
him are examples of complete Taylorism, we feel safe in saying t h a t in them
a great admiration of Taylor's principles is shown, and that therefore they
may be taken as good examples as far as France is concerned. In these
undertakings the planning office always a predominant part and works in
close contact with the workships through the medium of job distribution
cards. The staff of the various branches is specialised and all details
concerning work in the shops are entered on tables showing the progress
of the work. The wage systems are logically deduced from the general
organisation of the work.
Cases of application made in the mining industry of France, although
but of recent date and little developed, are highly significant. They
throw a new light on the possibilities of increasing the output and the cost
of extraction of coal—two most important questions to all European
States. At no period in the pre-war days would consideration have been
given to the idea of introducing Taylor's methods in work of so varied a
character and so difficult to plan out in advance as the hewing of coal. The
most t h a t could have been conceived would have been in connection with
the organisation of the auxiliary work, such as the transportation of the
mineral from the mines and the various surface operations. While we have
very little information on the attempts made previous to and during the
war, a certain amount of data is available concerning experiments made
immediately after its conclusion, and of which a number were crowned
with success. In 1919 when the mines, or a t least those situated in AlsaceLorraine, were still under military control, the Director of the Mines Department of Metz advised the workers placed' under his orders, in view of the
low quality of labour and of a scarcity of coal, to t r y certain experiments
calculated to establish the work of the miners on a new basis, but the habits
and the conservative character of the miners rendered all attempts in this
direction very, difficult to realise.
In addition to these experiments, which were perhaps facilitated by the
existence of military control, a number of studies made since the war in the
Saar and Moselle mines should be noted. When the mines were taken
over by private enterprise, a research bureau was set up to study conditions
of labour, improvement of plant, the standardisation of machinery, and the
training of the workers in the various branches of the industry. An article
published in the Revue de VIndustrie minérale 1 (text of report submitted to
the Congress of the Mining Industry held at Metz on 3 June 1924) contains
interesting details concerning the work of this bureau. The author describes
the difficulties which had to be overcome when introducing methods of time
study into the mines and how the workers were gradually won over to the
new methods which resulted in a considerable increase in output. The
title of this article shows that the most rigorous principles of experimental
analysis were applied during the course of this experiment. In the first
1
"Three Year's Application, Analysis and Synthesis in Underground
Work in the Saar and Moselle Mines," by Mr. VOUTERS. Revue de VIndustrie
minérale, 12 Aug. 1924.
— 241 —
place existing conditions of labour were studied in detail, then gradual
changes were introduced in the more simple operations. The result of these
changes were then observed, and the whole system of work was thus modified
little by little. Special efforts were made during the course of these studies
to establish perfect harmony in the work of gangs engaged in hewing and
transporting the coal, and these resulted in increasing the output of the hewers
by 30 per cent, and t h a t of the transport workers by from 30 to 60 per cent.
The work of the research bureau, which was not set up without a certain
amount of opposition, has continued to develop in importance. The workers
have come to understand that the changes introduced are to their advantage,
and their confidence has been gained by establishing job rates for a period
of six months ahead. Those affected by the new methods were paid a t
lower rates than those enjoyed by the other gangs, but as a result of improved
organisation they were able t o earn, during the same period, one and a half
times, and sometimes twice, the normal wage. Apart the changes introduced
in the work itself, every effort was made to encourage the inventiveness of
the workers of all grades. Every worker discovering new means of reducing
costs received a bonus in proportion to the savings realised. New apparatus
was baptised with the name of its inventor. These detailed innovations
did much to gain the collaboration of the workers in the new organisation
of work.
The research bureau has also exercised great influence on the engineers
who, on joining the staff of the mine, were required to put in a probationery
period in the bureau in order to familiarise themselves with the new methods.
We apologise to our readers for having dwelt at length on the example of
the Saar mines, but this example is an important stage in the technical
development and exploitation of mines in general, and a striking instance
of what may be obtained in the use of scientific methods.
Railways are an important field of activity for all engineers interested
in scientific organisation, and in France, at all events, it would appear t h a t
the efforts made to introduce new methods have met with great success in
two directions. On certain lines efforts have been made by a minute analysis
of the work of the station staffs, and particularly the staffs of marshalling
yards, to estimate the cost of the various operations carried out, and to
diminish, in consequence, the staff employed. Some years ago, the French
Eastern Railways Company made Mr. Bertrand Thompson responsible
for the reorganisation of an important marshalling yard, and the studies,
undertaken resulted in reducing expenses of the company to a very considerable extent. I t is moreover fairly easy in marshalling yards to estimate
the output of the gangs employed, and to establish the wage formula;
corresponding to the human effort supplied.
The second branch in which attempts have been made to introduce scientific organisation is the railway repair workshop. At the conclusion of
the war, the railways found themselves in a very difficult situation, which
arose from the worn-out state of the rolling stock and the scarcity of labour,
or at least its demands and low quality. To meet this situation, the State
railways appointed a committee to study the reorganisation of their repair
shops. The reporter of this committee, Mr. Marcel Bloch, chief engineer
of the Paris-Orleans Company, recommended the application of rational
methods in accordance with Taylor's principles. The plans he submitted
17
— 242 —
were an obvious answer to the requirements of the moment, and the work
to be executed. There could be no question of an immediate introduction
of new methods into such varied work as that of the repair of locomotives
and rolling stock. In building a locomotive, more than 4,000 separate
parts are employed, hence locomotive repairing is a most complicated operation. I t was practically impossible to make systematic experiments
with a view to drawing up model repair lists, or even to make time studies.
Nevertheless, the general plan proposed by Mr. Bloch, which was rapidly
brought into operation in certain lines and especially in the repair shops
of the Paris-Orleans Company, led little by little to an almost perfect
organisation of the workshops. In those of Tours, for example, the progression of the work is completely planned out by the planning office, which
alone is competent to establish the series of operations to be executed in
repairing a locomotive and which has the entire supervision of all details
of execution.
Gradually, as a result of daily experience, diagrams have been evolved
in the various shops which show the standard time necessary for each elementary operation. The times for the various operations have been fixed in
agreement with the workers. The diagrams also permit the establishment
of time sheets, and the bonuses earned are on an average about 15 per cent.
of the normal wage. The results obtained have exceeded all anticipation.
Formerly, the workshops were the centre of frequent disorders which often
culminated in partial or complete strikes. The time the locomotives were
immobilised during repairs was never fixed and workers were paid wages
based on their seniority. Nowadays, however, the situation is completely
changed, not only from the standpoint of material results, but also from the
psychological and social point of view. The undertaking is so managed
that the locomotive never remains over 60 hours in the shops on any account.
The various grades in the undertaking all consider it a matter of pride to
reduce the time limits, and this spirit is as prevalent in those engaged in
administrative duties as among the workers. Bonuses certainly play a
part in encouraging the workers to speed up their work, but there would
appear to be little doubt t h a t the best stimulus is the satisfaction which is
felt by engineers and workers alike in seeing complicated work like the
taking-down, cleaning, and re-assembling of a locomotive accomplished in
as short a time as possible. Endeavours have been made to specialise the
foremen, and to abolish, in accordance with Taylor's ideas, the predominance of any one of them over the others.
Successful experiments have also been made in certain other services of
exploitation and traction. We would draw attention from an administrative
point of view to the improvements made in certain of the commercial services which, on account of the intensity of traffic and the extension of the
railways, play an important part in the life of the various railway companies.
Attention must also be drawn to the studies made by Mile. Leroy 1 in connection with the calculation of the cost of railway transport.
In the same category of ideas, although they do not refer to railways
1
These studies formed the subject of highly technical reports made to
the Congress on Scientific Organisation held in Paris in 1923, and to the
International Conference at Brussels in 1925.
— 243 —
properly so called, should be mentioned the cases of application of scientific
management, which has been introduced with equal success in the central
repair shop of the Société des transports en commun de la région parisienne x.
The French rubber industry has also been the field of interesting attempts
to introduce scientific organisation. Reference has already been made
to the important part played by Messrs. Michelin in the development of
the movement for scientific management. Won over easily to the new
ideas, they immediately introduced them in their workshops. The firm
attach special importance to the scientific training of their staff, and for
this purpose they have set up a virtual "school of Taylorism" where candidates for certain posts in their works must complete a probationery period,
at the termination of which they are required to sit for an examination in
proof of their organising ability. In addition to their efforts to encourage
scientific management, Messrs. Michelin have published a booklet on the
application of Taylorism in their industry, in which information is given
on the methods employed by them to divide up certain operations, such as
the assembling of a pneumatic valve, with a view to time studies. The
commercial success of this firm would seem clearly to demonstrate the efficacy of the methods recommended by them. Their effort is one of the
most striking examples of the application of new methods which are
dictated, as has been seen, not only by the desire to increase productivity
and output, but also by urgent social considerations. Other undertakings
treating rubber have been reorganised on similar lines. One of them which,
apart from pneumatic types, also specialises in the manufacture of other
rubber goods, such as bicycle tyres, tubes, clothes, shoes, carpets, etc., has
been completely reorganised by Mr. Bertrand Thompson. In this undertaking the introduction of new methods in the manufacture of a very small
number of articles of the same kind, or even of an entirely different character,
has proved the efficacy of scientific organisation.
A number of experiments in the new methods have also been made in
the chemical industry. As one of the best examples we would mention
the case, quoted in Mr. Nusbaumer's book, of a glassworks in Central France
which has succeeded in introducing rational methods of order in both its
technical and administrative departments.
Attention must also be drawn to the ideas of Mr. Fayol, which have had
a great influence on many of the industries mentioned in this study. The
conviction, fairly widespread in France, that Taylorism can be of use only
when applied to a well-managed undertaking is confirmed by the fact that
in almost every case where scientific methods of organisation have been
applied to the technical departments, the administrative departments have
come under the influence of methods which it is difficult to determine as
originating with Taylorism or with Taylor. These methods uniformly
aim at the development of all forms of co-ordination and supervision and
the powers of control a t the disposal of the members of the undertaking.
The case of the French Company Thompson-Houston is most typical.
Coming under the influence of oversea ideas, owing to the frequent contact
of its chiefs with corresponding American societies, this company may be
1
Report made to the Congress on Scientific Organisation, Paris, 1923.
— 244 —
said to have applied the main ideas of administrative doctrine to the central
services 1 . The effect of Fayol's works were felt equally in railway companies,
motor traction works, and numerous undertakings of a secondary character.
Certain studies or monographs written by disciples of Fayol, themselves
engineering experts and organisers of merit, supply us with conclusive
evidence of this. This is specially so in the case of Mr. Carlioz's book,
Le Gouvernement des Entreprises, which contains a summary of lectures
given a t the School of Higher Commercial Studies at Paris. The examples
quoted by him are very varied and include a large company for the construction of electric motors, a company specialised in the sale of machine
tools, and two large stores in Paris. Each of the undertakings possess
technical and commercial departments unequally developed. The monographs on them show that their managers have all been equally attentive
to the application in different degrees of ideas inspired by the development
of scientific methods.
Apart from the purely industrial undertakings of which we have spoken,
mention should be made of others of a commercial character, but which
often include technical workshops, at least for the preparation or the repair
of the articles sold. I t is thus that certain large shops manufacturing a
part of the objects they sell, certain jewellery factories, printing works,
companies for forestry exploitation, a few agricultural societies, aerial
transport companies, companies for the distribution of foodstuffs, clothing
and shoe factories, etc., have been the object of a partial application of
methods of scientific management.
As regards commercial and financial establishments where mechanisation
is but little applied, it appears premature to talk of rational organisation,
but, nevertheless, certain experiments have already established interesting
cases of precedence. For example, the organisation of the despatch services
in large shops and banks, where methodical simplifications have led to
appreciable savings ; the organisation of the accountancy branches of large
insurance companies by the introduction of calculating machines which
have sometimes permitted a staff reduction of 50 per cent, and, a t the same
time, the establishment of a valuable documentation on the general working
of the undertaking.
Commercial methods properly so called have also been influenced by
methods of scientific organisation, especially in the psychological study of
the mentality of the clientele and the staff employed in the services. New
methods of sales organisation, although yet somewhat ill-defined, are assuming
a more and more important place in the curricula of technical and commercial
schools in France 2. Trade associations and commercial syndicates have
both endeavoured to obtain practical results through these experiments,
especially as regards collective sales abroad. Experts in matters of exportation have taken up the question and are endeavouring to establish precise
methods for the general organisation of sales, by selecting the possible
1
See report of Mr. COLPIN to the Brussels Conference, 1925 : Mémoire
sur2 la fabrication des pièces détachées à la Compagnie Thompson-Houston.
There is already a certain amount of literature on commercial organisation. In this connection we would draw attention to a collection of studies
published in 1922
by the TRADE U N I O N CHAMBER OF COMMERCIAL ORGANI-
— 245 —
markets and persuading commercial men, hitherto rivals, to compare their
methods and to use common measures in their export business, by organising
closer collaboration between the banks, and by systematically reducing
waste and useless expenditure.
In addition to sales properly so called, about which much has been written,
there has also been a considerable amount of research work devoted to
accountancy from a purely commercial or industrial point of view. Expert
accountants who place their services a t the disposal of business concerns
to organise and supervise their financial departments, play an important
part in this connection. The complexity of modern business, the constant
increase in t h e number of limited liability companies, and t h e growth of
commercial houses with numerous branches, have created new problems
for accountants, with the result t h a t they are endeavouring more and more
to introduce scientific methods in their solution. The close liaison which
must necessarily exist between the financial and technical departments of
a concern is leading a large number of technicians to take an interest in
financial questions and it is not uncommon in large establishments t o find
engineers a t the head of financial departments.
Even advertising, which is the ultimate stage of commercial organisation,
has formed t h e subject of special study in France as well as in Germany.
A certain number of technicians are studying this question and endeavouring,
just as in the case of the manufacture of some product, to estimate the cost
of a publicity department and, a t the same time, to study the psychological
and material conditions likely to guarantee its success. In this connection
we would draw attention t o t h e vast efforts a t organisation made by t h e
daily newspapers. The diversity of- their departments and of the circles
in which they circulate bring their organisers face to face with complex
problems which for some time past have been subjected to methodical
study. Certain large newspapers in Paris have installed veritable planning
offices which deal not only with technical questions but also with those
connected with general organisation. The duties of these offices generally
include the study of improvements in the various departments, the calculation of the cost of the various headings treated in the newspapers, and the
establishment of wages in accordance with t h e work performed.
To this short description of examples of t h e application of scientific
management in industrial, commercial, and administrative circles in France
should be added the experiments made under the direct influence of Fayol
in certain State administrative departments and in the administration of
a number of State monopolies of an industrial character. Fayol's criticism
of the administrative organisation of the tobacco monopoly, coming as it
did after the inspection of the committee specially appointed to study t h e
improvements to be made, undoubtedly exercised considerable influence
on the competent circles, although as yet his suggestions have not been
officially adopted.
SATIONS under the supervision of Mr. J . Wilbois. This volume is entitled
Etude d'organisation commerciale, and includes articles and studies by
Messrs. J . W I L B O I S , C. MAMET, F . MAURICE, L. DAMOUR, Gabriel F A U R E .
The review Mon Bureau, which specialises in questions of industrial and
commercial organisation, also contains numerous studies on these questions.
— 246 —
B.—Psycho-Technology
and its Application
in Germany 1
Following the classification suggested by Moede 2 , we shall now give some
brief consideration to cases of psycho-technical methods in connection
with :
(a)
(6)
(c)
(d)
the distribution of labour (vocational selection and guidance) ;
vocational education (Anlernung) ;
methods of works, tools, installation of the workshop;
advertising and publicity in connection with accident prevention.
These different groups cannot be separated very distinctly as rational
training based on scientific methods, and the use of perfected tools chosen
as a result of calculations and minute observation is merely the logical
consequence of selection. I t is therefore our intention to cut vertically
through the different branches of economic activity in Germany and to
show how far psycho-technical methods are applied nowadays 3 :
(1) In State or municipal undertakings:
(a) Reichsbahn;
(b) Reichspost;
(c) Urban transport services.
(2) In private undertakings:
(a) Engineering, electrical, etc., trades;
(ft) Textile trade;
(c) Wood, paper, etc., industries;
(d) Agriculture and forestry.
I t appears more logical to us, however, to devote a special paragraph to
vocational guidance which, although it makes use of psycho-technical
methods, has nevertheless a more general character than selection, which
has been adopted and is exercised in accordance with a definite plan and
within official limits in a uniform manner for all cases.
1.—VOCATIONAL G U I D A N C E
History of the Movement
The first attempts made in Germany to introduce vocational guidance
on methodical lines must be attributed to associations of teachers (Lehrverein) or doctors—publication of professional monographs—and to artisans
and trade unions which endeavoured to organise apprenticeship on a more
rational basis.
1
Contributed by Dr. L. Rabinovitch.
Most of the facts mentioned are taken from Die Industrielle Psychotechnik, a review managed by MOEDE, or from the Reichsarbeitsblatt.
3
There is no need to dwell on the general conditions which governed the
introduction of scientific organisation of labour in Germany as these have
already been described in this study.
2
— 247 —
In 1894 the Union of Women's Associations (Bund deutscher Frauenvereine) began to make a study of the various trades suitable for women
and to promote the development of vocational education. This led to the
foundation of a number of vocational guidance and information offices,
which in 1911 were grouped together in the Kartell der Auskumftsstellen
für Frauenberufe, in Berlin, this being the first attempt at systematic and
centralised application of methods of vocational guidance.
In 1908 the Zentrale für Volkswohlfahrt conducted an enquiry into the
development of vocational guidance, trade union offices for vocational
guidance and for the placing of apprentices, chambers of commerce and
artisans, etc. The results of this enquiry were described in 1910 a t the
sixth annual conference of the Verband deutscher Arbeitsnachweise held at
Breslau and a t the conference of the Zentralstelle für Jugendwohlfahrte held
in Elberfeld in 1911.
Later another congress held in February 1913 under the auspices of the
Zentralstelle für Volkswohlfahrt resulted in the foundation of a committee
for vocational guidance (Deutscher Ausschuss für Berufsberatung).
The
duty of this committee was to encourage the extension of vocational guidance, to obtain its official recognition by the authorities, and to study
methods and results. As the direct result of the work of the committee
the German States began in 1917 to issue Decrees and Orders with a view
to the standardisation of vocational guidance. In 1917 also, the Handtverks und Gewerbekammern and, in 1919, the trade unions called for the
systématisation of vocational guidance.
The most important legislative text in this connection is contained in
the Allgemeine Bestimmungen für die Berufsberatung und Lehrstellenvermittlung bei den Arbeitsnachweisämtern und ausserhalb der Arbeitsämter
(12 May 1923, Ergänzung zum Reichsarbeitsnachweisgesetz, 22 July 1922).
Present Organisation
According to this Order the general regulations governing vocational
guidance and the placing of apprentices through the employment offices
are as follows :
(1) Vocational guidance and the placing of apprentices includes (a) the
methodical preparation of the choice of a trade and the promotion of knowledge of such questions among the masses, (ft) guidance in the strict sense of
the term by information and advice, (c) indication of schools and other
facilities for vocational training, (d) placing apprentices in employment
where hygiene, good morals, and the requirements of the trade are assured.
(2) The vocational guidance offices are required to establish contact with
the educational institutions of their district in order to be able to keep check
of children leaving schools.
(3) Vocational guidance and the placing of apprentices must be carried
out without favouritism.
(4) Vocational guidance and the placing of apprentices shall complete
each other as far as possible.
(5) The duties of the regional offices (Landesämter für Arbeitsvermittlung)
are similar, but their scope is wider. They are required (a) to participate
— 248 —
in the work in favour of the development of vocational guidance, (b) to
supervise the activity of the existing services and of private guidance offices
placing persons in employment, (c) to draw up diagrams and statistics
concerning the development of the various trades and the supply and
demand for apprentices.
Various legislative measures adopted by the States make vocational
• guidance compulsory 1 and the municipalities are responsible for its introduction and management. The municipalities are recommended to entrust
vocational guidance t o the employment offices, and although this is not
legally compulsory it has become practically so, as an Order of 22 July 1922
(Arbeitsnachweisgeiz) introduces the payment of a subsidy to all vocational
guidance offices attached to the employment offices. Unattached vocational
guidance officers do not receive a subsidy but are subject to the same
regulations.
Berlin, Bremen, Breslau, Hamburg, Hanover, Cologne, and Munster are
veritable laboratories of vocational guidance. In these centres the persons
coming under vocational guidance are subjected to psycho-physiological
tests in addition to the usual oral tests.
In Berlin the Landcsberuftsamt advises some 50,000 persons yearly in
their choice of employment, but the present conditions of the. market are
such that but a small proportion can be placed as apprentices. I t is certain,
however, that vocational guidance, carefully organised and well received
in all circles, will develop rapidly and give good results as soon as the
economic situation becomes better. We quote below some figures obtained
as a result of an enquiry carried out by the Reichsarbeilsverwaltung.
These
figures show the important part played by psycho-technical examinations
in measures of vocational guidance :
N u m b e r o£
N u m b e r of
candidates
offices providing
a psycho-technical examined yearly
b y these offices
examination
Trades
Engineering and metallurgy
Commerce
Joiners and carpenters
Clothing (especially seamstresses) . . . .
Printing trades
Boot and shoemaking, cardboard industry
Building
Office work (shorthand and typewriting)
Decorative arts
1 Reichsarbeitsblatt,
15
13
14
13
11
10
9
3,818
1,171
1,002
856
657
357
250
189
172 '
N . F. 8, p p . 133-13«.
1
I t may be asserted that all children leaving the primary schools are
subjected to vocational guidance. The guidance of pupils leaving secondary
schools (Akademische Berufsberatung) also exists, but it is obvious t h a t it
is much less important from an economic and social point of view and
naturally much less developed.
— 249 —
I t has been calculated that from 5 to 15 per cent, of the persons advised
are put through psycho-technical tests. Everywhere the results obtained
are highly satisfactory and there is a tendency to popularise the tests to
the largest possible extent.
2 . — P S Y C H O - T E C H N I C A L APPLICATION I N STATE U N D E R T A K I N G S
State
Railways
As the result of measures taken by the Minister of Transport (Reichsverkersministerium) a central laboratory for psycho-technical tests for
employees on the German railways was installed in 1921 at Eichkamp,
near Berlin *. This institution was required :
(a) to draw up a programme of psycho-technical examinations, covering
the various duties performed by the staff of the State railways ;
( b) to train examiners and to introduce examinations ;
(c) to check the value of the examinations by comparing the results
with those achieved later by the candidate in the course of his
work ;
(rf) to study, and ultimately to apply, the best methods of vocational
training of the staff selected.
The management of the laboratory was entrusted to a high-grade railway
employee, who was assisted by specialist technicians.
In pursuance of this plan, examinations have so far been established for
various classes of employees, including booking-office and general clerks,
platform inspectors, engine-drivers, all classes of apprentices, and unskilled
workers on the railways. Examinations for apprentices have been developed
much more than others, this being explained by the fact that in view of the
large number of candidates coming forward every year psycho-technical
selection has come to be considered as the impartial method of refusing the
large surplus who cannot be admitted.
In drawing up the programme of examinations, account has been taken
of two important points, namely, that the majority of the apprentices
become locksmiths (Schlosser), and that a certain number of them subsequently enter the ranks of the salaried employees. It is therefore necessary
for the candidates to possess a good general knowledge besides the usual
vocational aptitudes required by metal workers. I t is for this reason t h a t
in the majority of examinations special attention is paid to general intelligence, memory, technical and geometrical knowledge and acumen, the
skill and sensitiveness of touch of the hand and wrist, the calculation of
distances, sharpness of the senses, etc.
The results obtained have up to the present been favourable, and a correlation of over 90 per cent, has been observed between the results of the examinations held so far and results achieved in actual practice. Moreover, the
new methods are being applied more to vocational training. Demonstration
1
There are also a number of other important laboratories, notably in
Dresden, where engine-drivers are examined, and in Munich.
— 250 —
rooms have been installed, where the work of the various branches is
explained to the candidates, who are subsequently required to practise the
various operations and accustom themselves to the improvements in tools,
levers, etc., calculated to facilitate the work and improve output. Mention
must also be made of the use of pictorial posters calling attention to the
danger of certain operations, etc.
Postal Services
At the same period, and under similar conditions, vocational selection
and training were introduced by the Post Office authorities into the telegraph and telephone services, the sorting departments, the railway station
postal services, telegraph construction and cartage, while steps are at present
being considered in connection with their introduction in the booking office
and accountancy branches.
As the first experiments, which were carried out in Berlin, gave excellent
results, a corps of specialised employees is being trained to direct the examinations in other towns *.
Berlin Tramways
The Berlin Tramway Company was one of the first undertakings to think
of applying psycho-technical methods. The first examination 2 held in
1919, included 36 candidates, among whom it was necessary to find the
ten best qualified for the post of conductor. After four years' experience
it has been seen t h a t the results of the examination corresponded very
closely with the work executed (90 per cent.), and subsequent examinations,
which were attended by larger groups of candidates, have confirmed the
first result. Still more interesting figures have been given by Mr. Tramm,
chief engineer to the company. During one of the examinations, which
have been held regularly since 1919 at the instruction centre for apprentice
conductors, two groups of 50 persons passed in vocational training. The
first group (a) successfully sat for a series of psychological tests. The second
group (6) did not receive such tests.
During the first year of service the conductors of group (6) were involved
in a number of accidents, which exceeded by 50 per cent, the number
attributable to conductors in (a) group. During the second year the difference was still about 40 per cent. Again, the training of group (6) required
120 hours (30 per cent.) more than the time required by the (a) group.
Finally, the conductors of (a) group effected considerable saving in current
and material.
The same system of training is now being applied with the same success
to conductors of the Berlin Fire Brigade, and similar, and sometimes identical, methods are employed in other institutions responsible for the selection
1
On going to press we learn that the Reichspost has abandoned methods
of selection.
2
This examination included additional tests of presence of mind, rapidity
of reactions, and emotions.
— 251 —
of tramway staff and lorry drivers, as, for example, in the psychological
laboratory of the University of Hamburg, the polytechnic school of Darmstadt, etc.
3.—PRIVATE
INDUSTRY
Engineering, Electrical, and Similar Trades
Besides being the most important in Germany, these industries are the
most widespread and best equipped from a technical point of view. There
is therefore nothing astonishing either in the development of psychotechnical vocational training shown within them since 1920 or in the everincreasing rationalisation of tools, arrangements of workshops, etc.
I t is safe to say t h a t a t the present moment, every undertaking of any
importance makes arrangements for the pyscho-technical examination of
its apprentices and workers. We quote as examples the following firms,
taken from a list of over 100 names: Adlerwerke A.-G. ; Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft; Benzwerke A.-G. ; A. Borsig G. m. b. H. ; R. Bosch A.-G. ;
Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks A.-G. ; Hannoversche Maschinenbau A.-G. ;
A. Krupp, Essen; L. Loewe and Co. A.-G.; Maschinenfabrik AugsburgNürnberg; W. Morell A.-G.; A. Opel; Osram; Rheinmetall A.-G.; Siemens
and Halske A.-G. ; Siemens-Schuckertwerke G. m. b. H.
Selection is carried out, either in the special laboratories which a number
of undertakings have set up or through the medium of institutions, either
independent or attached to the polytechnic colleges or offices of vocational
guidance. Tests invented by experts such as Moede (Charlottenburg),
Geise (Stuttgart),and Friedrich (Karlsruhe) are used to determine the various
aptitudes already enumerated in connection with apprentices of the State
railways. At present it would seem that special attention is being given
to psycho-technical vocational training. I t has been found t h a t by the
employment of these methods, a satisfactory output can be obtained in
the majority of cases, and from the more backward workers.
The new methods have been favourably received by the workers, who
see in them a means of increasing their earnings, as piece rates are in general
use in the industries in question. We have been informed of cases where
workers of several years' service in the workshops have gone voluntarily
to the director of the training courses, and asked him to examine them and
to allow them to take part in the practice courses.
Textiles
The situation is the same in the textile industry. I t is, of course, obvious
t h a t the character of the tests varies with the nature of the work performed,
but the principles, conditions of application, and results obtained are the
same.
Very interesting experiments have recently been made in the psychotechnical research laboratory of Charlottenburg to discover the best colours
for backgrounds (i.e. the walls, tables, floor, etc.) of the thread spread on
— 252 —
the looms and in the weft. A series of corresponding colours has been
established, which, other things being equal, ensure a better output, and large
undertakings are gradually adopting this new procedure.
Other Industries
In the wood-working industry interesting psycho-technical experiments
have been made with a view to accident prevention.
Psycho-technical selection has also been introduced in a number of
industries including the ceramic, paper, biscuit-making, chocolate-making,
rubber, and other trades.
Commerce, Banking, etc.
Methods of vocational selection are often applied to salaried employees
by the large industrial undertakings which have already introduced them
for their workers.
Again, the large banks, commercial houses, insurance companies, etc.,
have in many cases adopted similar methods in choosing their staff.
Attention must also be drawn here to the interesting development in
advertising methods which has resulted from the influence of American
methods or from research work carried out in the special departments of
the higher commercial schools.
Agriculture and Forestry
Attempts have recently been made to apply psycho-technical methods to
agricultural and forestry work, although here it is rather a question of
adapting the tools to the worker and to the work he is called on to perform.
C.—Standardisation
Standardisation or normalisation includes a t one and the same time
selection and unification. Among a certain number of figures, formulae,
models, methods or characteristics 1 a minimum number embodying a maximum number of qualities are selected, and an endeavour is made to get
1
According to the opinion of the conference of Secretaries of Standardisation Committees, standardisation may usefully be employed in connection with: (1) nomenclature or definition of technical terms used in specifications and contracts and in all technical work, abbreviations, symbols
for dimensions used in calculations, graphical symbols; (2) uniformity in
the dimensions necessary to ensure the interchangeability of parts and
articles of stock and the adaptibility of one apparatus to another; (3) simplification in connection with the quality of materials, machines, and apparatus; (4) methods of reception; (5) establishment of the power of machines
and apparatus; (6) safety measures; (7) regulations for the working of
machines and apparatus in industrial establishments; (8) limitation of the
number of types, sizes, etc., of the articles manufactured.
— 253 —
the types or standards adopted by the producers, who will apply them, and
by the public, i.e. the consumers. I t will be immediately recognised t h a t
one of the main difficulties to the rapid introduction of standards is of a
psychological nature, and t h a t their extension will increase in adverse
ratio to the individualism of the centres or nations in which it is proposed
to introduce them.
Standardisation may be considered from various standpoints, for example,
it may be effected within the undertaking, in which case it consists simply
in limiting the number of types turned out. This form of standardisation,
which is at the base of the activity of all undertakings of any importance,
need not retain our attention. The psychological obstacle previously
mentioned has no importance in this case, as an undertaking supplying a
certain group of consumers can always establish its standards to suit the
taste of its customers.
On the other hand, standardisation can also be carried out by trade
organisations or corporations for a whole branch of industry, as, for example,
the building, engineering, electrical or ceramic trades. The unification
and simplification of production with a view to reducing the cost may be
carried out on national lines by a central official or private institution, as
is the case in most industrial countries. Such an institution works to encourage measures of standardisation, carries out research work and establishes
through committees of experts the standards useful for the various important
branches of national activity, takes steps to familiarise the public with the
new standards—a necessary measure when the number of standard types
is reduced for all branches of industry—and endeavours to establish contact
with similar institutions in other countries.
This programme is merely a short summary of the development made in
standardisation during the past few years. In the following paragraph a
description is given of the advance made in the various industrial countries,
and this is followed by a second paragraph where the subject is treated from
an international standpoint.
1.—STANDARDISATION INSTITUTIONS IN THE VARIOUS I N D U S T R I A L
COUNTRIES OF E U R O P E
In Great Britain the British Engineering Standards Association is the
central institution for standardisation. Founded in 1901 by the Civil
Engineers' Association, this organisation included, by 1908, 22 specialised
sections engaged in the study of questions of standardisation. Nowadays
it is a vast organisation subsidised by the Government and industry, with
an annual budget of over £50,000. Up to the war its activities were concentrated on the standardisation of steel products (sections, rails, etc.), and it
was only after the war t h a t the main development of the organisation took
place. At present the organisation counts close on 40 sections working in
connection with the principal industries of the country. I t is also in close
contact with the learned societies, such as the Engineers' Association, the
Iron and Steel Institute, the Institution of Naval Architects, the National
Physical Laboratory, etc., as well as with industry, and progress in standardisation is thus rendered comparatively easy. It should be noted that in
— 254 —
this aspect of the rational organisation of production as in all the others,
great attention is paid in England to the human factor. Mr. Le Maistre,
secretary-general of the association, who was responsible for the creation
of a permanent international organisation for normalisation, drew special
attention to this fact a t the International Congress on Standardisation,
held in Baden in 1923.
Mention has already been made elsewhere of the activities of the Normenausschuss der Deutschen Industrie in Germany. I t only remains to mention
that the introduction of standards into practical work is greatly facilitated
by the fact t h a t the engineers who collaborate in the work of the various
sub-committees of the N.D.I, are frequently associated in the management
of a factory. A special committee has also been set up to promote the
spread of standards, and the members of this committee are with few exceptions at the head of standardisation offices in the large undertakings. The
most frequent cases of the application of standards are to be found in the
engineering industries, especially in the automobile trade and the electrical
and building trades.
Studies had been made in France even before the war with a view to
standardising the threads of screws. The Société d'encouragement pour
l'industrie had taken the first steps in this direction in 1891. From this
date the standards chosen were used on the railways, in the Navy, and in
State administrations and establishments. Again, the French ElectroTechnical Committee contributed a large share to the establishment of a
vocabulary and conventional signs in connection with electrical construction;
this vocabulary and these symbols were adopted by the International
Electro-Technical Congress of Saint Louis in 1904.
The Permanent Standardisation Committee, the central French institution,
was founded by a Presidential Decree dated 10 June 1918 and is attached
to the Ministry of Commerce. Among its members are all the Ministries
most concerned with industry, viz. Commerce, War, Naval Affairs, Public
Works, Labour, Colonies; delegates of technical associations and savants;
the Academy of Science, the Society for the Encouragement of National
Industry, Society of Civil Engineers, Society of Electricians, Society of
the Mining Industry.
I t carries out its work through a number of sub-committees specialised
according to industry. The sub-committees draft plans which are submitted
to the permanent committee and, by way of the press, to the public.
The proposals submitted are then studied and the committee takes the
necessary decisions, which are published in the Journal Officiel. Descriptions
of the various work undertaken are published separately and put on sale.
As regards the obligations arising out of the decisions of the committee,
the following principle has been admitted: the large administrations, all the
public services, and all industrial undertakings having a monopoly or
guaranteed interests, must strictly observe the decisions of the committee
except in certain specified cases. Moreover, the fact t h a t many of the
members of the sub-committees are representatives of industrial federations
facilitates the introduction of the standards or methods recommended
into private industry.
— 255 —
In Russia there is no single central organisation quite like those already
described, but the majority of institutes and centres of scientific organisation
in Russia show an interest in standardisation.
The Council of Scientific Organisation has a section for the standardisation
of materials, while the Institute for the Application of Industrial Methods
to the State Administrations has a permanent standardisation bureau
attached to it. In Moscow there is also a Central Bureau of Normalisation,
which carries out propaganda for the "normalisation of the individual's
productivity". A committee for the organisation of transport has made
special studies in the standardisation of the services and the working of the
railways.
The standardisation of products for export is pushed much further, and
is rendered much easier by the fact that foreign trade is a State monopoly.
Attention must also be drawn to the agreements concluded with Germany,
for the introduction into both countries of certain fixed standards in connection with office equipment and, more particularly, notepaper, envelopes,
circulars, etc.
In Czechoslovakia a standardisation committee attached to the Masaryk
Academy of Labour has been appointed to draw up the "principles concerning the more rational use of matter, human energy, and time".
This committee includes 42 sections and almost as many sub-sections.
It is very active and receives subsidies from industrial employers, these
being in proportion to the number of workers employed. Its annual budget
in close on 200,000 gold francs. Attempts are made to eliminate non-standardised products, especially from the metal, building, and furniture trades.
We have already stated t h a t standardisation is 'the aspect of scientific
organisation which has been most favourably received in industrial circles
in Sweden. A Central Standardisation Committee has been in existence
since 1918. I t has carried out intense propaganda work for the adoption of
standards, and their practical utilisation seems to have made rapid progress.
In Switzerland the efforts in favour of standardisation are directed by
two organisations, the Swiss Association for Standardisation and the Normalisation Bureau of the Association of Machine Constructors of Baden.
The first practical result of the work of the Baden committee was the
establishment in 1924 of standards for notepaper, which have been adopted
by the Swiss Post Office and the railway administrations, and will shortly
be introduced in other administrations.
In the Netherlands the Standards Bureau, which is dependent on industry,
has an annual budget of 300,000 gold francs. I t has established a list of
the principal undertakings manufacturing standardised products, and
keeps these firms informed of all new standards of interest to them. From
time to time enquiries are made to discover to what extent the proposed
standards have been adopted, and it has been found t h a t as a general rule
the suggestions of the Bureau have been scrupulously followed by the
authorities and by private industry.
Finally, it should be pointed out that, in Austria, the Oesterreicher Normen-
— 256
—
ausschuss für Industrie und Gewerbe, which is supported by the Government
and assisted by the technical schools and engineers' associations, and, in
Belgium, the Belgian Standardisation Association, have acquired great
influence during the last few years.
2.—STANDARDISATION FROM AN INTERNATIONAL STANDPOINT
Frequent attempts at standardisation have been made from an international standpoint. Thus the International Electro-Technical Committee
has since 1906 established a large number of standards in the domain of
industrial electricity. Other international organisations of a technical
nature also make a study of standardisation in their own particular spheres
and have also managed to establish a certain number of international
standards.
The International Bureau of Weights and Measures studies standardisation
from a standpoint which is rather scientific than industrial.
While not undertaking the actual research work, the International
Chamber of Commerce has taken an active part in the movement for international standardisation, through its national committees.
The establishment of national standardisation committees in various
countries is naturally leading to the necessity to co-ordinate their work.
The holding of conferences between the secretaries of these committees is
the first step in this direction. Conferences of this kind were held in Baden
in 1921 and 1923 and in Munich in 1925. The result of this last conference
was the establishment of a programme of international collaboration, which
has since partly been carried out and which provided for the foundation of
a permanent committee with its headquarters in Baden, and the publication
of an international review devoted to questions concerning standardisation.
The possibilities of realising international standards has been discussed a t
length and a list drawn up of objects which might be standardised internationally. Included in this list are lists of symbols, series of normal
diameters, the various categories of screws, series of normal cones, gear
wheels, endless screws, ball-bearing brackets, etc.
I n general international standards would appear to be a compromise
between the various national standards adopted. In this connection it
has often been noticed t h a t national standards differ but little one from the
other. Nevertheless the adoption of certain of them in preference to others
sometimes represents real sacrifice by certain countries and in any case a
spirit of conciliation which is not often met with. I t should not be forgotten
that standardisation in the national sense may easily become a form of
protectionism and that the exclusive use of certain types and certain forms
in any given country is often a better protection against foreign imports
than any tariff duties however high.
The progress in standardisation from an international standpoint is thus
inevitably bound up with the establishment of "rational" international
economic relations and with the possibility of replacing the present state
of competition between producers in the various countries by a system of
agreements which will take into account the industrial specialisation of the
different countries.
APPENDIX
V
Constitution and Rules of the International
Management Institute
The undersigned,
E. A. FILENE, representing the Boston X X t h Century Fund;
ALBERT THOMAS, Director of the International Labour Office;
F. MAURO, President of the International Committee for Scientific
Management,
Convinced t h a t the development of scientific management methods
constitutes an essential factor in economic order and social progress ;
That it is important, for the furthering of this development and to lend
it practical and disinterested support, to co-ordinate the work of research,
education and application heretofore carried out in the different countries
and to assure a free exchange of information and documents between all
those engaged in production and distribution;
Believing t h a t this task should be entrusted to a special institute equipped
for t h a t purpose ; and
Believing that the organisations which they represent, the X X t h Century
Fund, t h e International Labour Office by reason of the mission entrusted
to it by the Peace Treaty, and the International Committee for Scientific
Management, can effectively contribute to the creation and development of
such an institute, they have agreed upon a common programme of action,
which they have submitted to their respective organisations.
The Governing Body of the International Labour Office on 16 October
1926, the X X t h Century Fund on 24 December 1926, and the International
Committee for Scientific Management on 25 January 1927 have decided,
together and jointly, to found and carry on an institution to be constituted
as follows :
ORGANISATION AND OBJECTS
ARTICLE 1.—There is hereby created an institution of a general and public
character, the name of which shall be the "International Management
Institute."
ARTICLE 2.—The status of founder member of the Institute shall be held
by the three organisations creating it.
The status of contributing member of the Institute may be granted, subject
to the unanimous approval of the founder members, approved by not less
18
— 258 —
than two-thirds of the members of the Board of Governors, to any Government, institution for public service, or trade association or union, as well
as to any group of Governments, institutions for public service, or trade
associations or unions, approved under the same conditions by the Board
of Governors, which shall agree to make a minimum annual contribution
of 50,000 Swiss francs to the Institute.
The status of participating member of the Institute may be held, subject
to the approval of the Board of Governors, by any Government, institution
for public service, or trade association or union, which shall agree to make
a minimum annual contribution of 5,000 Swiss francs to the Institute.
The status of associate member of the Institute may be held, subject to
the approval of the Board of Governors, by any institution, organisation,
undertakings, or person making an annual contribution of 5,000 Swiss francs
to the Institute.
All members shall receive free of charge the periodical publications of
the Institute.
ARTICLE 3.—The seat of the Institute shall be a t Geneva.
ARTICLE 4.—The Institute shall have as its objects to collect and distribute
information concerning management in its various aspects, to carry on
research and surveys bearing on the problems of management, to bring
persons and institutions specially interested in the problems of the scientific
organisation of production and distribution into contact with one another,
and to assist appropriate national and international institutions in their
work in the interest of scientific management.
The Institute will take part in the international congresses organised by
the International Committee.
PROCEDURE
General Meeting
ARTICLE 5.—There shall be a general meeting of the members every two
years if possible, and whenever practicable it shall be held near to the
time and place of the meetings of the International Committee. The
general meeting shall discuss and consider the report of the Director on the
work of the Institute.
Board of Governors
ARTICLE 6.—The Institute shall be under the supervision of a Board of
not less than 12 persons, namely:
(1) Three representatives of the X X t h Century Fund.
(2) Three representatives of the Governing Body of the International
Labour Office.
(3) The chairman of the International Committee for Scientific Management.
(4) Five representatives selected by the seven delegates of the founder
members mentioned above, and chosen in agreement with the
International Committee among persons of authority on the
subject of management.
(5) A representative of each contributing member.
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ARTICLE 7. — A decision of the Board of Governors shall only be valid
• if at least one representative of each of the founder members shall be present.
The Chairman of the Board shall have the casting vote.
ARTICLE 8.—The Director of the International Labour Office, or his
representative, and the Secretary-General of the International Committee
shall be entitled to attend the meetings of the Board of Governors in a
advisory capacity.
ARTICLE 9.—The Board of Governors shall manage the affairs of the
Institute, superintend its administration, establish its budget and the
programme of its work.
I t shall fix own its rules of procedure.
I t shall represent the Institute in dealing with other parties.
I t shall elect as its officers, one chairman and two vice-chairmen, and,
as its Executive Committee, its officers and two members.
I t shall meet at least once a year. The Board shall be obliged to meet
at the summons of the Chairman whenever at least one-half of its members
shall have addressed a written request to him.
Executive Committee
ARTICLE 10.—In the interval between meetings, the powers of the Board
of Governors shall be vested in the Executive Committee. This Committee
shall be summoned by the chairman whenever he considers necessary.
Committees
ARTICLE 11.—The Board of Governors shall select among its members a
Finance Committee to manage the finances of the Institute and establish
its budget.
The financial year begins 1 January and ends 31 December.
ARTICLE 12.—The Board of Governors shall be empowered to appoint
committees for all such purposes as may appear to them expedient.
Director
ARTICLE 13.—The administration of the Institute shall be vested in a
Director to be appointed by the Board. The Director shall appoint the personnel ; he shall be responsible to the Board for the satisfactory progress of
the work of the Institute, and also for the use of the funds paid to him.
The Board shall also appoint a Deputy-Director, to be nominated by the
X X t h Century Fund, whose duty shall be to assist the Director in the
exercise of his office.
The Director of the Institute and the Deputy-Director shall attend, in a
advisory capacity, all meetings of the Board of Governors, the Executive
Committee, the Finance Committee, and all other committees.
Funds
ARTICLE 14.—The funds of the Institute shall be derived: (1) from the
contributions of the founder members, contributing members, participating
members, and associate members; (2) from gifts and legacies, subject to
— 260 —
acceptance by the Board of Governors ; (3) from the proceeds of the sale
of its publications; (4) from such contributions for general research work
within the field of its activities as may be accepted on the responsibility of
the Board of Governors.
ALTERATION OF CONSTITUTION AND
RULES
ARTICLE 15.—No alteration shall be made in the present constitution
and rules, unless adopted by the Board of Governors by a majority of twothirds of the votes cast by those present and ratified unanimously by the
representatives of the founder members.
ARTICLE 16.—In case of the dissolution of the Institute, the Board of
Governors shall take such steps as may be proper to provide for the
liquidation of the assets and continuance of the work undertaken.
PROVISIONAL
ARTICLES
ARTICLE 1.—During the first three years, the present agreement may be
abrogated at the end of any calendar year by any of the founder members,
provided notice be given not less than three months before the end of the
financial year.
ARTICLE 2.—The first administrative period shall begin 1 February and
end 31 December 1927.
* * *
The present constitution and rules were adopted on 31 January 1927.
In witness whereof, the undersigned have attached their signatures.
H. DENNISON.
ALBERT THOMAS.
F. MAURO.
ADDENDUM
Page 75 (Austria) : To the list of technical organisations should be added
the Austrian Committee for Standardisation (Oesterreicher Normenausschuss)
founded in 1926 and the Management Committee (Ausschuss für Wirtschaftliche Belriebsfuehrung) founded in 1924. These two Committees,
together with the Society for Heat Economy (Gesellschaft für Wärme
Wirtschaft), form part of the technical group of the Federation of Industries
(Hauptverband der Industrie).
The attempts to found a central organisation
which would unite all the Austrian technical groups have so far failed to
yield any results.
CORRIGENDUM
Reichskuratorium für Wirtschaftlichkeit (page 225). — Dr. Hinneuthal,
the Managing-Director of the Reichskuratorium für Wirtschaftlichkeit, was
kind enough to draw attention to the change of opinion on the part of the
Board of Directors of the R.K.W. They attribute less importance to the
R.K.W. being the centre of the Rationalisation movement, but stress its
importance for the exchange of information and the furnishing of advice.
The R.K.W. does not receive any subsidies from the German industries,
its funds consist entirely of Government grants and fees for its work.
Sweden. — Page 114, line 23, for "... methodical application of the
principles of time study..." read "... methodical application of cost accounting
and statistical time study researches..."
No. 3402.—Printer O F F I C E D E P O B U C I T É (Ane. É t a b l . J . L E B È G U E & C">),
7, impasse du Sureau, Brussels (Belgium).