Growing Flannel
Flowers for the Cut
Flower Market
A guide for commercial growers
JULY 2013
RIRDC Publication No. 12/088
Growing flannel flowers for the
cut flower market
A guide for commercial growers
Ross Worrall
formerly Special Research Horticulturist
NSW DPI, Gosford
July 2013
RIRDC Publication No 12/088
© 2013 update Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
All rights reserved.
ISBN 978 1 74254 430 4
ISSN 1440-6845
Growing flannel flowers for the cut flower market—a guide for commercial growers
Publication No. 12/088
The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and
discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information
contained in this publication without taking specialist advice relevant to your particular circumstances.
While reasonable care has been taken in preparing this publication to ensure that information is true and correct,
the Commonwealth of Australia gives no assurance as to the accuracy of any information in this publication.
The Commonwealth of Australia, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), the
authors or contributors expressly disclaim, to the maximum extent permitted by law, all responsibility and liability
to any person, arising directly or indirectly from any act or omission, or for any consequences of any such act or
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The product trade names in this publication are supplied on the understanding that no preference between
equivalent products is intended and that the inclusion of a product name does not imply endorsement by RIRDC
over any equivalent product from another manufacturer.
Users are reminded of the need to follow safe work practice when applying any techniques described in this
publication. This includes identifying, assessing and managing any occupational health and safety risks.
ALWAYS READ THE LABEL.
Users of agricultural (or veterinary) chemical products must always read the label and any Permit, before using
the product, and strictly comply with the directions on the label and the conditions of any Permit. Users are not
absolved from compliance with the directions on the label or the conditions of the Permit by reason of any
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Some of the chemical use patterns quoted in this publication are approved under Permits issued by the
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rights should be addressed to the RIRDC Publications Manager on phone 02 6271 4165.
Researcher contact details
Dr Ross Worrall
Email: [email protected]
In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form.
RIRDC contact details
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
Level 2, 15 National Circuit
BARTON ACT 2600
PO Box 4776
KINGSTON ACT 2604
Phone: 02 6271 4100
Fax: 02 6271 4199
Email: [email protected]
Web:
http://www.rirdc.gov.au
Electronically published by RIRDC in July 2013
Print-on-demand by Union Offset Printing, Canberra, at www.rirdc.gov.au
or phone 1300 634 313
ii
Foreword
The flannel flower is an iconic Australian native plant. It has been grown as a garden plant and marketed as a commercial cut flower for many years, and considerable demand exists. Flannel flowers
can be used in many different ways by florists, and combine well with many different types of flowers.
The flannel flower is very suitable as a cut flower owing to its structure, texture, colour and good vase
life. Until recently, wild-harvested flannel flowers were commonly marketed during spring. Commercial cultivation in beds often incurred large losses, as plants are particularly susceptible to root diseases. Recent research has developed a system for growing the plants intensively in pots in a simple
greenhouse. This has the potential to provide an excellent cash flow from a small land area owing to
the species’ relatively short plant-to-harvest period. This especially applies to the continuously flowering clones that can be used as a complementary crop with other native flower and foliage crops.
This guide brings together both published and unpublished information, industry expertise, and the
author’s considerable experience in the industry.
The aim of this project was to produce a guide that would provide growers, wholesalers, exporters and
retailers with practical information about growing, harvesting, postharvest handling and treatment of
flannel flowers. This is a practical ‘how to’ guide and covers all aspects from selecting the site to
marketing the blooms. Particular attention is paid to ‘critical points’—areas that growers have found
problematic in the past. The guide is aimed at both existing growers and potential entrants into the
industry.
The guide also includes two appendices that explore some production aspects in more detail. These
include cool room management and postharvest handling. The postharvest handling section was
produced as part of a project funded by RIRDC Core Funds, which are provided by the Federal Government and supported by the former NSW Department of Primary Industries (now part of Industry &
Investment NSW), with industry funding generously contributed by East Coast Wildflowers and
Crooby Cottage Wildflowers.
This guide adds to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 2000 research publications, and forms part of
RIRDC’s Wildflowers and Native Plants R&D program, which aims to improve the profitability,
productivity and sustainability of the Australian industry.
Most of RIRDC’s publications are available for viewing, free downloading or purchasing online at
www.rirdc.gov.au. Purchases can also be made by phoning 1300 634 313.
Craig Burns
Managing Director
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
iii
About the author
Dr Ross Worrall recently retired as a Special Research Horticulturist, NSW DPI (briefly I&I NSW).
Ross was based at the Gosford Horticultural Research Institute, Narara. He worked on the commercial
development of Australian native plants for most of his career. He also conducted research in the
areas of plant physiology, potting mixes, breeding systems, postharvest management and plant propagation.
Acknowledgments
In particular I wish to thank Bettina Gollnow for her input into editing and reviewing this publication.
I also wish to thank cooperating researchers and extension personnel whose input made this project
possible (through the RIRDC Flannel Flower project, RIRDC ref. 10-065), especially Dr Lindsay
Campbell, University of Sydney, Dr Cathy Offord, Royal Botanic Gardens (Mount Annan), Lotte von
Richter, Royal Botanic Gardens (Mount Annan), Dr Rod King (CSIRO Canberra), Bettina Gollnow
(NSW DPI) and Greig Ireland (I&I NSW until his retirement).
Thanks also go to Pauline Cain, Fiona Lidbetter and Vicky Worrall, who provided technical assistance and helped make things happen.
Assistance in statistical analysis was provided by Lorraine Spohr and Anne Harris of the Gosford
Horticultural Research Institute.
Thank you also to RIRDC, the Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust (Sydney) for financial
support, and the many employees of NSW DPI who participated in this project.
The contribution of commercial cooperators who provided valuable information on the cultivation of
Actinotus helianthi for this project is acknowledged:
Alexander Pelser, Something Wild Flower Farm
Paul Dalley, Mountain Nursery
Terry Flanagan, Flora Inspirations
Geoff Hammond, Glenona Gardens
Stephen Holden
Harry Kibbler, Native Flower Growers’ Association (Mid North Coast) Inc.
David Matheson, Native Flower Growers Co-op
Chris Miller, Eastwood Nurseries
Alex Orgill, Shoreowl Pty Ltd
Craig Scott, East Coast Wildflowers
Brian Shannon, Shannon Roses
Rick Smith, Marick Nursery
Marie Lamond, Marick Nursery
Brian & Pat Sundin, Sandy Manor Flowers
Shaun Ward, Weatherby Downs Pty Ltd
Tony Waugh
Peter Zulpo, Zfarm
Except where noted, photos are by Ross Worrall. Particular acknowledgement is given to Back Creek
Country Pty Ltd and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, for the use of their photos where noted.
iv
Abbreviations
Units
°C
%
/
cm
g
g/L
ha
kg
L
mg
mg/L
mm
mL
mL/L
ppm
Mn
N
Na
P
S
Zn
degrees Celsius
per cent
per
centimetre
gram
grams per litre
hectare
kilogram
litre
milligram (1000 mg = 1 g)
milligrams per litre
millimetre (1000 mm = 1 m)
millilitre (1000 mL = 1 L)
millilitres per litre
parts per million
Other abbreviations
APVMA
AQIS
DPI
GA
I&I
IBDU
pH
®
RH
Vol.
Chemical symbols
B
Ca
Cl
Cu
Fe
K
Mg
manganese
nitrogen
sodium
phosphorus
sulphur
zinc
boron
calcium
chlorine
copper
iron
potassium
magnesium
A
v
Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority
Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service
Department of Primary Industries
gibberellic acid
Industry & Investment NSW,
which briefly incorporated the
NSW DPI
isobutylidenediurea
measure of acidity
registered trade name
relative humidity (%)
volume of written publication,
journal etc.
Plant Breeders’ Rights symbol
Contents
Executive summary
vii
1
Marketing quality flannel flowers
1
2
Introduction
3
3
Commercial uses
4
4
Growing as a business
5
5
The plant
6
6
Growing areas
7
7
Site selection criteria
8
8
Propagation
13
9
Setting up
16
10
Crop maintenance
23
11
Harvest
29
12
Postharvest handling
30
13
Markets
34
14
Useful references
36
Appendix 1
Cool room design and layout
37
Appendix 2
Quality specification for flannel flower
41
vi
Executive summary
What the guide is about
This guide provides advice and information on all aspects of growing, harvesting, postharvest handling and quality management of flannel flowers.
Who is the guide targeted at?
This ‘how to’ guide has been produced for members of the Australian wildflower industry who grow
and market flannel flowers, including growers, wholesalers, retailers, florists, exporters, importers,
research, development and extension workers, and students.
Where are the relevant industries located in Australia?
Flannel flowers are grown mainly in eastern NSW and south-east Queensland. Flowers are mostly
marketed domestically, and there is significant demand from export markets, especially Japan.
Background
The flannel flower is an iconic Australia native with great potential as a cut flower. There is considerable demand from domestic and export markets. Flannel flowers can be used in many different ways
by florists and combine well with many different types of flowers.
Until recently, wild-harvested flannel flowers were commonly marketed during spring. Commercial
cultivation in beds often incurred large losses, as plants are particularly susceptible to root diseases.
Recent research has developed a system for growing the plants intensively in pots in a simple greenhouse. This has the potential to provide an excellent cash flow from a small land area owing to the
species’ relatively short plant-to-harvest period.
Aims
The aim of this work was to produce a guide that includes all the up-to-date literature and grower and
researcher data available in order to provide the industry with practical information and advice about
all aspects of growing and marketing flannel flowers.
Methods used
This guide results from the project ‘Growing Flannel Flowers All Year Round’ (RIRDC project PRJ
000498), and is linked to the broader project ‘Quality Specifications for Australian Wildflowers’ (PRJ
000331). These projects were conducted by Industry & Investment NSW – Primary Industries (now
NSW DPI). Separate guides for the production of waratah and Christmas bush were also prepared at
the same time. Information was gathered from industry members, including growers, researchers,
wholesalers, exporters and importers, and from a review of the research literature, both published and,
where available, unpublished. Particular attention was paid to plantations that were successful.
Results
This project produced a guide that provides growers, wholesalers, exporters and retailers with practical information about growing, harvesting, and postharvest handling and treatment of flannel flowers.
This is a practical ‘how to’ guide and covers all aspects from selecting the site to marketing the
blooms. Particular attention is paid to ‘critical points’—areas that growers have found problematic in
the past. A summary of the critical points is provided. It includes appendices that explore cool room
vii
management and postharvest handling in more detail. It also draws on the personal experience of the
author in research on flannel flowers and in advising growers.
Implications for relevant stakeholders
This information is now available for people in the industry to use to improve the production and
postharvest quality management of flannel flowers. The information should lead to the benefits of
lower costs, improved sales and returns, and more efficient production practices.
There is a need for ongoing extension of this information and for ongoing R&D in this area (see
Recommendations below).
For students, this can be an extremely valuable resource.
Recommendations
This guide reflects a career-long commitment to research, development and extension in floriculture
and provides an opportunity to capture significant knowledge and shared industry learnings gained
over a long period of time.
The availability of this guide needs to be made widely known, by RIRDC, the author, industry leaders
and bodies, and government bodies.
We recommend that industry members adopt the production, postharvest and quality management
practices outlined in the guide. Individual users can add new information to this guide.
The guide can be updated in the future if there is enough new information, demand, funding and
expertise. The main areas requiring further research are cultural requirements, propagation, breeding
and marketing, specifically:

fertiliser and watering studies to optimise growth rates

trials to define optimal growing conditions

root diseases and their control

improved tissue culture methods to enable the use of clonal materials for flower production

continued development of seedling lines to improve flower numbers and quality, especially with
superior flower form and year-round flowering

identification of the breeding systems of Actinotus and investigating other species such as
A. schwarzii in a breeding program

development of cultivars and seed lines within private industry.
R&D and extension workers need to discover and ensure that new information is made available to
the industry in a way that maximises the uptake of those new learnings.
viii
1
Marketing quality flannel flowers
Growers

Always use sharp blades to harvest and
trim flowers.

Rotate stock—coloured containers indicating date of picking or purchase are useful.

Ensure good growing conditions, including
correct light, temperature, fertilisers and
irrigation.

Choose your varieties carefully for yield,
quality, type and vase life.
Wholesalers

Control pests and diseases.


Harvest at the correct stage.
Rehydrate on receipt.


Use the correct hydrating and pulse solutions.
Stand flowers in a preservative solution
made up with clean, low-salt water.

Maintain good hygiene, and keep containers clean.

Store at the correct temperature.

Dip the flowers in an appropriate fungicide/insecticide solution to minimise postharvest wastage. Washing the flowers will
also minimise possible allergic reactions.

Use clean, low-salt water to make up
solutions.

Cool and hydrate as soon as possible, and
pre-cool packed containers.

Pack to the appropriate standard for the
market.
 Don’t sell old stock! Throw it out.
Retailers
 Do not display flowers in areas that are
exposed to full sun, draughts, high temperatures or vehicle exhausts, and avoid displaying near fruit and vegetables. Use
refrigerated displays if possible.
General
 Do not allow flowers to dry out anytime
after harvest. Loss of fresh weight means a
shortened vase life.
 Do not expose flowers to high temperatures.

Store at 2–5 °C.

If stored with other flowers, keep at 7 °C
or below.

Store only good-quality flowers for extended periods.

Use the correct hydrating and vase solutions.

Always use clean containers and clean,
low-salt water.
Use clean buckets for displays.

Use preservative vase solutions made up
with clean, low-salt water. Use also in arrangements.

Insert the flowers properly into floral
foams when making up arrangements, and
use enough solution.

If flowers show any signs of wilting or
have been stored or transported dry for any
length of time, immerse in low-salt water
until they recover.

Inform customers of how to care for flowers (provide a care sheet) and emphasise
the need for preservative vase solutions.
Provide a sachet of cut-flower food.
Consumers
 Don’t store with fruit and vegetables or
old flowers.



Keep cool rooms and work areas clean and
free of old plant material.
1
Keep vase filled with the correct preservative solution. Check daily, as flowers can
take up a lot of water. If preservative solu-
tion is not used, change water at least every second day. Always use clean vases and
clean, low-salt water.

Remove any leaves that sit below the
water line.
 Do not display in areas that are exposed to
full sun, draughts or high temperatures.
Keep as cool as possible without freezing.

If flowers show any sign of wilting, immerse in water until they recover.

Discard all faded or dead flowers.
Flannel flower growing on an exposed
headland.
2
2
Introduction
flower. This species has long, straight stems
with terminal flower heads that make good cut
flowers and have been available commercially
for many years.
Historically, most of this stock has been
sourced from bush-picked plants of variable
quality. This has led to an increase in commercially cultivated flannel flowers from selected
stock and seed material.
Flannel flowers are a profitable crop for many
growers, despite frequent problems with production. The plants can be grown intensively
and have the potential to provide an excellent
cash flow from a small land area with their
relatively short plant-to-harvest period. This
applies in particular to the continuously flowering clones that can be used as a complementary
crop with other native flower and foliage crops.
Flannel flowers developed a reputation for
being difficult to cultivate—but significant
advances were achieved as a result of work by
Cathy Offord and Lotte von Richter of the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Mt Annan (now known
as the Australian Botanic Garden, Mount
Annan), and from input from participants of the
Flannel Flower Forum and a Review of Cultivation Practices held in June 2001.
Flannel flower inflorescence.
The flannel flower is one of the best recognised
Australian native plants, with attractive white
flowers and grey-green foliage with a flannelly
texture.
Overcoming cultivation difficulties increases
production. Although in the long term this can
reduce returns by lowering the average price,
initially it ensures that you have enough crop to
market reliably.
The most commonly known species is Actinotus helianthi, the Sydney or eastern flannel
3
3
Commercial uses
courtesy of RBG&DT and © Jaime Plaza.
The greatest potential use of the flannel flower
is as a feature filler alongside plants such as
rice flower (Ozothamnus diosmifolius),
Geraldton wax (Chamelaucium uncinatum),
Thryptomene spp. and smokebush (Conospermum sp.).
Actinotus schwarzii has been described as
‘stunning’ when grown under nursery conditions, but is unreliable under cultivation (von
Richter & Offord 2000).
There is potential for developing a range of
shorter selections for use as pot plants and
bedding varieties. Some selections that have
been released are ‘Federation Star’, ‘Summercloud’ and ‘Starbright’.
Australian native floral arrangement
with flannel flowers.
Actinotus schwarzii has been recognised for its potential as a cut flower but
is unfortunately difficult to grow. Photo
4
4
Growing as a business
Marketing and financial considerations are
important factors in the successful cultivation
of flannel flowers for the cut flower market.
The key aim of any business should be to make
a profit. Failure to make a (real) profit will
result in the business folding or simply becoming an expensive rural lifestyle. Potential growers must develop a business and financial plan
to control all risks, including physical, financial, marketing, legal or business-related.
Experienced growers report the following
‘worst mistakes when starting out’, which
should be addressed in every business plan:

The use of a rain shelter can make cultivation possible in high rainfall areas
with less than ideal soil types.
Not treating the cultivation of native flowers as a business.

Lack of good-quality research.

Lack of good-quality marketing: establishing the demand for the crop.

Not getting independent sources of advice.

Working excessive hours without holidays.

Lack of credit control.

Not adhering to regulations and planning
requirements.

Lack of quality control.

Under- or over-capitalisation.

Inability to pay for additional labour.

Exceeding future financial limits.

Growing the wrong species or varieties.

Choosing the wrong site.

Poor basic knowledge.
A strong, healthy plant of the seasonally flowering cut-flower form can produce 10 to 15
stems in its first year and 15 to 25 in its second
year. In contrast, the continually flowering
semi-dwarf clones can produce at least 60
flowers a year. With an average of 8 to 10
plants per square metre of bed space, the returns per area of crop can be very high. In
practice, though, many growers experience high
plant losses with low returns (and reduced
potential profits), although growing in artificial
media under rain shelters minimises risk.
Field-grown flannel flowers are considered a
high-risk crop, but encouragingly there are a
growing number of successful commercial and
experimental crops with minimal losses.
The cost of production will vary according to
the management system selected by the grower.
When comparing systems and examining
potential returns, likely plant loss must be taken
into account. Obviously, if it is certain that a
higher-cost production system will reduce the
number of plant deaths and yield a greater
number of stems, then its use may be economically justified. But all growers must select a
management system with great care, as there
are still no definitive answers for the cause of
high plant death rates.
Most flannel flowers are produced as open-air
crops in the ground or in containers. Some are
produced under rain shelters, which can greatly
increase flower production and therefore profits.
5
5
The plant
5.1 Plant and flower structure
Flannel flowers are members of the Apiaceae
family, in the genus Actinotus. The name Actinotus comes from the Greek actinos, meaning
ray or spoke of a wheel, which refers to the
bracts of the flower head. They are herbs to
small shrubs, mainly perennial, with alternate
divided leaves that are usually downy.
A flannel flower cluster root. Cluster
roots are suppressed by high fertility
levels.
5.2 Natural distribution
In Australia, Actinotus spp. are found on lowfertility, sandy soils with low pH. Actinotus
helianthi occurs from the South Coast (Bega)
and western slopes of NSW (Pilliga Scrub
region) through to central and south-eastern
Queensland (Carnarvon Gorge), growing on old
dunes and coastal heath country, but also in
sandy soils in open forests. It often grows
abundantly after bushfires, which stimulate
germination of seed reserves.
Owing to the widespread natural distribution of
A. helianthi, there is great variation in flower
and foliage form, colour and height.
Flannel flower structure. Note root system with cluster roots, which are an
adaptation to low nutrient levels.
On coastal headlands the plants tend to be
short, bushy and rarely taller than 0.5 m,
whereas on dunes and inland forests they are
taller—often more than 1 m high. Coastal
selections are more susceptible to frost; mountain types can be grown in colder climates.
The daisy-like flowering head is made up of
numerous crowded, small flowers surrounded
by radiating white or slightly coloured woolly
bracts. The seed is small, flat and hairy, and is
shed when ripe.
There are 14 identified species of Actinotus in
Australia, and 1 in New Zealand. Of these, only
Actinotus helianthi and perhaps A. schwarzii
appear to have potential as cut flowers without
an extensive breeding program.
6
6
Growing areas
6.1 Current production areas
Use of artificial growing media has overcome
this restriction. A relative humidity of between
60% and 85% appears to be optimal, although
good growth can occur outside this range. Frost
is not a limiting factor in cultivation (von
Richter & Offord 2000). There is scope for the
range of growing conditions to be expanded
with the introduction of new varieties.
Before 1997 more than 99% of flannel flower
sold as cut flowers came from bush-picked
material, but reliance on bush picking is undesirable for both an environmental and market
quality reasons. Commercial quantities of the
flower were produced by only four or five
growers in coastal eastern Australia (von Richter & Offord 2000).
Although flannel flowers are still bush-picked,
commercial cultivation has been increasing,
particularly in coastal areas from southern
Queensland to eastern Victoria.
6.2 Potential cultivation areas
Expansion of the cultivation of flannel flower
in most areas of Australia is limited largely by
soil type and climate. The plants will grow well
in sandy soils and in a range of heavier soils so
long as drainage is excellent.
Self-sown flannel flowers growing on
sandy soil in bushland.
7
7
Site selection criteria
Overall, the broad adaptability of flannel flowers allows them to grow from sea level to
higher altitudes such as the Blue Mountains.
Owing to an increase of specifically bred
varieties, a broad selection is likely to become
available for different regions of Australia,
limited only by soil type.
Many growers come into the cut flower industry after they initially move to a ‘lifestyle’
property for a change from an urban existence.
Few farms are selected as the best land suited
to the type of crop that the grower later decides
to grow and often don’t have an assured water
supply.
When considering a flower farm, it is important
to bear in mind factors such as remoteness from
markets or labour supply, and climatic conditions that cause plants to become stressed and
more susceptible to pests and diseases.
Technology and investment (money and labour)
can overcome many of these problems but will
significantly reduce the profitability of the
crop. Remember: the primary reason to grow
flowers commercially is to make a profit. If an
existing farm is not suitable for the optimum
growth of native flower crops, it may be cheaper to sell it and buy again in a better location.
Under ideal conditions, flannel flower
can grow well in the field. Photo: Royal
Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
Flannel flowers are usually grown as a complementary crop to many other native flower
and foliage crops that often take up more of the
land. When considering a site, take these crops
into account; a compromise might be necessary: growing flannel flowers in artificial media
is an obvious choice.
7.2 Flowering times
Flannel flowers are generally a biennial crop,
although they can grow well in cultivation for
up to 4 years. Some seasonally flowering
varieties have produced the most flowers in
their second and third years (Offord & Tyler
1993). The continuously flowering clones have
a commercial life of about 2 years. After this,
stems tend to become unacceptably short even
with the application of growth regulators.
7.1 Climate
The climate of the natural habitat of A. helianthi varies considerably and ranges from high
rainfall on the coast to lower further inland.
Higher maximum and minimum temperatures
are found in Queensland and western NSW,
and lower temperatures in southern NSW.
Current clones flower mostly from August to
January, usually with a large peak in spring. As
future selections and varieties become available, along with an expansion of growing regions, the flowering period will become
staggered throughout the country. A trial with
one selection has demonstrated flower production all year round.
Humidity also fluctuates greatly between sites.
Frosts generally have little impact in wildgrown plants as they vary considerably across
the natural habitat. Coastal selections may be
susceptible to heavy frost.
8
7.3 Growing medium
As with most crops grown directly in soil, pests
and, in particular, soilborne diseases, will build
up in the ground. Even in virgin soil there may
be significant populations of pests and diseases,
necessitating some pre-treatment of the soil.
Disinfesting the soil between crops by using
chemical soil fumigants or steam is vital before
successive crops are grown in the same spot.
7.3.1 In the ground
Like most Australian natives, flannel flowers
need good drainage because of their high
sensitivity to the fungal diseases Fusarium and
Pythium and also possibly Rhizoctonia and
Phytophthora, all of which occur in many
Australian soils. The potential of these fungi to
kill the plants is significantly increased if there
is inadequate air space or too much water in the
soil.
An alternative option is to grow plants in
containers, which makes pre-treatment of the
soil easier and ensures its effectiveness. Potting
media can also be easily replaced between
crops.
7.3.2 In containers
Properly designed artificial media can meet all
the criteria for good soil aeration and drainage.
Many growers are now using pots, bags or
foam boxes for growing flannel flowers, thereby gaining better control of soil, watering,
drainage and growing conditions.
For tubes and pots, the following potting mix
was used successfully for flannel flower production at NSW DPI, Gosford:

sphagnum peat 25%

aged pine bark fines 25%

perlite (horticultural grade) 25%

washed medium sand 25%.
Fertilisers (per cubic metre):
Even slightly hampered drainage causes
large losses. (Note support mesh.)
Good soil aeration is extremely important for
the successful production of flannel flowers.
Even the maximum level of 10% air space by
volume usually found in sandy soils may not be
enough to suppress disease. Flannel flowers
become particularly sensitive to diseases if
there is inadequate air space or too much water
in the soil. An increase of up to 25% air space,
achieved by adding organic matter to the soil, is
recommended. For a more detailed discussion
see Handreck and Black (1994).

lime 0.5 kg

dolomite 0.5 kg

IBDU (a source of urea) 0.5 kg

Nutricote (18:2.6:6.6 + trace) 9 month 4 kg

Nutricote coated potassium sulphate 500 g.
Ideally, the medium should be pasteurised by
heating to 60 °C for 30 minutes before use.
This is less important if the components are
known to be pathogen free and do not become
contaminated during handling. Most commercial growers do not pasteurise their growing
media.
The benefits of good soil aeration are twofold.
First, good aeration helps to control many root
diseases. Second, root growth is usually better
in well aerated soil, and iron deficiency is much
less likely.
9
mended levels should be approached cautiously, as the results will depend on management
procedures and their effect on the crop, such as
the extent of leaching with irrigation. Other
slow-release fertilisers with comparable release
rates, such as Osmocote, should also be satisfactory.
A wide range of other components can also be
used, provided that they allow good aeration.
For example, the Australian Botanic Garden,
Mt Annan, has successfully used a mixture of
coconut fibre and coarse sand for many years.
7.4 Water supply
Growing any cut flower crop requires a reliable
supply of good-quality water. While flannel
flowers can withstand short periods of drying
out, correct irrigation optimises plant growth,
ensures good stem length and minimises defects.
Water can be supplied from a dam, river or
bore, or you can use town water, recycled water
or even rainwater. Whatever the source, it must
be sufficient to deliver the required amount to
the plantation when needed. You must take into
account future expansion and increased water
requirements when estimating your needs.
Use of well drained artificial growing
medium in open beds can greatly improve growth rates and reduce losses.
Photo: Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
Good growth rates can be achieved in
plastic greenhouses.
Typical growing set-up for flannel flower in a plastic igloo.
The fertiliser rates are not critical—especially
that of Nutricote. Up to 10 kg/m3 of the above
9-month formulation was used in trials at
Mount Annan Botanic Garden (now the Australian Botanic Garden, Mount Annan) without
damage to the plants. But exceeding recom-
7.5 Water quality
It is important to have water tested for salinity,
pH and all specific ions likely to be toxic:
phosphates, iron, sodium, chloride, boron,
bicarbonate and calcium, in particular, before
10
establishing any crop.
The quality of bore or river water, even in highrainfall areas, can be significantly inconsistent
and may not be suitable for irrigation.
Test the water at the end of summer, when
water quality is generally at its poorest. Guidelines are available from most water testers, and
the cost of testing is much lower than crop
failure.
Flannel flowers tolerate salt, but even small
quantities in the water can reduce growth rates
without causing visible symptoms.
Salt can also cause a reduction in
growth rate without causing any visible
leaf symptoms. Left: low salt. Right:
high salt.
The effects of salinity depend on climate, soil
type and management practices. In general, by
the time symptoms occur, growth has already
been damaged. Other effects include a reduction in flower quality (especially vase life) and
increased susceptibility to disease and insect
attack.
Soluble iron can be naturally present in many
water sources, particularly groundwater and
dams. High levels of iron can stain sprayirrigated crops or block pipes and sprinklers.
Aeration is a good option for treating this type
of water.
Algae can block micro-irrigation systems and
filters. Sunlight and high levels of nutrients
stimulate algal growth, so the best way to
minimise the problem is to exclude these.
Nutrient sources include septic tank seepage
and runoff from fertilised beds or livestock
sheds.
Fine suspended clay particles, which cause
turbidity, or murkiness, in water, can stain
plants and block irrigation systems in the same
way as iron. Generally, chemical treatment can
clear water by settling out the clay. Turbidity in
farm dams can be reduced by simply grassing
the catchment areas.
Irrigation from creek or dam water that has
been collected from farming areas is a potential
source of disease organisms such as Pythium,
Phytophthora, Fusarium and Rhizoctonia, all of
which are problematic to flannel flower crops.
It is vital to treat potentially contaminated
water in order to control disease. Bore water is
generally free of plant pathogens but may have
a high salt content. Chlorinated town water is
suitable without any further treatment.
High levels of salt cause chlorosis (yellowing) of the leaf and marginal burning.
The electrical conductivity of irrigation water
should be below 0.75 dS/m. Water salinity is
difficult to deal with, but its effects can be
minimised by using micro-irrigation systems.
Salt can be removed from water by reverse
osmosis, but this is expensive and yields only
low volumes of usable water.
11
near the top. Elevated areas may be less frost
prone.
Steep slopes are impractical and dangerous for
the use of farm equipment, making daily operations such as planting and harvesting difficult.
They also make it more challenging to design a
suitable irrigation system and may be more
prone to damaging strong winds.
7.7 Other crops
A range of other Australian native cut flower
crops can be grown under protected cultivation
using similar structures, containers and growing
media. Certain Anigozanthos hybrids (kangaroo
paw) and Macropidia (black kangaroo paw) are
especially suitable. Flowering is offset from
crops grown in the open, and flowers are of a
high quality, commanding premium prices.
The effect of salt can be variable, especially in seedlings, ranging from no
visible effect to death. All these plants
were watered with the same salt solution.
7.6 Aspect
A gentle slope (less than 15%) is desirable, as it
allows for the rapid runoff of surface water and
thus reduces the risk of soilborne diseases.
Beds should be designed to allow water to run
off without ponding or waterlogging.
Conversely, if runoff is concentrated through a
single channel, this can damage the beds and
crop as well as increase erosion. Erosion control is a top priority: the cropping area should
be designed to minimise the effects of erosion.
Kangaroo paw growing in protected
cultivation.
In areas with recurring frosts, choose a slope
that provides cold air drainage, and plant only
12
8
Propagation
Flannel flowers can be propagated by seed,
cuttings or tissue culture. Although seedlings
can be variable, they are more vigorous than
cuttings or cultured stock, which tend to establish more slowly and branch less (von Richter
& Offord 1997). Seedlings are also less susceptible to wind damage, as they have a deeper
root system. So most cut flowers are derived
from seedlings grown from selected seed
sources.
gated.
Some strains of flannel flower germinate readily when fresh.
The roots of flannel flowers are very fragile
and require care during transplanting to avoid
damage. Keep the tap root straight to prevent
kinking, which may cause poor growth and an
increased tendency to snap off when the plant
matures. This can be achieved by pre-dibbling a
hole and then by using a pair of forceps to
position the root tip right to the bottom before
firming the medium in.
Flowers can produce copious quantities
of seed. Viable seed is well filled out.
8.1 Seed
Germination of seed is variable and may be
slow. Some seed lines may germinate readily
when fresh, but others germinate better when
aged. A standard well drained germination mix
is useful, but the mix should be kept relatively
dry to prevent seed rotting. If seedlings are to
be transplanted, do this before the root system
develops too far (about the two-leaf stage).
It is not always practicable to obtain or sow
seed immediately after collecting. After the
initial fresh phase, the seed often reverts to a
dormant state, which may last months or years,
although the extent varies between seed lines.
Seed should be well filled out for maximum
viability. Lightly brushing flower heads of
plants growing in greenhouses can enhance the
set of viable seed.
Flannel flower seedlings can be successfully transplanted into cell trays or
tubes.
To save labour costs and the problems associated with transplanting seedlings, some growers
also sow seed in the final containers and thin if
too many germinate. Thinned seedlings can
also be tubbed up for further use or be used to
The development of seed lines that have reliable and high germination rates is being investi13
patch containers where no seed germinated.
The resultant elimination of transplantation
shock has shown to enhance seedling growth,
but omitting intermediate container sizes means
more greenhouse space is taken up for a longer
period of time. For this to be practical, seed
must germinate readily.
these are not always as vigorous as seed-grown
plants.
In the wild there is a proliferation of seedlings
following a bushfire, indicating that flannel
flower seed has good longevity. Dormancy of
some lines of flannel flower seed can be broken
by maturing (ageing), application of smoke
(smoked water) or chemical treatment. Discs
that contain smoke extract and other chemicals
that promote the germination of Australian
native plant seed are commercially available.
Flannel flowers grow reasonably true to type
from selected seed (Dalley 2000), but seedlings
from hybridised material can be very variable.
Growing from seed is an economically viable
way of producing large quantities of plants,
although a shortage of selected seed exists.
Direct seeding into the field is a reasonable
method of establishment, provided that timing
is correct (autumn), and correct seed propagation techniques are also followed (using fresh
seed, possibly treating seed with smoke, and
providing adequate water). Even so, variable
results still occur, and the problem of death
rates once plants have germinated is not resolved. But economically, it is the cheapest
form of propagation.
Semi-dwarf flowering clones can flower
precociously in small containers. Remove
flowers at this stage (unless the pot is
to be sold as a flowering pot plant).
To strike cuttings, first treat softwood or semihardwood material with 2000 ppm IBA (quick
dip method or semi-hardwood powders or gels)
before placing them into a good-quality cutting
mix under mist. If the medium has not been
made from disease-free materials, pasteurise it
at 60 °C for 30 minutes before use. Rooting
percentages are high, especially if the parent
material is of good quality. Drenching with an
approved fungicide may be required to minimise losses.
Most cultivated flannel flower crops are grown
from seedlings that are planted directly into soil
bed rows or containers, although the percentage
of clonally propagated material is increasing.
Most existing plantations may have a variety of
different genotypes producing a range of stem
lengths, flower heads and flowering times. As a
result, there is considerable variation in the product currently being harvested and marketed.
Concerns have also been raised about the
possibility of transmitting the disease organism
Fusarium by seed, but this is yet to be substantiated.
There is a general reluctance to take on vegetative propagation of flannel flowers because of
production difficulties and the associated high
costs. Even so, a few propagators are successfully propagating by cutting and tissue culture.
More work is required to develop vegetatively
produced plants from selected varieties with
specific qualities.
8.2 Vegetative
Flannel flowers in general can be readily propagated by cuttings. This enables the multiplication of selections with desirable qualities, but
14
Whatever the source of the plant stock, using
stronger and healthier plants will make disease
control easier. At this stage, there is no propagation method or particular variety known to
consistently reduce the rate of death.
8.3 Tissue culture
Some flannel flower selections appear to be
more suited to tissue culture than others.
The most difficult task is deflasking: removing
the plant from the tissue culture; some lines
have a particularly high failure rate. Failure
appears to be related to the cultures’ being
extremely soft without an effective cuticle,
making them prone to drying out, fungal infections and fungus gnats. Some of the problems
of deflasking may be overcome by treating the
tissue-cultured plants as mini-cuttings.
Flannel flower in a tissue culture lab.
Tissue culture would allow for the production
of large volumes of selected high-yielding
strains, which could also be used as stock
plants for cutting production or seed.
Propagation of tissue-cultured plants directly
for flower production is uneconomical but may
have an important role in the production of
‘mother plants’ from which cuttings can be
taken or used for seed production.
Close up of flannel flower in tissue
culture.
15
9
Setting up
9.1 Farm infrastructure
An office area with a phone, computer (Internet connection) and fax—essential for commercial operations. The office can be attached
to the packing shed but needs to be physically
separated from it.
All farms require common facilities and
equipment, as well as those specific to the type
and scale of operation being set up.
A greenhouse or rain shelter. Consider the
design carefully. Growing plants on benches or
raised beds improves labour efficiency (the
greatest cost) and disease control as well as
allowing better ventilation. The floor should be
well drained and suppress weeds and disease—
gravel is often used to good effect. A separate
holding area for new planting material should
be included to keep new stock from existing
crops for quarantine purposes. If a new insect
or disease is detected, remedial action will then
be much easier.
Basic farm infrastructure
A vermin-proof packing shed with concrete
floor, water, power, lights and good vehicular
access. A concrete floor is necessary for efficient cleaning and to prevent mud or dirt from
contaminating the product. A toilet and shower
are essential, especially for hired labour use
and for decontamination after pesticide application. The efficiency of the packing operations
will be greatly affected by the design of the
packing shed, especially in relation to material
flows and handling. Include in the design a
feature that will keep disinfested flowers separate from freshly harvested material, particularly for export products.
Machinery
Second-hand and hired machinery is available,
but take into account convenience, availability,
reliability and overall cost. Breakdowns or nonavailability of machinery and equipment at
critical times, such as harvesting, can result in
expensive losses. Capital costs can be greatly
reduced by using contractors, especially for
jobs such as initial bed preparation.
At least one cool room is essential for commercial operations. Ideally, two cool rooms
should be available to separate freshly harvested material from disinfested and packed material. The cool rooms should be within the
packing shed or immediately adjacent to it and
positioned with material handling in mind. Cut
stems need to be held at 4 to 8 °C short term
and 2 to 4 °C longer term, at high humidity.
The machinery and equipment required will
depend on the size of the farm and the type of
production system. An advantage of intensive
production in rain shelters is the reduced need
for larger equipment such as tractors for routine
production, although maintenance of the surrounding area must be considered. Transport
requirements are also reduced owing to the
more compact nature of closed operations.
A shed for storing farm machinery and equipment. Do not store packing materials in open
sheds where they can become contaminated by
insects, animal and bird droppings, or dust and
oil.
A chemical storage shed is a legal requirement
if pesticides are used. It must be constructed to
the required legal standards, be lockable, and
have satisfactory ventilation.
Tractors: Tractors should be sized to suit the
operation, especially row widths. Larger field
operations will require a medium-sized tractor.
Smaller tractors, even as a second one, are very
useful for towing trailers for harvest and can be
fitted with narrower equipment for operations
between narrow rows, as long as they have a
power-take-off of sufficient capacity.
A fertiliser storage area, preferably separated
to prevent contamination of packing materials
and machinery. Many fertilisers can also be
corrosive, flammable or even explosive.
16
consider bores and dams, pumps, filters and
disinfection equipment (e.g. a chlorinator).
Equipment for delivery to market: An adequate vehicle to deliver flowers to a central
collection point or directly to the market is
required unless direct pickup can be arranged.
For long-distance transport a refrigerated
vehicle is desirable.
Minor equipment
Flannel flowers being cooled and hydrated in a hydration solution before
processing and packing.
Attachments: There is a vast range of equipment that can be attached to trailers, such as
cultivation equipment (scarifier, bed former or
scarifier blade, rotary hoe), mowers, slashers,
sprayers and fertiliser spreaders.
Trailers: Trailers attached to tractors, or some
other form of transport (such as a utility), will
be needed for harvesting operations, and a farm
bike is useful for crop inspection and maintenance operations.
Pesticide application equipment: A large
range of pesticide application equipment is
available. It should suit the intended use and be
appropriately sized for efficiency of application. Tractor-mounted equipment is usually
used for field application. Some types can also
be used under rain shelters; for example, with
hoses attached. For small operations and those
under cover, battery-powered sprayers may be
economical and effective. It is best to have
separate equipment—especially tanks—for
herbicides and insecticides.

Sharp secateurs and sharpening equipment.

Scales for weighing chemicals and bunches.

Personal protective equipment for handling
and applying chemicals.

Containers such as large buckets that can
be bought fairly cheaply second-hand, for
storing and treating flowers.

Miscellaneous equipment: bunch-tying
machines, strapping machines for cartons,
rollers, a pallet jack or trolley, and sleeving
and conveyor systems.

Tables for bunching, grading and packaging. Circular rotating packing tables can
handle variable loads and take up less
space; if something goes wrong, the product goes around again.

Dipping tanks.
This list is not exhaustive and should be tailored to individual operations.
9.2 Field planting
Seedlings are best planted out when small (4 to
8 cm high), before there is extensive root
development. This allows the root system to
develop in the soil and prevents plants from
becoming root bound in pots. Root-bound
plants may fail to thrive and even die as they
get bigger. Avoid unnecessary disturbance
throughout the propagation and planting phases, as root systems are easily damaged.
Fertiliser application equipment: The equipment required will depend on the means of
application. Tractor-mounted spreaders are
generally used for efficient application of dry
fertilisers to large areas. Fertigation, using
soluble fertilisers in irrigation systems, is an
efficient means of application and is suitable
for both large and small areas—especially
under protected cultivation.
Irrigation equipment: Besides actual field
delivery and distribution systems, you need to
17
Planting is best done in the spring to produce
active growth, although summer planting is
possible with greater care. It takes approximately 8 to 12 months from plant-out to harvest for
seasonally flowering varieties, so plants estab-
9.3.2 Row spacing
lished in September should be available for
harvest by the following August. Spring planting also protects from excessively cold conditions in southern regions, especially Victoria.
Space plants about 30 to 60 cm apart in rows 30
to 60 cm apart. This spacing gives good mutual
support against wind damage. Higher planting
densities produce a similar total number of
saleable stems per unit area, because there are
fewer stems produced per plant, but the cost of
planting is higher. For current seasonal flowering varieties, yields of 6 to 10 stems per plant
can be expected in the first year and 15 to 30
stems in the second.
Seedlings ready for planting out. Photo
courtesy of Backcreek Country Pty Ltd.
As plants grow, pinch them out to encourage
branching. Prune older plants in early autumn
to encourage shoots. If this is done too late, the
stem length will be reduced in the following
spring. Cutting back hard into the main stem
can stunt or kill the plant. Removal of about
half of the stem length is sufficient to promote
a new flush of growth (Offord & Tyler 1996).
9.3 Preparing the beds
9.3.3 Field row layout
Site preparation entails cultivating the soil that
is raised into beds, similar to the requirements
for most Australian native plant crops. Deep
ripping will improve drainage before final
cultivation. Raised beds are not necessary in
well drained sandy soils. Although most flannel
flowers grow naturally in light or sandy soils,
they can tolerate heavier soils with a higher
clay content if good drainage is provided. Good
drainage is essential for the maintenance of soil
aeration and for extreme events such as heavy
rainfall.
Row layout is affected by the shape and slope
of the land as well as by boundaries and access.
Often, rows are best oriented somewhere between a true contour and directly downhill.
Running rows lower than the contour avoids
trapping water on the high side, but they should
not be so low as to cause erosion. Rows are
best broken by crossroads at about 50 m intervals to allow better access, even if the row
continues. This results in a plant density of
approximately 10 000 plants/ha where plants
are grown in single rows 2 m apart. Some
growers use multiple rows, which greatly
increases plant density.
9.3.1 Hilling
Raise beds about 1 m wide to 20 to 30 cm high
at the centre. Although hilling or mounding
may not be necessary in deep, porous soils that
drain rapidly, it still provides relief from periods of extended heavy rain or high water tables.
A well drained soil results in good root growth
and minimises the potential for root diseases.
Higher mounds often give better growth because of improved aeration in the root zone,
although these tend to dry out more, especially
in times of low rainfall. Hilling is not recommended in very light soils.
9.4 Weed control
Weed control is a major expense in plantation
management, but the problem cannot be ignored, as weeds compete with the crop for
nutrients, water and sunlight. They also harbour
many pests and diseases. Weeds can cause total
crop loss during the early establishment stages
when plants are small, and severe reduction in
yields later.
Weed matting and mulching help control
weeds and retain soil moisture. Flannel flowers
are shallow rooted, making them susceptible to
18
damage during weeding or close cultivation.
Weed matting or mulch is useful to avoid weed
problems within the rows, and will significantly
reduce labour for future control.
helps reduce the amount of water lost by
evaporation

helps shed water away from the root zone
during periods of excessive rainfall, thus
reducing leaching of fertiliser

prevents cultivation equipment from damaging the crop roots

reduces soil compaction by equipment use,
therefore improving soil aeration and microbial activity.
Mulching: Good weed control before planting
is easier and safer than later.
Spraying: Only a limited range of herbicides
are registered for use in flower crops. Systemic
herbicides can be transferred to the crop via the
roots of weeds (especially perennial grass
roots), with deadly results. Contact herbicides
may be a safer option but are not as effective in
weed control and can result in spray drift. Take
extreme care in using herbicides close to the
plants, as toxicities have been reported.
Mowing, slashing and brushcutting.
Inter-row cultivation: Can be problematic if
carried out too close to the plants by causing
damage to shallow roots.
Organic mulches aid soil health in the long
term as they break down slowly and increase
organic matter levels. Suitable materials include straw, compost and hay; crop residues
such as tea tree mulch, cotton trash and bagasse; and wood chips or sawdust.
Hand weeding. A very expensive option,
owing to its intensive labour requirement. Can
also damage shallow crop roots.
9.5 Plant support and wind
protection
Materials should have a large particle size, be
properly aged, and be free of excess fertiliser
and weed seed. The particle size affects both
soil aeration and rate of microbial breakdown.
If the particle size is too small, the mulch will
break down too fast and may cause nitrogen
depletion. Organic mulches can contribute to
the control of Phytophthora but must be kept
back from the stems to avoid collar rot.
At planting, plants are small with shallow root
systems (particularly cutting or tissue-cultured
plants) and may need protection from the wind.
A plant spacing of 30 cm provides some protection, as the plants support each other. Plastic
plant guards offer the best protection as well as
preventing damage from cold, frost and animal
attack. The guards cannot be left on as a structural support, as humidity inside the sleeve can
cause rotting of the lower leaves.
However, organic mulches:

must be regularly reapplied
require considerable labour input.
Most growers will need to use all available
control methods:
Use mulch with matting, as it discourages
weeds and insulates the soil, providing a cool
root run for good plant development.
can introduce weed seeds

If the space between crop rows is grassed, weed
growth can be controlled by mowing or applying chemicals. Do not allow weeds to flower,
and use herbicide strips to prevent damage to
the crop by the mower or slasher.
Two main types of plastic matting are available. Woven plastic usually lasts for 4 or 5
years—generally more than the life of the crop.
Non-woven plastic needs an organic mulch on
top to be effective. Weed matting alone is not
recommended, as it can make the root zone too
hot for good root development. This problem is
more important when the plants are small and
more susceptible to damage. The plastic cover
also makes application of solid fertiliser difficult.

are difficult to apply to a growing crop
Hardwood chips do not break down quickly,
but phenols that leach from them may pose a
problem. Because the concentrations of phenols
vary in different timbers, test a particular
hardwood for its suitability first.
Weed mat can repay its cost within 2 years; it:


As the plants grow taller they may need structural support to stop the stems bending or even
19
breaking. Bent stems lower the value of the
crop. Support can be provided by staking or
with floral mesh (see photo on page 9) to
stabilise plants. Wind damage can remain a
problem in mature plants but can be minimised
by windbreaks.
is unavailable to the plant. It can sometimes
appear that the surrounding soil is moist, when
the root ball is actually very dry. When a soil
has drained after irrigation, water movement
within the soil is very slight, and therefore
transplants can actually require more frequent
irrigation than when in their original containers.
Failure to supply adequate moisture results in
stressed plants that fail to establish and grow
satisfactorily.
9.6 Irrigation
A cut flower crop requires a reliable supply of
good-quality water. Irrigation is essential for
healthy plant growth and high yields of highquality flowers with good stem length and
minimal defects.
The establishment stage lasts around 2 to 3
weeks when plants are actively growing. The
normal irrigation frequency will be two or three
times a day immediately after planting, reducing to about once a day after this (in the absence of rainfall). Apply about 6 L/m2/day. The
actual rate and frequency will vary with weather conditions.
Proper irrigation is as crucial as correct air
space ratios and soil drainage capacity. Scheduling, combined with accurate quantities, is
important in maintaining high air space ratios.
Water must be applied in small quantities and
must flow through the medium rapidly in order
to achieve the optimum air space ratio. Flannel
flowers are able to use small amounts of water
very efficiently and will die with too much
water, but can also stress if there is not enough.
Both extremes can increase disease rates.
The recommended application method in the
establishment phase is by overhead sprinklers
for even distribution of water. After this period,
drippers are preferred, as they do not wet the
foliage. A dual sprinkler–dripper system is best,
and can be used as also for frost control or
reducing excessively high foliage temperatures.
Liquid fertilisers may be applied during establishment through the drip system, but only after
any overhead sprinklers have finished, to avoid
washing nutrients out of the soil.
Avoid overhead watering once plants are established, as it can stain flowers and exacerbate
other problems, especially disease. The collar
area of the plant (the area of stem at the soil
surface) is very prone to disease. Use an alternative system such as drip irrigation on maturing plants.
It is particularly important in this phase for soil
to be freely draining so a high air space ratio
can be maintained between waterings.
Although flannel flowers have a low to medium
water requirement, some irrigation is required
in most areas, particularly during hot, dry
periods or in times of drought. Plants also need
to be irrigated frequently during the establishment phase.
9.6.2 Growing on
As a general guide, plants will require about 5
L/m2/day in summer and about 3 L/m2/day in
winter, depending on environmental conditions.
Monitor the crop closely, as actual water usage
can vary greatly. Plants can use more water on
mild days than on very hot days, when they
become stressed and the stomata close.
9.6.1 Planting out
The soil or growing medium should initially be
moist. Plants must be watered immediately
after transplanting, as they are susceptible to
drying out (and over-watering) at this stage
owing to their limited root systems. This situation is exacerbated if the plants are relatively
large in relation to the tube size.
Sprinkler irrigation may be used, with care, to
cool the crop on very hot days. If the crop is in
the open (with no cover to diffuse sunlight),
there is a small risk of water droplets acting as
a lens that causes leaf burn.
Avoid excessively wetting foliage, as it promotes disease and may cause unsupported
flowers to lodge (fall over) from the weight of
After transplanting, water will drain from the
root ball into the surrounding medium, where it
20
Rainfall (for unprotected crops): The effect
of rainfall is determined by the frequency and
amount of rain and the water-holding capacity
of the soil. Natural rainfall may have limited
benefits for the plants, as the good drainage
required for disease control removes excess
moisture quickly. Even after heavy rain, irrigation may have to recommence in a day or two
in summer.
the water.
Table 9.1 Evaporation at three sites over
the past 15 years (source: Data Drill).
Site
Average evapo- Minimum–maximum
ration
evaporation
2
2
(L/m /day)
(L/m /day)
Gosford
2.9
0.0–8.0
Kempsey
3.4
0.2–10.8
Esk
4.5
0.6–11.4
9.7 Growing flannel flowers in
rain shelters
Evapotranspiration is the actual water lost from both
the crop and the surface of the soil.
Actual water requirements can be estimated
from evaporation pan data. Average values for
Gosford (NSW), Kempsey (NSW) and Esk
(southern Qld) are shown in Table 9.1. Note
how the minimum and maximum values can
vary. For precision and to relate to the actual
crop site, a local evaporation pan is essential.
The irrigation rate and frequency required will
depend on the following factors:
Actual weather conditions: Within seasons,
evapotranspiration varies widely. As a general
rule, allow two to three times the rate in summer as in winter.
Growing flannel flowers in containers
under shelter improves quality. Photo
courtesy of Backcreek Country Pty Ltd.
Differences between the pan site and the
crop site: Even siting of windbreaks and
mulching can have a large effect on evapotranspiration.
The continually flowering clone is especially
suited to growing under a rain shelter or in a
basic greenhouse, where it gives very high
yields. Rain shelters help protect flowers from
the weather, greatly increasing their quality.
Such a protected cropping system also helps
keep the foliage (and growing medium) dry,
thereby reducing the incidence of disease. A
number of growers are doing this successfully.
The stage of crop growth and the crop factor: Assume the full rate if plants are more than
one-quarter grown. Transplants require irrigation two or three times a day without additional
rain. The crop factor for flannel flowers is not
known, but similar crops have about an 80%
requirement compared with the actual evapotranspiration rate. After foliage has been greatly
reduced by harvesting, the plants will require
much less water until they regrow.
The following points have been found to be key
to successful growing in a rain shelter:

Losses in application systems: Assume 10%
loss for night sprinkler irrigation, 20% for day
application and up to 40% for hot windy days.
There are few losses in drip systems, unless
excessive water is applied and it runs to waste.
The water-holding capacity of the soil: For
sandy soils with a low water-holding capacity,
up to 140% of the calculated irrigation rate may
be required on account of runoff.
21
Well designed, naturally ventilated rain
shelters are generally used. Forced ventilation can be used, although it is usually expensive, especially if designed to keep
temperatures low on very hot days. Flannel
flowers in rain shelters will tolerate internal
temperatures from 0 to over 40 °C for short
periods. Rain shelters also give considerable frost protection. During trials at
Gosford, the temperature within the rain
shelter did not fall below 0 °C even when
drainage, especially if containers are placed
on raised benches. Benches also assist in
maintenance and harvesting efficiency, isolate the plants from potential pathogens in
the soil, and allow easy removal of any diseased or underperforming plants.
there were heavy frosts outside.



Some shade is necessary. Choose the
shadecloth rating carefully, as high shade
levels will restrict growth and flowering,
and excessive shade will result in weak
stems. In coastal NSW, shade levels should
not exceed 50%.
The growing medium must be well aerated.
The medium must have a large air space
and good drainage, and watering must be
restricted to keep the medium ‘on the dry
side’. These conditions are essential to controlling waterlogging, which often leads to
root rot, the most common cause of restricted growth and death. Plants can grow
well in the presence of otherwise pathogenic organisms if the medium is not waterlogged, and tolerate drying out better than
they tolerate waterlogging.
Most growers raise the plants in individual
containers (usually 4–6 L) rather than in
beds. This helps prevent the spread of
pathogens between plants and improves

Maintaining a high level of nutrients in the
growing medium is essential for good
growth and flowering. Many growers use a
mixture of slow-release and immediately
available fertilisers (which can be applied
by fertigation).

Plants grown in containers under cover will
generally have fewer weed problems but
may be more prone to pests such as mites
and mealy bugs, especially if the containers
are crowded together.

Plants should be replaced after about 2
years. Plants will continue to produce flowers after this period, but yields will fall and
flower stems will become shorter.
For more details see Worrall and Tesoriero
(2009).
22
10
Crop maintenance
10.1 Pest and disease control
as spray damage or weather.
The best strategy to reduce pest and disease
problems is to use a combination of pruning,
irrigation and fertilisation. Plants under stress
are more susceptible to infestation and infection. The ability to look for problems, work out
the cause and take an appropriate course of
action is a vital skill which must be learned.

Learn to distinguish between a symptom
(the altered appearance of an affected
plant) and a sign (the presence of the actual
organism or evidence of its presence).

If you cannot identify the cause of the
problem, take samples and send them to a
service provider who can diagnose the
cause. This involves collecting plant material showing all the symptoms along with
healthy material for comparison. Send it
fresh and include specific information
about the problem. Pack insects in unbreakable containers, preferably in methylated spirits.
Good practices

Good hygiene in and around the growing
areas will help avoid problems. Clean up
and remove prunings and plough in old
crops when they are finished.

Know what a healthy crop looks like and
investigate changes immediately.

Check plants regularly (at least weekly).

Monitor insect pests using sticky traps in
order to enable early recognition of potential problems and avoid wasteful overuse of
sprays. Identification of the pests also enables the correct spray to be chosen for the
job. Some insects may be helpful predators.

Keep good records of pesticide sprays:
when and what was used, what pests were
seen and the time of year they were seen.

Check that the irrigation water is free of
pathogens, especially when using dam water, and investigate the services of a commercial testing laboratory.
Treating a problem
Native flower production is fairly new and
often small scale, so there may be no registered
pesticides for some of the problems encountered. Regulations on the use of pesticides are
strict: a product has to be registered, or a permit
must be obtained, for a particular species of
plant and situation, before it can legally be used
or recommended. When there is any doubt as to
the toxicity of a particular product to plants,
test it first on a small area of the crop.
Pest management during the growing season
will make exporting easier.
10.1.1 Insects
There are relatively few serious pests of flannel
flowers. However, a few, if left untreated, can
cause a serious reduction in the number of
harvestable flowers or even plant death:
Diagnosing a problem
It is important to be able to identify the cause of
a problem when it arises. Many insects seen in
plantations are harmless. Also, visible symptoms are not always due to a pest or disease.

Define the problem first. Is it death of a
plant, leaf drop or leaf spots? Is this the
primary problem or a consequence of the
primary problem?

Look for patterns. Non-uniform damage to
a crop usually indicates a living agent as
the cause, whereas uniform damage is generally the result of non-living factors such
23

Bud mites are difficult to detect in small
numbers because of the dense hairs on the
leaf surface. In high numbers they can
cause stunting in plants and even death.
Plant recovery may be slow even after the
mites have been controlled.

Mealy bugs can cause problems during
periods of active growth, producing distortion and stunting of new leaves. A systemic
insecticidal spray is beneficial.

Plague thrips can heavily infest flowers (10
or more per flower). They cause little damage to the flowers but cause serious disinfestation problems.

The caterpillar stage of light brown apple
moth can become a serious problem in protected cultivation if not controlled.

Aphids have been recorded on plants.

Two-spotted mites have been occasional
pests.

Spiders may also cause quarantine problems.
Root rot caused by fungal pathogens is
a major cause of plant death in the field.
Left: uninoculated plant. Right: plant
infested with a fungal root rot.
Overall, flannel flowers are relatively troublefree. If regular monitoring and corrective action
are taken, pests will rarely cause failure of the
crop.
Fusarium: Two major organisms that appear to
be associated with root rot are Fusarium oxysporum (Fusarium wilt) and F. solani (collar
rot). Infected plants can die within 7 days.
Other Fusarium species (not identified) have
also been associated with plant death. There are
a large number of species and races of Fusarium that vary widely in their pathogenicity to
flannel flower. There is an urgent need to sort
out which types are involved, as not all are
pathogenic. Some may even provide protection
from pathogenic strains. There are also probable interactions with other diseases and growing conditions. For example, there is some
evidence that Fusarium and Pythium occurring
together are far more pathogenic than either
alone (see next paragraph).
10.1.2 Diseases
Root diseases
The major cause of crop loss is root death due
to disease and is the most difficult to control.
The major root diseases are a range of species
of Pythium and Fusarium, but other pathogens
have also been isolated.
Pythium: The only identified species of Pythium to occur on flannel flowers is Pythium
mastophoron, although there are a number of
reports of other species being associated with
plant death. Two or more species of Pythium
may also be present at the same site. When both
Pythium and Fusarium are present they become
highly pathogenic: one fungicide may control
the symptoms of both diseases, but may be
effective against only one disease.
Root rot due to fungal pathogen.
Other organisms include Phytophthora, especially P. drechsleri, and Rhizoctonia. These
have been associated with large plant losses.
More root diseases will probably be identified
in the future. In at least two instances no known
pathogen could be isolated from plants dying of
a suspected root pathogen. Sclerotinia and
Rhizoctonia affect a wide range of other crops
and so could become a problem.
24
Methods for controlling root diseases:

Follow normal crop hygiene protocols
similar to those used for exotic flower
crops (e.g carnations, which are very susceptible to Fusarium). These require crop
rotation or chemical fumigation of soil between crops.

Avoid contamination, especially of propagation material. Control of fungus gnats is
important, as they spread disease and readily attack fine roots.

Provide good cultural conditions. Adequate
soil aeration is of critical importance, as
waterlogged plants die quickly. Excessive
fertiliser (especially N) or not enough
makes plants more susceptible to disease.
Bract browning on flannel flowers due
to Botrytis fungal infection. Photo by
Lowan Turton, NSW DPI.
The way the virus is transmitted is uncertain.
The best ways to control spread of the disease
are general hygiene, destruction of infected
plant material, control of likely vectors such as
thrips, and avoiding transfer of infection,
especially when cutting flowers.

Control soil moisture conditions closely.
Avoid wetting the base of plants or foliage
as much as possible.

Use protected cultivation. Flannel flowers
are potentially profitable under ‘normal’
protected cultivation. Similar growing
methods can be used as with other crops
vulnerable to root disease.
10.2 Fertilisers
Use fungicides and biocontrol. Some fungicides are already effective and new ones
are being introduced. These are more successful in beds or pots than in open ground.
Biocontrol is also a future possibility.

The major nutrients or macronutrients,
which are found in the highest concentrations: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulphur (S), calcium (Ca) and
magnesium (Mg).

The micronutrients or trace elements,
which are found in the lowest concentrations: iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper
(Cu), zinc (Zn), boron (Bo), molybdenum
(Mo) and chlorine (Cl).

There are 13 elements essential for normal
plant growth. These fall into two groups according to their abundance in plants:
Flower and foliage diseases
Recorded foliage diseases include:

leaf blight—Botrytis species

leaf spot—Septoria species.
For control, it is important to keep the foliage
as dry as possible. Fungicides may be used if
necessary.
Three others (silicon, sodium and cobalt) may
have beneficial effects under special circumstances but are not considered important for
commercial horticulture. Many other elements
are absorbed from soil but are not essential for
plant growth.
Tomato spotted wilt virus has recently been
identified in flannel flowers. The symptoms
include chlorotic (yellowish) spots and mottling
on leaves, which are sometimes puckered. The
tops of shoots have shortened internodes.
Lack of any one of the essential elements will
impair crop growth. Nutrients will limit growth
when supply is too low (deficient) or too high
(toxic or excessive).
25
Healthy crop of flannel flower. Photo
courtesy of Backcreek Country Pty Ltd.
A wide range of nutrient imbalances or
deficiencies may cause a reduction in
growth rates before symptoms become
visible. From left to right the effect of
growing medium nitrogen levels: deficient, optimal and excess.
Table 10.1 shows leaf analysis results of plants
growing satisfactorily with a wide range of
added fertilisers. In particular, note that the
range in percentage N is small, despite a wide
range of N fertiliser being applied. In addition,
the percentage P varies with the P applied, but
despite its uptake by the plants there is little
effect on growth.
Because plants absorb most nutrients through
their roots, fertilisers must be soluble in water.
This is also why proper irrigation scheduling is
so important—not only to prevent water stress
but also to maintain nutrient supply.
Table 10.1 Nutrient levels in healthy
leaves.
Good plant nutrition aids disease control by
developing a strong, healthy plant.
Nutrient element
Nutrition also plays a key role in plant development: optimum nutrient levels increase stem
quantities and stem length.
The application of phosphorous acid as a fungicide (not phosphoric acid) if pathogens are
present, especially in the early stages of plant
growth, may have significant benefits in improving root health and thus nutrient uptake.
Soil and plant testing
Before you can apply the correct fertiliser you
need to know the nutrient status of the soil. A
soil test will show this. The results will enable
you to plan a fertiliser program aimed at minimising nutrient losses and preventing the buildup of individual nutrients.
Plant tissue analysis is also essential. The
results give a reliable guide to a crop’s condition and are useful in identifying nutritional
disorders. Standards have yet to be set for
flannel flowers.
26
Average
Max
Min
Al (mg/kg)
50.7
158
27.1
Ca %
0.58
1.26
0.38
Cu (mg/kg)
6.77
9.29
3.44
Fe (mg/kg)
113
305
63.1
K%
1.17
1.58
0.61
Mg %
0.17
0.21
0.13
Mn (mg/kg)
181
372
59.6
Mo (mg/kg)
0.57
3.33
0.03
N%
1.97
2.56
1.45
Na %
0.37
0.68
0.21
P%
0.05
0.43
0.05
S%
0.18
0.72
0.12
Zn (mg/kg)
58.5
161
27.6
30 ppm P and 150 ppm K, assuming watering
frequencies of every day or every other day,
depending on the weather. In winter, there may
be a need to increase the concentration of
nutrients, as watering is reduced to every 3 or 4
days. Fertiliser rates will vary with a given
situation and management techniques, and
optimum rates will vary greatly with management practices.
Nitrogen deficiency (left two leaves) and
nitrogen excess (right two leaves).
Monitoring fertility levels
Flannel flowers tolerate a wide range of soil
nutrient levels and have flourished at most trial
sites, except one with exceptionally high P
levels (291.9 meq%; von Richter & Offord
1997). Chlorosis is often present in flannel
flowers, especially when they are growing in
pots or clay soils. An induced iron deficiency is
suspected as the cause, probably due to poor
root health, high pH or excessive levels of other
elements, particularly P, which binds iron.
Iron deficiency causing leaf chlorosis
(yellowing). There can be a variety of
causes besides an actual deficiency of
iron in the growing medium.
Container trials have shown that flannel flowers respond well when the level of nutrition is
increased. In one trial, the upper limit of response to fertiliser application was not reached
even though twice the normal rate for fertilisertolerant crops was used (10 kg/m3 of Nutricote
slow-release fertiliser: N:P:K 13:2.6:10.8 or
18:2.6:6.6 with 9-month formulation). With
increased rates of fertiliser application, plants
grew larger with more stems and more floral
bracts (von Richter & Offord 1997).
For example, if the amount of water applied
exceeds the requirement by more than 10% and
significant leaching occurs, higher rates will be
required. Similarly, if the growing medium is
already high in nutrients because of previous
fertiliser application or the presence of residues
of fertilisers or manures, then less will be
required.
Trials at Gosford have shown that flannel
flower is not sensitive to P. The addition of 2
kg/m3 superphosphate did not cause any toxicity symptoms or reduce growth rate.
Flannel flowers will tolerate a wide range of
fertilisers with different nutrient ratios. In trials
using container plants, responses to the Nutricote slow-release formulations listed above
appeared to be directly related to the N content
of the fertiliser. Some forms of N fertilisers
may be more toxic than others at excessive
rates, e.g. IBDU (a urea source).
Liquid fertiliser rates will depend on the frequency of irrigation, rate of leaching, quantity
of water supplied (and salt levels), time of year
and stage of the crop. Suggested rates (as a
starting point only) for summer are 100 ppm N,
Leaf symptoms of excessive IBDU.
27
10.3 Stem length
the plants’ growth rate and production of flowers are reduced. GA should be applied to plants
only when flower buds are visible, or flowering
may be inhibited.
The semi-dwarf continuously flowering varieties tend to have flower stems that are shorter
than many of the seasonal flowering varieties.
Pricing tends to be related to stem length, so it
makes economic sense to improve it where
possible.
Note: GA is currently not registered for this
purpose, so before using it, you must obtain a
permit from the Australian Pesticides and
Veterinary Medicines Authority
(www.apvma.gov.au).
Besides good watering and fertiliser practices,
there are two ways of increasing stem length:
Shade: Shade of up to 50% can increase stem
length and the number of flowers. Above this
level, flower stems become too weak and yields
tend to fall. Shade levels can be increased by
painting or shielding greenhouse roofs or
covering with shadecloth. Measure the actual
levels of shade in the greenhouse before applying shading materials, as covers and structural
supports can reduce light transmission. Actual
light transmission of some shadecloths can be
much less than the stated value, as transmission
percentages may be determined with the light
source at 90° to the cloth (directly above it). At
lower sun angles, found in higher latitudes and
during winter, light transmission percentages
may be much less. Use a light meter of reasonable quality to determine actual shade levels.
These can be purchased from many electronic
stores for less than $100. Photographic light
meters are usually unsuitable, as each f stop
represents a doubling of light intensity.
The use of gibberellic acid (GA): Many of the
semi-dwarf ‘year-round’ flowering clones are
GA-deficient dwarfs. So the application of GA
will increase their stem length. Trials have
shown the optimum level of GA to be about 20
ppm applied every 5 to 6 weeks. Above this
level, stems may become excessively weak and
Effect of GA on the stem length of semidwarf flannel flowers. Left: GA at 20
ppm. Right: no GA applied.
28
11
Harvest
11.2 Harvesting practices
The aim of any cut flower business is to produce high-quality cut flowers while maximising
yield per unit area. To optimise the financial
return, the crop must be harvested at its peak
and then processed, packed and delivered in
good condition to the consumer. If it is not
possible to fully harvest the crop, because of
either poor management (such as underestimation of labour requirements or high cost of
labour) or other circumstances (such as weather), returns will suffer. Similarly, a lapse in
quality control anywhere along the marketing
chain can result in a poor-quality product
delivered at the end.
To maximise the postharvest life of the stems it
is vital to keep them cool and well hydrated.
Lowering the temperature decreases the flowers’ respiration rate and reduces water loss. It
also arrests microbial development, which can
cause both disease and stem plugging.
Temperature management starts by moving
freshly picked stems promptly into a shaded
packing area or tunnel, either of which can be
cooled with an evaporative cooler. Avoid
picking during the heat of the day. Follow
normal harvesting procedures applicable to
other cut flowers: harvest in the morning and
place the stems directly into cool water.
11.1 When to harvest
All water used should be as clean as possible,
low in salt and with a pH of around 5 (citric
acid at 0.25 g/L will help acidify it). Rainwater
is preferred. Flowers can be stored in water in a
cool room (approximately 2 to 4 °C) for several
weeks.
Traditional varieties should be available for
harvest in the first spring if planted by at least
the middle of the previous summer (i.e. after 8
months). A second crop may be produced in
late summer.
Flowers are ready for harvest when about 15 to
20 individual florets are open in the centre of
the disc of the main flowering head (von Richter & Offord 1997). See Appendix 2 for product specifications and harvest maturity stages.
The use of postharvest treatments such as citric
acid, sucrose and a chlorine biocide may be
beneficial in prolonging vase life, but more
information is needed. Trials at Gosford did not
demonstrate any great extension in vase life by
the use of preservative solutions. Vase life can
normally be expected to be 14 to 21 days.
Bush-picked flowers tend to have a shorter vase
life, partly attributable to water stress in the
field.
Continuously flowering varieties can start
flowering within 6 months after germination.
The flower stems are generally very short and
should be pruned off to allow the plant to
develop into a reasonable size.
29
12
Postharvest handling
12.1 Grading
Currently, one of the most economical and
effective ways to disinfest flowers after picking, especially for export, is with a dip containing the fungicide iprodione and the insecticide
deltamethrin (this procedure is permitted under
the APVMA Minor Use Permit PER 12785; see
text box on the following page for details.)
Price is directly related to stem length. Cut the
stems as long as possible without cutting into
the old stem, as this can kill the plant. Strip the
leaves from the lower part of the stem before
packing. Stems are usually bunched in groups
of 10, although this may vary with the size of
the flowers. Shorter stems may be packed in
bundles of up to 25.
Dipping has another advantage: The fine hairs
on the leaves and flowers can cause allergic
reactions with prolonged exposure, as seen with
kangaroo paws and grevilleas. Sensitive workers, in particular those handling large quantities
before flowers are dipped, should wear protective clothing, especially on the forearms and
hands, and a dust mask. Dipping removes most
of the free hairs, greatly reducing sensitivity to
flannel flowers.
For field-grown material in season, 40 cm is
generally the shortest length acceptable at
market (except for bouquets); the export market
prefers 60 to 80 cm or even longer.
For cultivated product, especially out of season,
excellent returns have been achieved for stems
as short as 20 cm, especially on the export market.
Placing dipped flowers back into the cool room
will help them pre-cool quickly without losing
water.
Bush-picked product appears in the market in
October–November. Bush-picked product
competes with cultivated product both directly,
lowering returns, and indirectly, through inconsistency of supply and quality, harming the
general image of flannel flowers.
In the past, large quantities of bush-picked
material have been exported, but the level is
expected to fall owing to the implementation of
a native flora management plan in NSW by the
Wildlife Licensing and Management Unit of
the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NSW
Office of Environment and Heritage). The
Protected and Threatened Plants in the Cut
Flower Industry—Sustainable Management
Plan 2008–2012 includes details of licensing
regimes affecting flower growers and bush
harvesters. Growers and marketers of all Australian native species need to be aware of their
obligations under this plan. For more information go to www.environment.nsw.gov.au and
search for ‘Plant licensing FAQs’.
12.2 Disinfestation
Typical bunch of sleeved flannel flowers
for export.
Flowers intended for export must be disinfested, and be treated with a fungicide solution if
held for any length of time.
30
Sample of permit information.
Postharvest dip for control of quarantine
pests
Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority Permit PER 12785. Current 7
April 2011 to 30 June 2016. For all states of
Australia. For a copy, go to
www.apvma.gov.au.
Products containing 10 g/L deltamethrin as the
only active constituent:
Cislin® Residual Insecticide, or
Barmac Delta Force Insecticide, or
Insectigone® Insecticide
Foil-backed sleeve.
and
12.4 Packing
products containing 500 g/L iprodione as the
only active constituent:
Packing is the last stage at which you can make
simple, low-cost quality checks. Discard any
substandard flowers or those that do not meet
order specifications. Check for insect and fungal
damage, especially if the stems have been stored.
Rovral® Aquaflo Fungicide, or
Farmoz Civet® Aquaflo Fungicide
Directions for use and critical comments
Rate: Mix 250 mL product containing deltamethrin per 100 L of water.
Mix 100 mL product containing iprodione per
100 L water.
Pack bunches firmly into boxes to avoid
movement or damage. Pack bunches of the
same grade together: do not pack thick and thin
stems together. Make sure the presentation is
neat and tidy and the count is correct.
Flowers must be totally immersed in the
diluted solution for not less than 1 minute and
left to dry naturally for 2 hours.
A carton liner of plastic film that is folded over
the stems is useful, as it reduces water loss. It
also reduces the absorption of water vapour by
the carton, maintaining its strength.
Withholding period: Not required if used as
directed.
Unless a forced-air cooling system is available
(see 12.5), pre-cool flowers before packing.
Unless otherwise stated, the use of these
products must be in accordance with the
instructions on their labels—for example, but
not exclusively, ‘Safety Directions’—as listed.
12.5 Storage
Temperature management is as much a management tool as a technical handling aid is. A
properly operating cool room increases management flexibility: flowers can be picked at
optimum maturity and held over for market
instead of being left to deteriorate. Storage
temperature is very important, and cool rooms
should be kept at high relative humidity (90%
or greater), or flowers should be wrapped in a
vapour barrier such as plastic to avoid drying out.
12.3 Sleeving
Flowers are usually sold in sleeves. These
protect the flowers, improve market appeal and
make packing easier. Select sleeve size according to bunch size.
Micro-perforated sleeves are used to help
minimise condensation. Foil-backed sleeves
can enhance presentation.
Flannel flowers are not known to be sensitive to
ethylene, but this requires further investigation.
31
12.5.1 Refrigeration requirements
This method overrides the problems associated
with room cooling packed produce, from which
heat is difficult to remove. The cooling process
becomes very slow and, in some cases, cartons
in the centre of a stack are not cooled at all.
Simple cooling methods can be used to good
effect in helping to reduce temperature. But for
best results, mechanical refrigeration must be
installed to obtain the low temperatures that
keep flowers at their premium.
Pressure cooling pulls cold air through the
ventilation holes in every carton in a stack,
quickly removing heat from the flowers. Pressure cooling methods are available to suit
almost all applications. The most effective
method for stems (in general operations) is by
stacking end-ventilated cartons one deep
against the wall of a box or chamber (plenum).
Cold air is then drawn through each carton vent
through aligned slots cut in the chamber wall.
The chamber is constructed at one end of the
cool room, directly beneath the forced-draught
cooler. One or more fans installed horizontally
in the upper wall draw cold air into the leading
vent holes of each carton and then into the
entire chamber. The heated air is expelled
upwards towards the cooling unit, where it is
cooled and returned to the room.
12.5.2 Correct temperature for
holding or storing
There has been little research on the optimum
storage temperature for flannel flower, although
2 to 4 °C is acceptable in practice. Careful
planning is necessary to achieve this result, as
air temperatures within a cool room can vary
considerably. The air delivery temperature is
always at least 1–2 °C lower than the set point
in the room in order to offset warming inside
the room. For example, depending on the cool
room design, setting the room at 2 °C could
mean the delivery air is –1 °C, which will
freeze plant material.
Never place or stack flowers within 2 m of the
evaporator face, as they may get too cold. The
risk of freezing is particularly high in small,
overfilled rooms, where the evaporator is
struggling to cool the room to the set temperature.
An operating temperature of 5 to 7 °C would be
satisfactory if the cool room is used solely to
prepare a wide range of flowers picked the day
before for local marketing. It is cheaper to build
and run a room at 5 °C than at 2 °C, and any
cooling is better than none. Even installing an
evaporative cooler in the packing area can be
worthwhile. But a cool room operating at
optimum temperature is the best long-term
investment.
Forced-air cooling using a tunnel. Diagram by Dr Jenny Ekman; reproduced
with permission.
Important requirements for pressure cooling:
12.5.3 Cooling methods
Flowers are ‘room cooled’ by placing them
inside a closed refrigerated room, where heat is
removed directly from flower and container
surfaces. Room cooling is ideal for flowers in
buckets.
‘Pressure’ or ‘forced-air’ cooling achieves fast
cooling and is the most effective way of cooling flowers packed in cartons, crates or bins.
32

Stack flower cartons only one carton deep.

The carton end walls (both inner and outer)
must be suitably ventilated. There should
be at least two vent holes in a total area that
is at least 2.5% of the end wall. A vent area
of at least 5% is ideal.
Completed box.
Bunches can be overlapped to save
space.

Pack the contents of the carton so that air
can run through. If plastic film is used, ensure that it does not block vent holes.

An airflow on the order of about 3 to 5 L/s
for each kilogram of flowers is usually
suitable and will allow cooling in about 30
minutes. To achieve the required airflow in
cartons with adequate vent holes and air
channels, fans need to develop a back pressure (fan static pressure) of about 13 mm of
water (1.3 kPa). You can make a measuring
gauge with clear glass or plastic tubing, a
container of water and a ruler.

Sufficient refrigeration must be available to
match the rate of heat removed by the
forced airflow. Pressure cooling increases
the rate of heat removal and consequently
the demand for refrigeration.

The refrigeration plant used for pressure
cooling must be properly designed to handle the relatively high heat loads that are
applied to the evaporator over a short time.
Particular attention should be given to
compressor oil return.

Turn off auxiliary fans used for pressure
cooling once the flowers have cooled in order to avoid unnecessary weight loss. Use
automatic controls to ensure shutdown.
You can use a timer or a thermostat with
the sensor placed inside a carton or within
the air collection chamber.
Note: A partial cooling effect can be achieved
by following only some of these requirements,
but a substantial redesign will eventually be
necessary.
Another advantage of pressure cooling is the
prevention of moisture condensation on packed
flowers in cartons, which causes the spread of
Botrytis (grey mould). Cool room condensation
can be a problem when packed flower cartons
are simply room cooled. Adequate air circulation and temperature management are vital in
maintaining optimum produce.
Packing hooks with a rubber band over
the outer plastic lining prevent flower
movement in transit.
33
13
Markets
13.1 Domestic
Market prices for flowers can vary considerably
with time of year and bunch quality. As a guide
only, prices on the domestic market during
2010–2011 for cultivated flowers of average
quality ranged from $6.00 to $7.50 or even
$8.00 for a bunch of 10 longer stems (40–60
cm). Shorter bunches (25–40 cm) were difficult
to sell in the peak spring season, but out-ofseason flowers attracted $6.50 to $7.50 per
bunch of 10, and longer-stemmed bunches (40–
60 cm) $7.00 to $8.50, when the total volume
available for sale was low (around 50–150
bunches a week). Market conditions and prices
can change rapidly and unexpectedly, for
example if bush-picked flowers are available at
the same time, so research recent prices and
market trends before you commit to production.
In general, flowers produced out of season, in
greenhouses, return much higher prices.
Flannel flowers with hydrangeas in a
bridal bouquet. Arrangement created by
Del Thomas.
Even though greenhouse-grown flannel flowers
can be sold all year round, production is lowest
in midwinter. There is potential to fill this gap
if flowering times could be extended, either by
selection of long-flowering forms or by artificial climate control.
The domestic market is currently small but
offers significant potential for expansion with
further market development. To date, flannel
flowers have a reputation for a relatively short
vase life owing to the high proportion of bushpicked material. In contrast, flowers from
cultivated plants last for 2 to 3 weeks. This
could provide a marketing advantage if promoted on cartons or bunch sleeves.
Flannel flowers complement most other flowers
in arrangements and could be endorsed as an
ideal focal filler—incorporated into arrangements to enhance the colour, form and texture
of other flowers.
Flannel flowers provide great emotive value to
Australians with their attractive form and
colour. People on the east coast also have a
strong sentimental attachment to them.
Flannel flowers are also very popular in Japan
for use in weddings, opening up an opportunity
to target their promotion as the ‘Australian
wedding flower’. Flannel flowers can be mixed
within ‘traditional’ wedding bouquets such as
roses and gerberas with excellent results.
Short stems can be used in innovative
arrangements.
34
13.2 Export
13.3 Market threats
As on the domestic market, prices on the export
market can vary considerably with time and
quality.
All flowers are fashion items. Demand for
flannel flower may also vary with ‘fashion’
trends, although it is less likely to be affected
because of its unusual form, texture, neutral
colour and ability to enhance other products.
When flannel flowers are in short supply,
prices can be very high, with returns of approximately 1 to 3 cents per centimetre of stem. A
surprising result in the Japanese market has
been the relatively good prices obtained for
sub-20-cm stems. The highest prices are gained
for out-of-season flowers. Japan is still the
primary market with the best returns, but exports to other countries are expanding.
The most significant threats to the expansion of
the market and price returns are:
Be aware that the Australian Government
requires that growers and exporters have permits to export certain native flower products,
including flannel flowers, and insists that state
regulations be complied with. Export permits
may be required by the Australian Department
of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (DSEWPC; see www
.environment.gov.au), AQIS and the Australian
Customs and Border Protection Service.

insufficient product to maintain the market
(crop failure due to unresolved cultivation
problems)

inconsistent quality of flowers offered to
market

competition from bush-picked product

allergic reactions—reduced by dipping.
Export permits are required in order to export
flowers derived from native species not included in an exempt list. This requirement is designed to protect and manage nationally and
internationally important flora, including endangered species. Permits need to be obtained
by the grower or exporter, and a fee applies.
Some growers report that freight forwarders
can assist them with export permits.
Some flowers may be exempt from this requirement, including those protected in the
Plant Breeder’s Rights Act 1994 (except those
in the threatened species list); artificially propagated hybrids of Australian native species that
do not naturally hybridise; and commercial
cultivars that do not occur in the wild. Check
the requirements for your flowers with
DSEWPC or your exporter.
Close-up of flannel flower crop. Photo
courtesy of Backcreek Country Pty Ltd.
35
14
Useful references
culture and Uses, 212–217. UNSW Press,
Sydney.
Carson C, ed. 2000. Should I Grow Wildflowers? Agrilink, Department of Primary Industries, Queensland.
Steain G, Gollnow B. 2001. Environmental
Management Guidelines for Growing Cut
Flowers. NSW Agriculture, Orange.
Dalley P. 2000. Eastern Australian Native Cut
Flower Crops. Mountain Nursery,
www.mountain-nursery.com.au.
Worrall R, Offord C, von Richter L. 2004.
Flannel flower. In The New Crop Industries Handbook, 434–441. RIRDC, Canberra: www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop or phone
02 6272 4819.
Faragher J, Gollnow B, Joyce, D. 2010. Postharvest handling of Australian flowers
from Australian native plants and related
species, 2nd ed. Pub No 10/027. RIRDC,
Canberra: https://rirdc.infoservices
.com.au/items/10-027.
Worrall R, Tesoriero L. 2009. Flannel Flowers
the Year Round: A Model Production System. Pub No 10/065. RIRDC, Canberra:
https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/10065.
Gollnow B. 2012. Getting started in wildflower growing. How to grow native Australian and South African species for the cut
flower market, 1st ed. RIRDC, Canberra:
https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/12090.
Wrigley JW, Fagg M. 1998. Australian Native
Plants: Propagation, Cultivation and Uses in Landscaping, 4th ed. Reed New
Holland, City?.
Handreck K, Black N. 1994. Growing Media
for Ornamental Plants and Turf. UNSW
Press, Sydney.
von Richter L, Offord C. 1998. Flannel flowers. In The New Rural Industries, 505–
511. RIRDC, Canberra:
www.rirdc.gov.au.
Nursery and Garden Industry of Qld. 2009.
Insects, beneficials, diseases, disorders
and weeds of nursery production. Download onto a PDA via an external Secure
Digital (SD) memory card. Contact NGIQ
on 07 3277 7900.
von Richter L, Offord C. 2000. Flannel Flower. Development of a Production System.
RIRDC, Canberra:
https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/00106.
Offord CA, Tyler JL. 1996. Actinotus helianthi
(flannel flower). In Burchett M, Johnson
K, eds. Australian Native Plants: Horti-
Other publications on the RIRDC website:
www.rirdc.gov.au
36
Appendix 1
Cool room design and layout
General
small hatchway in the wall of the cool room,
where buckets or cartons can be moved through
on a roller conveyor. Allow adequate aisle
space for access, enough clear space to manipulate trolleys and carts, and air gaps for free
circulation of air. At least 25% of the floor area
will be taken up with aisles and gaps.
Good design is critical for the proper functioning of a cool room. The room should be suitably sized for the business and planned to suit
the current or intended handling procedures.
Before building a cool room, consider how
your business might expand and what could
improve handling efficiency. For example,
provide for access and manipulation in the
initial plans, as well as for pressure cooling if
the room will be used to cool stacks of cartons
before dispatch or during storage.
Room height
Room height must be adequate for ease of
movement and stacking of buckets or cartons.
The cooling unit should be hung beneath the
ceiling at a level where nothing needs to be
stacked higher than its base. In cool rooms with
operations done by manual handling, the height
should be at least 2.75 m.
The room must be designed to operate reliably
with a uniform temperature of 2 °C and at high
relative humidity (90%) when fully loaded.
Adequate refrigeration capacity also needs to
be included, which will require good insulation.
Make rough sketch plans, which cost nothing
but help get the best result.
Gaps for air circulation
This appendix examines cool room design and
procedures in more detail. There is a checklist
at the end to assist in cool room design.
Allocate space to allow unimpeded circulation
of air around the room and between stored
objects. Circulating air takes away the heat that
comes in from outside and from stored products, carrying it to the cooling unit. Heat that
leaks in from outside is best removed by air
that flows over the entire inner sides of the
ceiling, walls and floor. Similarly, air should be
able to circulate freely around each object in
the room.
Storage and access
Tiered racks can be used to stack several buckets. Straight racks of open mesh can be used to
lay out packed cartons. Mobile racks that can
be moved between the packing area and cool
room are efficient. Alternatively, trolleys or
carts can be used. Another option is to install a
Recommended clearances for good air circulation and appropriate size of air spaces are given
in Table A.1.
Table A.1 Recommended clearances for good air circulation.
Item
Space to allow (mm)
Clear space in front of cooling unit
At least 2000 mm
Space between buckets or cartons and floor (buckets and 50–100 mm (must be 100 mm if the floor is not
cartons must be stood off the floor on pallets or racks)
insulated)
Space between buckets or cartons and the outer walls
75–125 mm if the wall is unshaded and faces north
to north-west
Clearance between top of flowers and ceiling
Absolute minimum of 300 mm. Preferred space is
450 mm or greater
Space between individual buckets or stacks of cartons
50 mm
37
Insulation
diffusion temperature of 3 °C.
The airflow from the unit should give at least
60 room air changes per hour when hot material
is first placed in the room. The air change rate
should be reduced to 15–30 per hour when
already cooled flowers are being stored. This
reduction can be achieved with a two-way
switch on the unit fans, which run continuously
during temperature pull-down but cycle with
the cooling unit afterwards. If electric defrosting is not installed as recommended below,
then the fans must be left to run continuously.
Adequate insulation is essential if the room is
to maintain a uniform temperature and high
humidity while using electricity efficiently.
Select insulation to suit each application and
location. A minimum specification for a cool
room built inside a shed is for the walls and
ceiling to contain 100 mm and the floor 50 mm
of expanded polystyrene or equivalent; the
common provision of 75 mm polystyrene is
usually inadequate. All new floors should be
insulated, but where an existing floor is in use
the cost of insulation may not be justified,
especially if the room is not used for storage.
Be aware though that problems are likely if
flowers are stored in rooms without floor
insulation.
A room operating at 2 °C and used for the
storage of flowers must have electric defrosting. The daily defrosting cycle should be turned
on by a clock and terminated by a refrigeration
pressure switch.
A contract for employing a tradesperson might
say: ‘The room shall be constructed so that a
continuous, impervious vapour barrier is established. Only installers with extensive experience in the construction of vapour-proof cool
rooms shall be employed.’
Take care in deciding the size of the unit and
the velocity of air it discharges. Low-profile
units are essential in small rooms so that storage space not be wasted. Most units discharge
air at a velocity too high for contact with flowers exposed in buckets. The air velocity also
makes working conditions uncomfortable.
Low-profile, low-velocity units that still provide adequate air circulation and humidity are
preferable. Such units typically have a discharge velocity of about 0.7–1 m/s. The velocity of air over exposed (unpacked) cut flowers
once they have cooled down should not exceed
around 0.3 m/s. Even with low-velocity units it
may still be necessary to hang plastic sheets in
the room to act as windbreaks.
Never allow holes to be cut or drilled in the
outer skin of a cool room by anyone other than
an experienced installer.
Refrigeration capacity
Vapour barrier
Protect the insulation from moisture in cool
rooms used for flower storage with a highgrade vapour barrier. The barrier is formed by
the outer skin of a sandwich-panel room. All
joints (and holes) must be sealed with an approved high-quality sealant.
The refrigeration machinery installed must
have adequate capacity to properly cool the
largest, hottest load that will ever be put into
the room under the worst probable heatwave
conditions. Estimating the refrigeration capacity is a job for an experienced engineer. But a
reliable estimate can be made only if you
provide reasonable and realistic information.
Cooling unit
The unit cooler for the ceiling consists of a
refrigeration evaporator and fans that circulate
room air over the evaporator coils. The correct
selection of the unit cooler is a job for an
experienced refrigeration engineer.
Ask yourself:
The unit must have sufficient surface area and
airflow to provide high humidity. The optimum
humidity will depend on how flowers are held
and the length of time they may be stored. For
most purposes a target humidity of 90% should
be satisfactory and can be achieved with a coil
38

What is the largest quantity of flowers that
will be harvested and placed in the room on
the same day at the peak of the season?

How hot is this load of flowers likely to be?

Will a similar quantity be harvested the
next day or the day after that?
water and noting the temperature shown—
melting ice should read 0 °C.

What is the largest amount of flowers that
will be held in storage (after cooling down)
at any one time?
Checklist for cool room design
This checklist summarises many of the items
that need to be considered and other information needed when you are designing a good
cool room.
Thermostats
Room temperature must be controlled by a
sensitive and accurate thermostat, because
flowers are easily frozen. It is often desirable
for the thermostat to control the refrigeration
cycle through a liquid-line solenoid valve. An
electronic thermostat is recommended, set to a
differential of 1 °C, with the determined temperature appearing on a digital display outside
the room. Models that have an undertemperature warning alarm should have the
sensing element located in the return air stream
to the cooling unit and kept at least 300 mm
away from the walls, ceiling and lights. The
best location may have to be established by trial
and error. Never assume that by setting the
thermostat to 2 °C the room will necessarily
operate at precisely 2 °C, as the operation of
any cool room below 5 °C always carries a very
real risk of freezing. Take great care during
initial set-up and in maintaining safe operating
conditions. Independent thermometers must be
used to set up and maintain the correct conditions.
1 Capacity of room

What is the maximum weight of flowers
that will be picked and placed in the room
on any one day?

What is the maximum weight of flowers
that might be stored in the room (not dispatched before flowers from the next harvest start coming into the room)?

What is the weight of each water-filled
bucket without flowers?
2 Desired cooling time

How quickly do you wish to cool the flowers?
3 Handling method
Thermometers
Thermometers are used to check that the air
temperatures in different parts of the room are
uniform and that flowers are being held at the
correct storage temperature. Glass or electronic
thermometers of good quality are suitable,
provided that the latter are specifically recommended for use in cool rooms. The scale should
be readable to at least 0.5 °C. Thermometers
used to gauge air temperature should have the
bulb or sensing element immersed in a small
vial or jar of water (20 to 100 mL) that smooths
out short-term fluctuations in the air temperature and must remain in the room.

Are flowers handled entirely in buckets, or
is some or all of the harvest packed into
cartons?

Are buckets and cartons handled manually,
or are handling aids such as mobile racks,
pallet trucks or roller conveyors used?

Are forklift trucks used?

Are changes in handling anticipated in
future?
4 Handling flow
Always test thermometers after purchase and at
least once each season or if they have been
damaged in any way. Test by inserting the
thermometer into a slurry of crushed ice and
39

How will flowers be handled when picked?

Will they be accumulated in the cool room
until graded or stood outside?

Will they be graded and packed, or graded,
cooled and packed?

Which of the suggested conditioning treatments will be used?
5 Commodities to be cooled

Are flannel flowers the only flower that
will be cooled? (See Table A.2.)

Will only your produce be stored in the
room, or will it be shared with another
grower’s?

Will other types of flower be cooled?

Will the room be used to store any other
types of produce?

If the room will be used for storing other
produce, will there be times when flannel
flowers and other produce might be put into
the room together?
Table A.2 Commodity roster for multi-purpose cool room.
Commodities to be cooled
Months of year when cooling will
occur
1
2
3
4
5
40
Maximum expected commodity
temperature
Appendix 2 Quality specification for
flannel flower
41
Product: Flannel flower
Product botanical name: Actinotus helianthi
Quality specifications for
Australian wildflowers
Product: Flannel flower
Botanical name: Actinotus helianthi
The flannel flower is one of the
most recognizable Australian native
flowers, with attractive white flowers
and grey-green foliage with a
flannelly texture.
They have long, straight stems and
terminal flowers, making them popular as
a cut filler flower on both domestic and
export markets.
Most flannel flowers marketed today
come from cultivated plants. In the past
they have largely come from bush-picked
material, which varied greatly in flower
form and quality. Selection of better clones
has produced plants with longer stems
flowering over longer periods. Given the
relatively short period from planting to
harvest, they have the potential to provide
an excellent return from a small land area.
Flannel flowers are generally treated as
a biennial crop, although they can grow
well in cultivation for up to 4 years. More
flowers are produced in the second and
third years, after which stems tend to
become shorter.
Two types of flannel flowers are now
being grown:
nA
ll-year-round flowering cultivars can
be grown intensively in greenhouses in
artificial media. This allows aeration and
drainage to be managed more easily and
assists in controlling soilborne diseases.
Stems tend to have a single terminal flower.
n S pring-flowering flannel flowers are usually
grown in field plantings and generally
have longer and thicker stems. The flowers
tend to be borne in multiple heads – three
or more branches (each with a bloom at
the tip) per stem are needed to maximise
market appeal, especially in Japan.
Browning of the flower tips seems to be
related to stress caused by heat, drought or
salinity, or to pesticide burn.
Prolonged exposure to flannel flowers can
cause allergic reactions similar to those caused
by kangaroo paws and grevilleas. This is due
to the fine hairs on the leaves and flowers.
Dipping (to protect against botrytis) usually
removes most of the free hairs. Sensitive
workers, especially those handling large
quantities of undipped flowers, should wear
protective clothing, especially on the forearms
and hands, and perhaps a dust mask.
As flannel flowers mature and the flower
passes its prime, the petal-like bracts
close up again. This can make it difficult
to judge the correct stage of opening to
harvest (see flower chart: stages 2 and 6 are easily
confused).
Flowering season:
August to January with a peak in spring
(field-grown flowers); all year round (but
limited volume at times) for selected
cultivars grown in greenhouses.
Typical vase life:
14–21 days. Export can reduce the vase
life, especially if the transport conditions
are not cold, the product dries out, or
transport takes too long.
Typical bunches look like this.
Product: Flannel flower
STAGES OF OPENING
Very immature.
If the head still droops
slightly it is too
immature to harvest
Earliest to market
(export). The flower
needs to be partly open
to ensure that the stem
at the neck is strong
enough to support it
Ideal to market
(export and domestic)
Too mature for export,
but still suitable for
domestic market
All flowers overmature
(equivalent to stage 5
on chart)
The stages shown apply to the product at market entry. Pay attention
to the weather, time of year, and mode and duration of transport, because
the flowers will continue to open during transport. You must consult with
your target market to ensure that the flowers arrive at the desired stage.
Common defects
Common defects to be
avoided at market entry:
n Petal (bract) browning
n Insect damage
n Leaf damage due to
insects or nutritional
problems
Botrytis damage causing bracts
to shrivel – do not market
n Poorly coloured or
undersized flowers
Bract damage due to insect
feeding – discard
n Deformed flowers
Flower greenish
rather than white
n Overmature flowers
n Bent or marked flower
stems
n Poorly assembled
bunches
Bract browning due to
spray burn
Bract browning due to
heat damage
Multiple flower
heads resulting from
earlier damage to
developing shoot tip
Overmature (‘blown’) flowers
in centre of bunch
Stages in flannel flower development
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Stage 3 or 4 is the optimum stage to market
The stages of opening for flannel flowers can be defined as follows:
Stage 0 Immature stage: small, closed, green ‘bud’;
unacceptable to markets
Stage 1 Immature stage: opening green ‘bud’; the
head still droops naturally, as the stem is
not yet strong enough to hold it upright
Stage 2 Early stage: open ‘bud’, bracts still small and
green, florets <10 mm; preferred by only
a few markets, e.g. export. Among certain
cultivars (e.g. all-year-round flowering),
partly opened buds will fully open during
shipping to export markets
Stage 3 F lower open, held upright on
Stage 6 Closing: unaccepted by many
Stage 4 F lower open; latest stage for
Stage 7 Bracts closed
Stage 8 Finished: seeds formed, bracts
stem; bracts fluorescent white;
centre of flower light green
picking; centre of flower light
green. Prime stage for domestic
markets
markets
open or reflexed backwards
Stage 5 O vermature: centre of flower light
brown
Caterpillar
webbing
Poor-quality
bunch: twisted
stems
Bent stem
Iron-induced chlorosis
Leaf burn in
close-up
Product: Flannel flower
FLOWERS
Appearance
GRADING AND BUNCHING
Clean white bracts with green tips (length of green
tip depends on cultivar).
Grading
Size is proportional to stem thickness or weight,
e.g. larger flowers on thicker stems.
Minimum size is 3 cm (or the size of a 50 cent coin).
The most mature flower on the stem must be fully
developed, with the petal-like bracts mostly or
fully reflexed (bent back) and the central dome at
full size. Individual flowers in the central dome are
open or about to open. No browning of central
flower mass (which indicates ageing).
When to
harvest
Bunching
For domestic market: when 1 flower is fully open
(stage 2 or 3).
No obvious damage to bracts.
Especially for export, stems should be
approximately the same diameter within a bunch,
with the ends aligned.
No obvious blemish (sunburn, wilting of individual
flowers).
Minimal noticeable bract browning or other
blemishes.
Stem length
Contamination Product free of grit and soil, weeds or weed seeds,
living or dead insects, and signs of insects or
spiders, such as webbing.
Pests and
diseases
No insects, insect damage or disease.
LEAVES
Appearance
Fresh grey-green; not wilted.
Remove from lower 1/3 of stem.
Damage
Free of evidence of pests, disease or other
blemishes, including mechanical damage.
STEMS
Appearance
Rigid and strong enough to support blooms.
Relatively straight with <20° bend.
Not damaged by removal of leaves.
Neatly cut end.
Length
As long as possible, but never cut into the oldest
part of the stem (or plants lose vigour).
RECOMMENDED HANDLING AT HARVEST
Minimise drying out and exposure to heat – pick when it is cool,
preferably straight into buckets of clean potable water. Do not add
sugar.
Hold cut stems in the shade.
Move cut stems promptly to a cool, shaded packing area.
The number of stems per bunch varies, and is
determined by their length and by market and
buyer requirements. However, presentation is
important, so for example if 5 stems make a thin
looking bunch, increase bunch size in lots of 5
stems, i.e. go to 10 or even 15 stems per bunch.
Stay consistent for the grade and make all bunches
the same. Aim for symmetrical bunches.
Ensure stems are held firmly so the bunch remains
tight. Use 2 ties, 1 at the base and another further
up the bunch and looser; or use 1 tie at the base
plus a sleeve to support the bunch. Some growers
use 3 ties on long-stemmed bunches.
For export: when 1 flower is at stage 1 or 2.
Avoid harvesting when flowers are wet.
Damage
Discard any poor-quality product.
Sleeves
Stem length (cm)
Av. no. of stems per bunch
70 cm +
5–10
60
10
40–50
10–15
<40
10–20
To maintain quality, sleeve bunches (mandatory
for export, preferred for domestic markets). This
improves product appearance, reduces drying out
and makes it easier to pack. Select the sleeve size
to suit the bunch size. Microperforated sleeves are
recommended, as they reduce the formation of
condensation. The sleeve should extend well past
the top of the bunch to prevent drying out.
HOLDING AND STORAGE
TRANSPORT
Cooling
Refrigerated vehicle at 2–4 °C for long-distance transport.
• Cool, process, cool – for example, remove field
heat by cooling flowers immediately on entry
into shed to 10 °C in buckets of solution, process
flowers (bunch, grade), and then cool to 2–4 °C
by either forced-air cooling (if boxed) or holding
overnight in a cool room.
• Process within 1 hour of cutting, and then cool
to 2–4 °C by either forced-air cooling for 20–30
minutes (if boxed) or holding overnight in a cool
room (if in buckets).
COMMON POSTHARVEST PROBLEMS
Refer to Postharvest Manual* for general advice.
Fungal decay
in storage due
to botrytis
(grey mould)
Insects
(for export)
Forced-air cooling of packed flowers is ideal for
large volumes of product.
Holding
temperature
and humidity
If necessary, hold at 2–4 °C (but not colder) in high
relative humidity (≥95%) for up to 3 days.
Postharvest
solutions
Pulsing solution: Not required.
Postharvest solution: Use high-quality water.
Do not add sugar.
Use preharvest fungicide sprays during wet
weather to reduce the risk of botrytis disease.
Use preharvest insecticide sprays to reduce the
pest population at harvest.
Dip flowers that are to be packaged and held for
any significant length of time (export product) in
a registered fungicide or insecticide solution with
added wetting agent for not less than 1 minute,
then dry naturally for 2 hours to ensure thorough
disinfestation.
Browning of
flower tips
Minimise pre- and postharvest stress due to heat,
drying out or salinity.
Ethylene
sensitivity
Flannel flowers do not appear to be susceptible to
ethylene.
Test pesticides before use to avoid phytotoxicity –
some have been associated with tip browning.
Holding solution: Same as postharvest solution.
Longer-term
storage
For longer-term storage, store dry and in final
packaging. Seek professional advice and test in
the market before committing product.
PACKAGING
Pack bunches of the same size (stem number, weight or thickness)
together.
Put bunches of similar length together, and ensure all bunches meet
this specification.
Pack bunches firmly so the product will not move and be damaged.
Pack boxes according to customer requirements.
Use boxes with holes to allow forced-air cooling.
Minimise water loss, especially for long-distance domestic shipping,
by lining boxes with plastic.
If shipping overseas into high summer temperatures, check with the
overseas customer about whether to use sleeves or paper liners.
After packaging, cool flowers to 2–4 °C before transport.
LABELLING AND DOCUMENTATION
Label boxes and buckets as recommended in Postharvest Manual*
or as required by customer.
Messages for importers and wholesalers
n Recut stems and place into fresh water containing a registered biocide.
n Cool product before marketing or sending on and keep it cool.
n Maintain good hygiene and keep containers clean.
Messages for retailers
n Recut stems and place into fresh water containing a registered biocide.
n Use clean buckets and containers for displays.
n Do not display flowers in areas that are exposed to full sun, draughts,
high temperatures or vehicle exhausts, and preferably do not display
near fruit and vegetables. Use refrigerated displays if possible.
n Tell the customer how to care for the flowers and emphasise the need for
fresh water and clean vases.
Messages for consumers
n Keep vase filled with fresh clean water. Check daily, as flowers can use
a lot of water. Change the water at least every second day. Always use
clean vases and clean water.
n Ensure there are no leaves below the water line.
n Do not display in areas that are exposed to full sun, draughts or high
temperatures.
Ensure box contents are exactly the same as specified in the
documentation and on the end of the box.
SUPPORTING INDUSTRY PARTNER:
Authors: Dr Ross Worrall and Bettina Gollnow. Photographs by: Dr Ross Worrall and Lowan Turton.
This publication is one of a series of Quality Specifications for Australian Wildflowers.
ISSN 1440-6845. ISBN 978-1-74254-001-6. RIRDC Publication No. 10/028. www.rirdc.gov.au
*The Postharvest Manual is the manual ‘Postharvest Handling of Australian Flowers from Australian Native
Plants and Related Species’, 2nd edition, 2010. ISBN 978-1-74254-000-9. RIRDC Publication No.10/027.
Both publications were developed by RIRDC Project No. PRJ-000331.
The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion
and to help improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information contained in
this publication without taking specialist advice relevant to your particular circumstances. The Commonwealth
of Australia, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), the authors or contributors
expressly disclaim, to the maximum extent permitted by law, all responsibility and liability to any person,
arising directly or indirectly from any act or omission, or for any consequences of any such act or omission,
made in reliance on the contents of this publication, whether or not caused by any negligence on the part of the
Commonwealth of Australia, RIRDC, the authors or contributors.
© 2010 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. This publication is copyright. Apart from any use
as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved. Requests concerning reproduction and
rights should be addressed to the RIRDC Publications Manager on phone 02 6271 4165.
JN: 8634 • Layout by Wild Poppy Design • Edited by Matthew Stevens, ScienceScape Editing, Sydney
Effective cooling soon after harvest is important
to retaining quality and maximising vase life. There
are two options:
Growing Flannel Flowers for the
Cut Flower Market
A guide for commercial growers
By Ross Worrall
Pub. No. 12/088
This ‘how to’ guide has been produced for members of the
Australian wildflower industry who grow and market flannel
flowers, including growers, wholesalers, retailers, florists,
exporters, importers, research, development and extension
workers, and students.
This guide provides advice and information on all aspects
of growing, harvesting, postharvest handling and quality
management of flannel flowers.
RIRDC is a partnership between government and industry
to invest in R&D for more productive and sustainable rural
industries. We invest in new and emerging rural industries, a
suite of established rural industries and national rural issues.
Most of the information we produce can be downloaded for
free or purchased from our website <www.rirdc.gov.au>.
RIRDC books can also be purchased by phoning
1300 634 313 for a local call fee.
Phone: 02 6271 4100
Fax: 02 6271 4199
Bookshop: 1300 634 313
Email: [email protected]
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Kingston ACT 2604
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Barton ACT 2600
www.rirdc.gov.au