English Language
and Literature
Course Booklet
Name:
1
Level 3: A-Level
English Language and Literature
Key Features of the Course:
What type of student is this course suitable for?
This course draws on the study of the academic field of
Stylistics integrating literary and non-literary discourses.
The course focuses on shared concepts about the way
language choices create representations both in literary
and non-literary texts.
Students will need to have a minimum of two B’s in
GCSE English Language and English literature to be
accepted on to the course.
The course is demanding, developing students subject
expertise in engaging critically and independently with a
range of texts. The focus on analysis of texts provides a
firm foundation for study in Higher Education.
Students will study two novels, a play, a collection of
work from a set poet and an anthology as well as
learning how to produce re-creative writing and
completing and independent research project into an
aspect of language.
Students should enjoy reading a variety of texts and will
be expected to demonstrate expertise in the quality of
their written response and analysis of how different texts
employ linguistic and literary features for purpose and
effect.
Students should be able to reflect critically on their own
work and show a strong ability to work independently.
What could this course lead on too?
Degree courses in English Language or English
Literature.
Assessment Information
Unit
Paper 1: Section
A–
Remembered
Places.
Paper 1: Section
B – Imagined
Worlds.
Paper 1: Section
C – Poetic
Voices.
Paper 2: Section
A – Writing
about society.
Paper 2: Section
B - Dramatic
Encounters.
Non-exam
assessment.
Assessment
One question on the AQA Anthology: Paris (40 marks). This
section analyses the representation of place.
Paper 1
One written exam – 3 hours.
This section is closed book.
One question from a choice of two on Margaret Atwood’s The
Handmaids Tale. (35 marks).
This section analyses point of view and genre in prose.
100 marks.
This section is open book.
One question from a choice of two on a set selection of poetry
by Robert Browning. (25 Marks)
This section analyses the form and function of poetic voices.
This section is open book.
One piece of re-creative writing using F.Scott Fitzgerald’s
The Great Gatsby. (25 marks).
One critical commentary (30 marks).
This section assess student’s ability to write re-creatively and
to evaluate their own writing.
This section is open book.
One question from a choice of two on Shakespeare’s Othello.
(45 marks)
This section analyses the representation of conflict in drama.
This section is open book.
A personal investigation of between 2,500 and 3,000 words
that explores a specific technique or theme in both literary and
non-literary discourse.
40% of A-Level.
Assessment of students ability to apply
methods of language analysis are
integrated into each section of the
exam
Paper 2
One written exam – 2 hours 30
minutes.
100 marks.
40% of A-Level.
Assessment of students ability to apply
methods of language analysis are
integrated into each section of the
exam
NEA
Teacher assesses; moderated by AQA
50 marks – 20% of A-level
Course Details
Awarding Body: AQA
Website: http://www.aqa.org.uk
Staff Contact: Mr G Husband ([email protected])
Specification Number: 7707
2
Taught at: The Brunts Academy
Contents
Course overview.
Pg. 2
Welcome to A-level Language and Literature.
Pg. 4-5
The programme of study.
Pg. 6-12
Structuring the NEA.
Pg. 13
A note on referencing.
Pg. 14
Assessment Objectives.
Pg. 15
Mark schemes.
Pg. 16-34
Command words.
Pg. 35
Writing purposes.
Pg. 36
Glossary of key terms.
Pg. 37-50
Resources for independent study.
Pg. 51-59
3
Welcome to A-level Language and Literature!
Congratulations on achieving good GCSE passes this summer and a warm welcome
to the start of your A-Levels; to our new students, welcome! To our old hands
welcome back!
Hopefully you have already done some research into what to expect on our
course. This booklet outlines the key aspects of each module of study, a breakdown
of the assessments you will be sitting and the core knowledge that you need to
learn, so keep it safe and refer to it when you get stuck.
You have chosen a very challenging A-level with lots to learn and lots of hurdles
to overcome. We will make every effort to support you over the next two years
but we do have some expectations of you too…
Our expectations
At A-level we respect your growing independence, but in order for your time
with us to run smoothly we expect you to demonstrate a mature attitude and
work ethic including:
-
Attending all lessons and being punctual to those lessons.
-
Coming properly equipped to lessons.
-
Completing any independent study tasks assigned and handing these in at
the given deadline.
-
Reading widely and regularly in a range of forms and genres outside of the
texts we set.
We expect you to purchase copies of the set texts for each year of the course
and also to have read these in full as soon as possible – we have a limited enough
amount of time in which to cover the content of this course and cannot waste
time reading texts in class.
Alongside the core course text we expect you to actively read in a wide range of
related genres and to include critical literature in your reading diet; variety and
regularity are the key to building both a strong knowledge base and perceptive
analysis skills!
If you need to contact us about anything to do with either the course or the work
we have set it is best to do this as soon as possible. Your teachers will make it
4
clear whether they prefer you to contact them in person or electronically, but
please bear in mind that we like to resolve problems as early as we can and never
on a deadline day.
If you do need to contact us by e-mail remember that we are members of staff
and not your friends – we expect courteous and well formatted communication
and we do not check our e-mail at all hours!
How the A-level works
At Brunts we teach the two year A-level English Language and Literature course.
This means that we will teach you the knowledge and skills you need to complete
the A-level examination at the end of Y13. Your final exam will test your
knowledge of everything you have learnt since the start of Year 12 so it is
essential that your early course notes are good as we will only be re-visiting them
for revision at the end of Y13.
At the end of Y12 we will enter students for the AS examination as part of a
check on the progress you are making. Whilst there are some overlaps between
the AS-level and A-level courses they are not mutually exclusive so the result of
this test won’t be taken into account unless there are other issues with your
progress on the course.
A final word of warning
We have the highest expectations of our A-level students and expect them to
show an exceptional level of independence and maturity. There is a lot of
independent study required for success on this course and we expect you to take
responsibility for it; if you don’t do the work you will lose out. We do not expect
to have to chase you for work and if you don’t hand things in we will not mark
them!
Course teachers for 2015/16
Mrs Bailey-Wiles [email protected]
Mrs Watson [email protected]
Mr Husband [email protected]
5
The programme of study
The final A-level assessment consists of two exams, each worth 40% of the
final grade and a Non Exam Assessment (NEA) worth 20%. Broadly speaking,
the first year of the course covers Paper 1 of the exam and the second year of
the course covers Paper 2 of the exam and the NEA. The programme of study is
broken down as follows:
Year 12
The first year of study covers the modules required for Paper 1 (4.1 Telling
Stories) and includes an introduction to key aspects of linguistic and literary
study.
4.1.1 Methods of language analysis
In addition to studying the content of the set texts you will also be expected to
learn about methods of language analysis. The exam will require you to adopt a
close language focus identifying the key features of language used in each of
the set texts. You will be expected to be familiar with:





phonetics, phonology and prosodics – for example, the sounds of real
speech and the patterns of sound symbolism (rhyme, alliteration,
onomatopoeia) that some writers employ
lexis and semantics – for example, the connotations of words and phrases,
metaphor and idiomatic language
grammar – for example, how the use of pronouns can shape narrative
viewpoints
pragmatics – for example, the assumptions made about listeners/readers
by the speaker’s/writer’s language choices
discourse – for example, the way different text types use particular
features or routines, including aspects of visual design and layout.
This aspect of the course is integrated into each of the modules of study. You
will be expected to learn these terms quickly and be able to apply them with
confidence to a range of texts – without this knowledge you will find the course
extremely challenging, if not impossible!
Whilst we have included a glossary of key terminology in this booklet it is
essential that you keep a detailed glossary of terms with examples that you can
add too throughout your course of study.
6
4.1.2 Remembered Places
Taught by: Mrs Bailey-Wiles, Mrs Watson, Mr Husband.
Assessment: One comparative exam question based on two extracts
from the anthology. (40 marks)
You will study the AQA Anthology: Paris. The anthology includes a wide range of
text types with a particular emphasis on non-fiction and non-literary material.
In this part of the subject content, you will explore speech and other genres
and study a wide range of linguistic and generic features, as well as related
issues around questions of representation and viewpoint in texts taken from a
range of time periods. You will explore the ubiquitous nature of narrative and
undertake a systematic study of the representation of place. In studying,
thinking, and writing about the anthology, you will be assessed on your
understanding of:






the ways in which writers and speakers present places, societies, people
and events
the metaphorical nature of representation: the ways that narrative itself
can sometimes be seen as a personal journey for writers and speakers
the influence of contextual factors such as time period, race, social class
and gender on the content and focus of narratives
the affordances and limitations of different media
different generic conventions and different purposes for communicating
ideas and viewpoints about travel, people and places
how people and their relationships are realised through point of view,
attitude, specific registers, physical descriptions, speech and thought.
This section in paper 1 is closed book. You are not permitted to take a copy of
the anthology into the examination.
4.1.3 Imagined Worlds
Taught by: Mrs Bailey-Wiles, Mrs Watson.
Assessment: One exam question from a choice of two. (35 marks)
You will study The Handmaids Tale by Margaret Atwood.
In this part of the subject content, you will explore an imagined world which is
characterised by unusual narratives, narrators and events. You will consider key
7
aspects of the texts which place them in particular contexts of production and
reception. You will analyse the language choices made by writers in order to
study the following:




point of view
characterisation
presentation of time and space/place
narrative structure.
This section of paper 1 is open book. You may take a copy of the set text into
the examination. Your text must not be annotated and must not contain
additional notes or materials.
4.1.4 Poetic Voices
Taught by: Mr Husband.
Assessment: One comparative exam question on two set poems. (25 marks)
You will study an anthology of poems by Robert Browning:
My Last Duchess
The Lost Leader
The Laboratory
Cristina
Johannes Agricola in Meditation
Porphyria's Lover
Home Thoughts, From Abroad
Meeting at Night
Parting at Morning
'De Gustibus–'
Prospice
This part of the subject content is concerned with the nature and function of
poetic voice in the telling of events and the presentation of people. In studying
the role of language in the construction of perspective, you will explore and
analyse:
8




the presentation of time: understanding the past, reviewing past
experiences, the manipulation of time
the importance of place: locations and memories, the ways in which these
are captured in voice(s), and their effect on individuals
how people and their relationships are realised through point of view,
attitude, specific registers, physical descriptions, speech and thought
the presentation of events through the poet’s selection of material, the
use of narrative frames and other poetic techniques.
This section of paper 1 is open book. You may take a copy of the set text into
the examination. Your text must not be annotated and must not contain
additional notes or materials.
Year 13
Before starting the second year of the course you will be expected to have read
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald and Othello by William Shakespeare.
The second year of study covers the modules required for Paper 2 (4.2
Exploring Conflict) and the NEA (4.3). You will:




produce re-creative work that seeks to find an absent or underplayed
perspective in the original text
write a critical reflection on the processes and outcomes involved in recreative work
study drama that explores conflicts at different levels from the
domestic to the societal
Produce an extended independent inquiry.
4.2.1 Methods of language analysis
In addition to studying the content of the set texts you will also be expected to
learn about methods of language analysis. The exam will require you to adopt a
close language focus identifying the key features of language used in each of
the set texts. You will be expected to be familiar with:

phonetics, phonology and prosodics – for example, the sounds of real
speech and the patterns of sound symbolism (rhyme, alliteration,
onomatopoeia) that some writers employ
9




lexis and semantics – for example, the connotations of words and phrases,
metaphor and idiomatic language
grammar – for example, how the use of pronouns can shape narrative
viewpoints
pragmatics – for example, the assumptions made about listeners/readers
by the speaker’s/writer’s language choices
discourse – for example, the way different text types use particular
features or routines, including aspects of visual design and layout.
You should be familiar with this knowledge from Y12 and should actively seek to
stretch and secure your knowledge as you progress through Y13.
4.2.2/3 Writing about Society
Taught by: Mr Husband.
Assessment: One piece of re-creative writing (30 marks) plus one critical
commentary on the re-creative writing (25 marks).
You will study The Great Gatsby by F.Scott Fitzgerald.
In this part of the subject content, you will explore the ways that writers:




present people, their points of view and their relationships with others
shape the narrative structure and present events/time/places
reveal the speech and thought processes of the characters and
narrator(s)
use situations of conflict to express ideas about societies and their
values.
In addition, you will develop the skills to adapt and shape the original material
(the base text) to respond to different re-creative tasks. These skills include
awareness of:




the nature of monologue and dialogue
how changing point of view, genre, context, purpose, audience or mode can
re-shape meanings
how undeveloped aspects of the narrative and characterisation might be
developed further
the importance of specific moments in time or descriptions of place.
Re-creative work seeks to find absent or underplayed perspectives in the base
text – for example, the voice of a marginal character, or how an event might
10
have been reported to a different audience – and create a new text in order to
enrich the critical reading of the original.
Drawing on their studies in 'Writing about Society', you will learn how to write a
critical commentary to evaluate their writing. You will explain your own language
choices and analyse their intentions in reshaping the writer’s original material.
You will develop the skills to explain the what, the how and the why of the
construction of the new text, focusing on the critical decisions made to achieve
it and the adaptation of the base text. The aim is to demonstrate conceptual
understanding of the choices made and the effects created, as well as
demonstrating an understanding of the original text. This might include an
exploration of why the original writers made the choices in order to present
characters, scenes and events and how these had to be adapted for the
student’s own text.
This section of paper 2 is open book. You may take a copy of your set text into
the examination. This text must not be annotated and must not contain
additional notes or materials.
4.2.4 Dramatic Encounters
Taught by: Mrs Bailey-Wiles, Mrs Watson.
Assessment: One exam question from a choice of two. (45 marks)
You will study Othello by William Shakespeare.
In this part of the subject content, you will explore the ways that conflicts are
presented, the meanings that can be inferred from the language use and the
contextual reasons for these conflicts. As part of your study, you will analyse
areas relevant to the study of drama and dramatic discourse, including how
playwrights:




represent natural speech features
use language to create distinctively different characters
show characters asserting power and positioning others via their language
and behaviour
use the idea of conflict to create dynamic narratives and address the
wider themes of the play.
11
This section of paper 2 is open book. You may take a copy of your set text
into the examination. This text must not be annotated and must not contain
additional notes or materials.
4.3 Non Exam Assessment
Taught by: Mr Husband
Assessment: Coursework - One independent investigation of 2500-3000
0
words.
This part of the subject content focuses on language use in different types of
text. It is called 'Making Connections' because it requires you to make active
connections between a literary text and some non-literary material. The
connections must be based either on a chosen theme or on the idea that
particular linguistic strategies and features may occur in the different types of
material. This area of the course allows you to demonstrate your ability to
initiate and sustain independent enquiry.
Exam texts may not be chosen, but further texts by the same authors or from
a similar source are acceptable.
The nature of the non-literary material to be collected depends entirely on the
focus of the task. A wide range of everyday texts and discourses in different
genres and modes is possible. The non-literary material needs to qualify on the
basis of forming a good source of data for you to use in their investigations.
Some examples of possible types of exploration are given below. This list is not
definitive.








A comparison of openings in a novel and an autobiography.
An exploration of real and fictional events.
Representations of particular themes in literary and non-literary sources.
What is a character? An exploration of the idea of character in
literature and in other texts.
How does storytelling work in different modes?
An exploration of the use of non-literary genres within literary texts.
An exploration of speech features in literature and in real-world
communication.
An exploration of new language in literature and non-literary contexts.
12
Structuring the NEA
Introduction and Aim(s) (750 words)
This initial section needs to demonstrate your understanding of the texts you
have chosen for the study. The emphasis of this section should be on the
literary text, but it should not simply offer a description of the text. Rather,
you should give an account of the text which allows the reader to understand
why you have arrived at the aim(s) of the study and why you have made your
selection(s) from the literary text. It will need to be clear that you have read
and understood the literary text as a whole in order to make your selection.
This section should also justify and contextualise the non-literary material you
have chosen for the study.
Review (300-500 words)
You need to show that they have read some secondary sources and that you can
offer a reasoned and supported discussion about the ideas you have
encountered. These ideas may be about the material itself, about ideas for
analysis, or a combination of the two. Citations and references must be
accurately applied.
Analysis (1,250 words)
The analysis of the material is central to the study. This section should have
some sub-headings in which you discuss the different aspects of language you
have identified as salient in the previous section. You may choose to discuss the
texts separately or together. How you present their analysis is up to you, but
readability is important.
Conclusions (200-500 words)
This section needs to offer a summary of the main points revealed by the study.
This should be in the form of an overview of what has been revealed by bringing
the textual sources together, showing how the understanding of each text has
been enhanced by consideration of the other.
Appendix (Extracts/data: no word count for this section)
References (No word count for this section)
13
A note on referencing
When you get to university you will be asked to ensure that all your work
includes thorough referencing of sources to ensure you have not plagiarised. A
standard degree level essay will often include references to ten or more
sources!
Most Universities reference using the Harvard Referencing System which is
commonly used in academic literature. We will talk you through how to do this
but if you get stuck try following one of the links below to the University of
Manchester which are fairly idiot proof…
http://subjects.library.manchester.ac.uk/referencing/referencing-harvard
Look at the drop-down boxes on the right under Harvard Reference
lists/bibliographies.
http://subjects.library.manchester.ac.uk/ld.php?content_id=2285392
A full .pdf guide for all you never needed to know! A good one to download and
keep if you’re planning on going to University after your time with us.
14
Assessment Objectives
Assessment objectives (AOs) are set by the exam board and set out what you
will be examined on.
There are five assessment objectives for this course:





AO1: Apply concepts and methods from integrated linguistic and literary
study as appropriate, using associated terminology and coherent written
expression
AO2: Analyse ways in which meanings are shaped in texts
AO3: Demonstrate understanding of the significance and influence of the
contexts in which texts are produced and received
AO4: Explore connections across texts, informed by linguistic and
literary concepts and methods
AO5: Demonstrate expertise and creativity in the use of English to
communicate in different ways.
Not all the assessment objectives are covered in every question (for example
AO5 is only tested in the ‘Writing about Society’ module) and not every AO has
the same overall weighting. The A-level weighting looks like this:
Component weightings (approx
%)
Assessment objectives
(AOs)
Paper Paper
Non-exam
1
2
Overall weighting
(approx %)
assessment
AO1
16
6
6
28
AO2
8
14
6
28
AO3
12
4
4
20
AO4
4
4
4
12
AO5
-
12
-
12
Overall weighting of
components
40
40
20
100
As you can see AO1 and AO2 are worth 56% (140 out of 250) of your total
marks so you need to pay lots of attention to the core skills for these.
15
Mark schemes
In this section of your booklet you will find all the mark schemes that the
examiner will use to mark your exams and NEA at the end of Y13. These mark
schemes are very basic so you might want to annotate them as we talk you
through the required skills. Each exam question will also have an ‘indicative
content’ mark scheme which gives the examiner a range of ideas as to what they
may see in your responses although the list is not exhaustive. There are a few
things about the way your work is marked that you should be aware of:
1) Examiners are told to mark positively. This means they will award
you marks for the things you get right and will not mark you down
for things you happen to get wrong.
2) Your overall mark for any question is a best fit mark. If you hit all
the points required for a Level 4 and one of the descriptors for
Level 5 then you will get a low Level 5 as your mark.
3) Any answer can be right providing it is evidenced. The ‘indicative
content’ for a question is not a restriction – anything marked right
is right!
Roughly Speaking…
Band 5 = A
Band 4 = B
Band 3 = C
Band 2 = D
Band 1 = E
Band 0 = U
Remember this is just a guide; it is not 100% accurate!
16
Paper 1
Section A – Remembered Places
AO1: Apply concepts and methods from
integrated linguistic and literary study as
appropriate, using associated
terminology and coherent written
expression
AO3: Demonstrate understanding of the
significance and influence of the contexts in
which texts are produced and received
AO4: Explore connections across texts,
informed by linguistic and literary
concepts and methods
This rewards students’ ability to apply concepts
and methods from integrated linguistic and
literary study to literary and non-literary material.
AO1 also rewards the ability to maintain an
academic style throughout the essay.
This relates to students’ ability to explore the
significance and the influence of contextual factors on
the production and reception offered by different genre
and text types, and examine why writers and speakers
choose to communicate using various forms.
This relates to the students’ ability to make
connections between texts, exploring their
similarities and differences in the light of how
the writers and speakers represent place.
Students are likely to:
Level 5
13-15
Express ideas with sophistication
and sustained development.
Apply a range of terminology
accurately.
Students are likely to:
Level 5
13-15
Select language levels with
sustained relevance and evaluation
of patterns.
Level 4
Express ideas coherently and with
development.
10-12
Level 4
10-12
Apply terminology relevantly and
mainly accurately.
Select language levels purposefully
and explore some patterns.
Offer a perceptive account.
Evaluate:
 the different factors associated with
mode
 the use of particular generic
conventions
the influence of contextual factors on
production and reception of texts.
Offer a clear account.
Analyse:
 different aspects of mode
 genre conventions of different texts
 how the production and reception of
texts are motivated by contextual
factors.
Students are likely to:
Level 5
9-10
Level 4
Make sophisticated and
perceptive connections.
Show detailed knowledge.
Evaluate:
 ideas about how individuals
and societies are framed
and represented
 in detail the ways in which
texts are similar and
different.
Make sound and occasionally
perceptive connections.
7-8
Show good knowledge.
Analyse:
 ideas about how writers
and speakers present
places, societies and
people
 a number of ways in which
texts are similar and
different.
17
Level 3
Present ideas with some clear
topics and organisation.
7-9
Level 3
Offer some consideration.
Level 3
Make some connections.
7-9
Explain:
aspects of mode
more obvious genre conventions
the contexts in which texts were
produced and received.
5-6
Show some knowledge.
Level 2
Offer generalised awareness
Level 2
Explain:
more obvious points
about presentation
some ways in which
texts are similar and
different.
Make limited connections.
4-6
Describe:
some features of speech and writing
genre conventions with some limited
awareness
with limited awareness the contexts in
which tests were produced and
received.
3-4
Level 1
Offer little discussion.
Level 1
1-3
Identify:
1-2
Apply terminology with some
accuracy.
Select language levels and explain
some features.
Level 2
Communicate ideas with some
organisation.
4-6
Apply terminology with more
general labels.
Select language levels with
incomplete development and
identify some features.
Level 1
Present material with little
organisation.
1-3
Describe language features
without linguistic description.
Show limited awareness of
language levels but may describe
some features.
0
Nothing written.
Show some limited
knowledge.
Describe:
some points about the
texts
how texts might be
similar and different.
Make very few (if any)
connections.
Show elementary knowledge.
basic ideas about conventions of
genre
some basic ideas about production
and reception.
Nothing written about the texts.
Identify:
some isolated points
about the texts
basic comparisons.
Nothing written about the
texts.
18
Paper 1
Section B – Imagined Worlds
AO1: Apply concepts and methods from
integrated linguistic and literary study as
appropriate, using associated terminology
and coherent written expression
This rewards students’ ability to apply concepts
and methods from integrated linguistic and
literary study to prose fiction, and specifically to
the analysis of a specific narrative technique.
AO1 also rewards the ability to maintain an
academic style throughout the essay.
AO2: Analyse ways in which meanings
are shaped in texts
AO3: Demonstrate understanding of the
significance and influence of the contexts
in which texts are produced and received
This relates to students’ ability to examine
the ways that meanings are shaped in their
chosen text through the selection and
exploration of relevant parts of the novel in
response to a specific focus.
This relates to students’ ability to explore their
chosen novel as part of a wider literary genre
(fantasy). It also rewards students’ ability to
evaluate the influence of contextual factors
(social, historical, biographical, literary) on the
production and interpretation of their chosen
text.
Students are likely to:
Level 5
Express ideas with sophistication and
sustained development.
9-10
Students are likely to:
Level 5
9-10
Apply a range of terminology accurately.
Select language levels with sustained
relevance and evaluation of patterns.
Offer a thorough and openminded analysis by:
 interpreting the question
focus subtly
 providing a perceptive
interpretation
 making careful selections
from the text.
Provide perceptive accounts of
how meanings are shaped by
 investigating closely a
particular narrative
technique
 exploring the writer's craft
and evaluating its role in
shaping meaning.
Students are likely to:
Level 5
13-15
Offer a perceptive account.
Evaluate:
 the nature of extracts in relation
to the fantasy genre
 the use of particular generic
conventions
 the influence of contextual
factors on the production and
various interpretations of the
novel.
19
Level 4
Express ideas coherently and with
development.
7-8
Level 4
7-8
Apply terminology relevantly and
mainly accurately.
Select language levels purposefully
and explore some patterns.
Level 3
Present ideas with some clear topics
and organisation.
5-6
Level 3
5-6
Apply terminology with some
accuracy.
Select language levels and explain
some features.
Offer a good and secure analysis
by:
 interpreting the question focus
relevantly
 providing a clear and sound
interpretation
 making appropriate choices
from the text.
Offer a clear account of how
meanings are shaped by:
 exploring how a particular
narrative technique
contributes to meaning
 examining the writer's craft
and its role in shaping
meaning.
Offer some analysis by:
 identifying the question focus
straightforwardly
 providing some valid
interpretations
 making some successful
choices from the text.
Show some awareness of how
meanings are shaped by:
 explaining some ways that
narrative technique
contributes to meaning
 discussing the writer's craft
and its role in shaping
meaning.
Level 4
10-12
Level 3
7-9
Offer a clear account.
Analyse:
 aspects of the extracts in relation
to the fantasy genre
 conventions of different texts
 how the production and various
interpretations of the novel are
motivated by contextual factors.
Offer some consideration.
Explain:
 features of the extracts in relation
to the fantasy genre
 more obvious genre conventions
 the contexts in which the novel
was produced and has been and
might be interpreted.
20
Level 2
Communicate ideas with some
organisation.
3-4
Level 2
3-4
Apply terminology with more general
labels.
Select language levels with incomplete
development and identify some features.
Level 1
1-2
Present material with little organisation.
Describe language features without
linguistic description.
Show limited awareness of language
levels but may describe some features.
0
Nothing written.
Level 1
1-2
Offer a partially
descriptive/analytical account
by:
 commenting generally on
the question focus
 providing general
interpretative points
 showing less certainty in
selecting from the text.
Show a partial or an emerging
awareness of how meanings
are shaped by:
commenting broadly on
narrative technique
 making observations
about the writer's craft
with little comment on its
role.
Offer a brief or undeveloped
account by:
 describing the question
focus
 offering limited
interpretation
 making limited reference
to other sections.
Show limited awareness of
how meanings are shaped by:
 labelling with little
relevance to technique
 making brief or no
reference to the writer's
craft.
Nothing written about the text.
Level 2
4-6
Level 1
1-3
Offer generalised awareness.
Describe:
 features of the extracts in relation
to the fantasy genre
 some genre conventions
 the contexts in which the novel
was produced and has been and
might be interpreted.
Offer little discussion.
Identify:
 basic points on fantasy writing
 basic ideas about the conventions
of genre
 some basic ideas about
production and interpretation of
the novel.
Nothing written about the text.
21
Paper 1
Section C – Poetic Voices
AO1: Apply concepts and methods from integrated linguistic and literary
study as appropriate, using associated terminology and coherent written
expression
AO2: Analyse ways in which meanings are shaped in
texts
This rewards students’ ability to apply concepts and methods from integrated linguistic
and literary study to poetry, and specifically to the construction of poetic voice and the
presentation of time, place, people, and events. AO1 also rewards the ability to maintain
an academic style throughout the essay.
This relates to students’ ability to examine the ways that
meanings are shaped in their chosen text through the selection
and exploration of relevant sections of poems in response to a
specific focus.
Students are likely to:
Level 5
13-15
Express ideas with sophistication and sustained development.
Apply a range of terminology accurately.
Students are likely to:
Level 5
9-10
Select language levels with sustained relevance and evaluation of
patterns.
Level 4
10-12
Express ideas coherently and with development.
Apply terminology relevantly and mainly accurately.
Level 4
7-8
Offer a thorough and open-minded analysis by:
 interpreting the question focus subtly
 providing a perceptive interpretation
 making careful selections from the text.
Provide perceptive accounts of how meanings
are shaped by:
 investigating closely the construction of
poetic voice
 exploring the writer's craft and evaluating
its role in shaping meaning.
Offer a good and secure analysis by:
 interpreting the question focus relevantly
 providing a clear and sound interpretation
 making appropriate choices from the text.
Select language levels purposefully and explore some patterns.
Offer a clear account of how meanings are
shaped by:
exploring the construction of poetic voice
examining the writer's craft and its role in
shaping meaning.
22
Level 3
7-9
Present ideas with some clear topics and organisation.
Apply terminology with some accuracy.
Level 3
5-6
Select language levels and explain some features.
Level 2
Communicate ideas with some organisation.
Level 2
4-6
Apply terminology with more general labels.
3-4
Select language levels with incomplete development and identify some
features.
Level 1
1-3
Present material with little organisation.
Describe language features without linguistic description.
Show limited awareness of language levels but may describe some
features.
0
Nothing written.
Level 1
1-2
Offer some analysis by:
 identifying the question focus
straightforwardly
 providing some valid interpretations
 making some successful choices from the
text.
Show some awareness of how meanings are
shaped by:
 explaining the construction of poetic voice
 discussing the writer's craft and its role in
shaping meaning.
Offer a partially descriptive/analytical account
by:
 commenting generally on the question
focus
 providing general interpretative points
 showing less certainty in selecting from the
text.
Show a partial or an emerging awareness of
how meanings are shaped by:
 commenting broadly on the construction of
poetic voice
making observations about the writer's
craft with little comment on its role.
Offer a brief or undeveloped account by:
 describing the question focus
 offering limited interpretation
 making limited reference to the text.
Show limited awareness of how meanings are
shaped by:
 labelling with little relevance to technique
 making brief or no reference to the writer's
craft.
Nothing written about the texts.
23
Paper 2
Section A – Writing about Society
AO5
Demonstrate expertise and creativity in the use of English to communicate in
different ways
In these questions, students are assessed on their creativity in carrying out a writing task.
Creativity is assessed via the following dimensions:
 creation of a new and original piece of writing
 control of any chosen style(s)
 use of the base text by staying within feasible parameters of the narrative.
Level/Mark Students are likely to:
Level 5
Show a high degree of flair and originality.
21-25
Sustain a chosen style or styles of writing throughout.
Use the base text convincingly.
Level 4
16-20
Some flair and originality.
Sustain a chosen style or styles of writing strongly.
Use the base text mainly convincingly.
Level 3
Produce writing that is imaginative in parts, but where some aspects are
also derivative or unoriginal.
11-15
Sustain a chosen style or styles of writing in most of the text.
Level 2
Use the base text with some success.
Produce writing which has one or two imaginative elements, but where
more of the writing is derivative or unoriginal.
6-10
Sustain a chosen style or styles of writing with only partial success.
Use the base text sporadically.
Level 1
1-5
Produce some writing but with limited new perspectives introduced.
Attempt to sustain a style but with limited success.
Use the base text minimally.
0
Nothing written.
24
AO2
Analyse ways in which meanings are
shaped in texts
In the commentary, this rewards students for
making analytical comments about their own
writing. They do this by identifying the
language choices they made and offering a
rationale for their decisions.
Level/Mark
Level 5
13-15
Level 4
10-12
Students are likely to:
Provide perceptive accounts of
how meanings are shaped, by
judiciously selecting and
identifying significant language
features and by evaluating the
choices they made.
Provide competent accounts of
how meanings are shaped, by
carefully selecting and
identifying some significant
language features and by
exploring the choices they
made.
AO4
Explore connections across texts,
informed by linguistic and literary
concepts and methods
In the commentary, this rewards students for
their ability to make connections between the
text they produced in the re-writing task, and
the base text which constituted their starting
point. They need to refer specifically to the
nature of the base text in order to achieve a
comparison and target A04.
Level/Mark
Level 5
9-10
Level 4
7-8
Students are likely to:
Offer perceptive insights about
key aspects of language and
likely effects produced in the
base text, compared with their
transformed text.
Offer productive comments
about relevant aspects of
language and likely effects
produced in the base text,
compared with their
transformed text.
AO5
Demonstrate expertise and creativity in the
use of English to communicate in different
ways
In these questions, students are assessed on
their writing expertise in producing a
commentary on the re-writing they did in
Questions 1, 3, 5 and 7.
Writing expertise is assessed via the following
dimensions:
 creation of a well organised text
 accuracy of writing.
Level/Mark Students are likely to:
Level 5
Produce a commentary which
is well organised and
5
accurately written.
Level 4
4
Produce a commentary which
is organised competently, and
which is mostly accurate.
25
Level 3
7-9
Level 2
4-6
Level 1
1-3
0
Provide clear accounts of how
meanings are shaped, by
identifying some language
features and by making some
observations about the choices
they made.
Provide broad accounts of how
meanings are shaped, by
identifying one or two language
features and offering
generalised comments about
the choices they made.
Provide minimal accounts of
how meanings are shaped, by
offering scant reference to
language features and little or
no comment about the choices
they made.
Nothing written about the text.
Level 3
5-6
Level 2
3-4
Level 1
1-2
0
Offer some useful comments
about relevant aspects of
language and likely effects
produced in the base text,
compared with their
transformed text.
Offer limited comments, not
always with relevance, about
aspects of language and likely
effects produced in the base
text, compared with their
transformed text.
Offer generalised comments,
with little relevance, about
aspects of language and likely
effects produced in the base
text, compared with their
transformed text.
Nothing written about
connections across texts.
Level 3
3
Level 2
2
Level 1
Produce a commentary which
is uneven both in its
organisation and in its level of
accuracy.
Produce a commentary which
attempts to organise ideas, but
with limited success and with
basic errors.
1
Produce a commentary with
limited cohesion and frequent
errors.
0
Nothing written.
26
Paper 2
Section B – Dramatic encounters
AO1: Apply concepts and methods from
integrated linguistic and literary study as
appropriate, using associated terminology
and coherent written expression
This rewards students’ ability to apply literary and
non-literary concepts and methods to the study
of a dramatic text. AO1 also rewards the ability to
maintain an academic style throughout the
essay.
AO2: Analyse ways in which meanings are
shaped in texts
Mark
Level 5
Mark
Level 5
Students are likely to:
Express ideas with sophistication
and sustained development.
13-15
AO3: Demonstrate understanding of
the significance and influence of the
contexts in which texts are produced
and received
This relates to students’ ability to examine the
This relates to students’ ability to
ways that meanings are shaped in the dramatic understand that contextual factors within
text through the selection and exploration of
the text, as well as the wider contexts of
relevant sections in response to a specific focus. the dramatic genre and audience
reception, are likely to contribute to the
interpretations made.
17-20
Apply a range of terminology
accurately.
Select language levels with
sustained relevance and evaluate
patterns in, for example:
 speech acts/cohesion and text
organisation
 distinctive registers
 prosodic markers realised by
stage directions, graphology,
lexis, grammar, etc
 politeness/
impoliteness/cooperation/
felicity conditions
Students are likely to:
Offer a thorough and open-minded
analysis by:
 interpreting the question
theme subtly
 evaluating varied forms of the
question focus
 making careful selections from
the text.
Provide perceptive accounts of
how meanings are shaped by:
 investigating closely how the
writer's construction of
characters’ identities
contribute to the question
focus
 evaluating how the
relationships between
characters are negotiated
 exploring the writer's crafting
and evaluating its role in
shaping meaning symbolically
Mark Students are likely to:
Level 5 Offer a perceptive account.
9-10
Apply thoroughly.
Evaluate the effects of:
mode – a play as
scripted dialogue and
performed
 a variety of key genre
conventions used in
dramatic conflict
 social/historical contexts
relevant to the
production and
reception of the play.
27
Level 4
Express ideas coherently and with
development.
10-12
Level 4
13-16
Apply terminology relevantly and
mainly accurately.
Select language levels purposefully
and explore some patterns in, for
example:
 turn-taking/types of adjacency
pairs/contributions to talk
 status markers in address
terms
 grammar – sentence functions
and types
 politeness/impoliteness.
Offer a good and secure analysis
by:
 interpreting the question
theme relevantly
 exploring different forms of the
question focus
 making appropriate choices
from the text.
Offer a clear account of how
meanings are shaped by:
 exploring how the writer's
construction of characters’
identities contributes to the
question focus
 exploring how relationships
between characters change
 examining the writer's crafting
and its role in shaping
meaning symbolically.
Level 4 Offer a clear account.
7-8
Apply relevantly.
Explore the effects of:
 mode – a play as
scripted dialogue and
performed
 genre conventions used
in dramatic conflict
 social/historical contexts
connected to the
production and
reception of the play.
28
Level 3
Present ideas with some clear
topics and organisation.
7-9
Level 3
9-12
Apply terminology with some
accuracy.
Select language levels and explain,
for example:
 turn taking/adjacency pairs/
length of turns
 word classes/semantic fields/
formality of lexis
 lexical and grammar markers of
accent and dialect
 prosodic marks – intonation
and emphasis.
Offer some analysis by:
 identifying the question focus
straightforwardly
 identifying some forms of the
question focus
making some successful
choices from the text.
Show some awareness of how
meanings are shaped by:
 explaining some ways that the
writer's construction of
characters’ identities
contribute to the question
focus
Level 3 Offer some consideration.
5-6
Show some relevance.
Explain the links to:
 mode – a play as
scripted dialogue and
performed
 more obvious genre
conventions used in
dramatic conflict
 social/historical contexts
linked to the play.
 explaining how relationships
between characters may
change
 discussing the writer's crafting
and its role in shaping
meaning.
29
Level 2
Communicate ideas with some
organisation.
4-6
Level 2
5-8
Apply terminology with more
general labels.
Select language levels with
incomplete development and
identify, for example:
 turns in speech
 semantic fields/connotations of
individual words
 prosodic features signified by
punctuation (…) or explicit
lexical reference (pause).
Offer a partially
descriptive/analytical account by:
 commenting generally on the
question theme
making broad links to other
forms of the question focus
 showing less certainty in
selecting from the text.
Show a partial or an emerging
awareness of how meanings are
shaped by:
 commenting broadly on how
characters’ identities can
contribute to manipulation
 identifying that relationships
between characters may
change
 making observations about the
writer's crafting with little
comment on its role.
Level 2 Offer generalised awareness.
3-4
Select with some limited
relevance.
Describe:
 mode – beginning to
view a play as scripted
dialogue with some
impact on an audience
 some genre conventions
used in dramatic conflict
 social/historical contexts
broadly connected to
production and
reception.
30
Level 1
Present material with little
organisation.
1-3
Level 1
1-4
Describe language features without
linguistic description.
Show limited awareness of
language level but may describe
some, for example:
 speech features
 connotations of individual
words.
0 Nothing written.
0
Offer a brief or undeveloped
account by:
 describing the question theme
 giving little exemplification of
forms of the question focus
 making limited reference to
other sections.
Show limited awareness of how
meanings are shaped by:
 labelling characters’ identities;
little relevance to their
contribution to the question
focus
 seeing relationships between
characters as fixed
 making brief or no reference to
the writer's crafting.
Nothing written about the text.
Level 1 Offer little discussion.
1-2
Select with limited relevance.
Identify:
 mode – a play as more
like spontaneous and
real speech
 few genre conventions
used in dramatic conflict
 very generalised
social/historical
contexts.
0 Nothing written about the text.
31
NEA Mark scheme
Level
AO1: Apply concepts and methods
from integrated linguistic and
literary study as appropriate, using
associated terminology and coherent
written expression.
Mark
Students are likely to:
AO2: Analyse ways in which meanings
are shaped in texts.
Mark
Offer a thorough and
perceptive account of source
material
5
13-15
Use relevant methodology
productively
Produce a thorough, open-minded
and perceptive analysis
13-15 Recognise that meanings are not
fixed, but negotiated
Cover both sources well
Guide their readers
Offer a clear and concise
account of source material
4
3
10-12 Use methodology in mainly
relevant and appropriate ways
7-9
Produce a good analysis with some
depth and thoughtfulness
10-12 Show some tentativeness about
how meanings are arrived at
Produce well structured writing
Cover both sources evenly
Offer an uneven account of
source material
Produce an analysis which shows
hard work but which may be
descriptive rather than analytical
in places
Use methodology but with
partial success
7-9
Produce clear writing with some
organisation
4-6
Use methodology which is
unclear, not relevant or
inaccurately applied
Write with basic organisational
skills
Identify some significant features
but with a straightforward account
of meaning
Cover sources unevenly
Offer a basic account of source
material
2
Students are likely to:
Produce an uneven analysis which is
overly descriptive
4-6
Some limited ability to identify
features, not always relevant to
task or related to meaning
Cover sources in a piecemeal way
32
NEA Mark scheme
Level
AO1: Apply concepts and methods
from integrated linguistic and
literary study as appropriate, using
associated terminology and coherent
written expression.
Mark
Students are likely to:
AO2: Analyse ways in which meanings
are shaped in texts.
Mark
Produce an analysis which is
descriptive and/or which
paraphrases the sources
Offer a very limited account of
sources
1
1-3
Offer little reference to any
methodology
1-3
Write with very limited
organisational skills
0
0
Level
Identify one or two features but
without reference to meaning
Coverage of sources limited to
where features occur
Offer no account of sources or
of how analysis will be
0
approached
Offer no account of how meanings
are arrived at
AO3: Demonstrate understanding of
AO4: Explore connections across texts,
the significance and influence of the
informed by linguistic and literary
contexts in which texts are
concepts and methods.
produced and received.
Mark
5
Students are likely to:
9-10
Students are likely to:
Show perceptive understanding
of the relationship between
texts and their contexts
Cover different dimensions of
context as appropriate – for
example, time, place, ideology,
Mark
9-10
Students are likely to:
Write perceptively about how the
study of each of their chosen texts
has illuminated the other
Conclude their study by critiquing
and reflecting on the rationale for
their comparison
33
NEA Mark scheme
Level
AO1: Apply concepts and methods
from integrated linguistic and
literary study as appropriate, using
associated terminology and coherent
written expression.
Mark
Students are likely to:
AO2: Analyse ways in which meanings
are shaped in texts.
Mark
Students are likely to:
mode, genre, purpose, audience,
etc
4
3
2
7-8
5-6
3-4
Show some understanding of
the relationship between texts
and their contexts
Cover some relevant dimensions
of context but leave others
unexplored
Show an awareness that
contexts are important to
consider
Cover one or two dimensions of
context in a straightforward
way
Show some limited awareness of
context
Refer to at least one specific
aspect of context
7-8
5-6
3-4
Write competently about how the
study of each of their chosen texts
has illuminated the other
Conclude their investigation by
connecting back to their original
aims, with some ability to reflect
Set out some viable connections
and aspects of relationship
between the texts
Conclude their investigation with
some attempt to draw out valid
points
Offer a broad review which makes
points about connections only in the
broadest terms
Conclude abruptly and/or with
limited connection with original aim
1
1-2
Refer to context only in the
broadest terms, with no specific 1-2
reference or detail
0
0
Offer no account of context
whatsoever
0
Attempt to conclude and review
their work, with limited ability to
articulate any points of comparison
or final thoughts
Offer no exploration of
connections across texts
Note: this mark scheme is written on the assumption that candidates have
attempted to study a literary text. Where there is no literary text, candidates
are automatically to be given 0.
34
Command Words Glossary
The command words in any question indicate what type of answer you are
required to write and what skills you are being tested on. The following list gives
a summary of some common command words that you will come across during
this A Level.
Analyse
You need to deconstruct an example and look at all the different parts to
it. For example – compare and contrast, prioritise ideas etc.
Apply
Demonstrate knowledge of a given topic. This will test both your subject
knowledge and your ability to make links and connections to a specific
situation.
Compare
Look at two or more aspects of a topic and explain any similarities and/or
differences.
Critique
Evaluate (a theory or idea) in a detailed and logical way. Say what the
positives and problems with the theory/idea are.
Discuss
This requires the answer to have developed reasoning for more than one side
of an argument. You need to reach an informed conclusion or judgement
about it.
Evaluate
Reach a clear outcome/judgment on a given question, selecting appropriate
examples.
Explain
(why)
Explain
(how)
Justify
Ensure this is answered correctly and avoid giving simple descriptions. You
need to include reasoning and examples.
Outline
Give only the main features of…
Which
Make a choice and explain why with well-selected examples given.
Why
Explain and avoid giving descriptive answers – you may be asked about
advantages/disadvantages or about causes and consequences.
Ensure this is answered correctly and avoid giving simple descriptions. You
need to include reasoning and examples.
Give good reasoning for whatever the question is asking of you.
35
Writing Purposes
Persuade
Persuade is a ‘lighter’ form of arguing which intends to
induce or cause the reader to undertake a course of
action or embrace a point of view by means of reasoning.
Stereotyping
Anecdotes
Direct address
Emotive language
Rhetorical Qs
Example Texts:
Humour
Modal and imperative verbs
8, 11, 12, 13,
Bribery
14, 25,
Can be somewhat informal
Inform
To give facts and information to tell the reader about a
topic or an idea.
Jargon
Giving detailed ideas / explanations
Direct address
Anecdote
Formal
Facts and figures / Opinions
Expert knowledge
Example
Subheadings and bullet points
Texts: 12, 13,
Logical structure
14, 15, 27
Imperative verbs
Describe
Provides the reader with a detailed visual insight into a
subject, often including the five senses.
Adjectives
Similes
Metaphors
Emotive lang.
Trinomial
Example Texts:
Alliteration
Hyperbole
1, 4, 26,32
Oxymoron
Contrasting pair
Argue
A written argument where the writer feels strongly
about a particular topic.
Shows both sides – counter argument
Facts and figures / Opinions
Connectives
Hyperbole
Example Texts:
Repetition
9,
Rhetorical question
Advise
Offering help or support to a reader, without
including bias or persuasion.
Present the information
Facts and figures
Summarise key information
Headlines
Bullet points
Formal in tone
Direct address
Example
Modal verbs
Repetition
Texts: 11, 22
Rhetorical Qs
Help / after care: Number / website
Explain
Similar to inform but perhaps more detailed,
explaining means to give ideas to a reader using
detailed facts and descriptions.
Factual information
5 Ws – who, what, where, when and why.
How
Logical text
Detailed examples / ideas
Example
Technical language
Texts: 10, 26
Formal
Connectives – illustrating and sequencing
Entertain
This is an additional purpose which will usually be a
secondary purpose to describe or explain. Uses of
figurative language, anecdotes, opinions etc. will make
the writing entertaining and perhaps comical for the
reader.
Example Texts:
20,21,30
36
Glossary of Key Terms
The following pages are a guide to some of the terms you will need
to know to explore the course texts fully. Whilst these examples
cover the five key areas from the ‘Methods of language analysis’
sections of the course they are by no means exhaustive; we would
advise you to keep your own glossary of useful techniques and add to
it, with examples, as the course progresses as it will be an invaluable
tool for lessons and exam revision.
Each section of the glossary comes with the following sections:
1) Overview – our basic preamble as to what the section is all about.
Hopefully this will make it clear what the section is all about.
2) What you could study – A range of relevant topics courtesy of
the examiner; could be really useful in planning your NEA.
3) Key terms – the very basic techniques to be learnt and some of
the bigger concepts.
4) Key techniques – the devil in the detail! The more key techniques
you know the more accurately you will be able to analyse what
our authors are up to and what impacts their texts might have.
Knowledge of a range of these, ready at your fingertips is a
must!
37
Phonetics, Phonology and Prosodics
At the heart of it, phonology means sound. At this level you will be expected to be able to
describe and explore sound systems (phonology), the ways that sounds produced by users of that
system are produced (phonetics), and how rhythm and intonation are used in speech (Prosodics).
Phonology refers to the different techniques used in order to create sounds in text and while
there is more of an emphasis on phonology in some texts (e.g. rhetoric) than in others (e.g. an
informative leaflet), phonological devices are constantly used to influence our perceptions at an
almost subconscious level.
What you could study:
the phoneme as a basic distinct unit of sound
the different types of vowel phonemes (long, short and diphthongs)
how consonant phonemes are formed in terms of voicing, place of articulation and
manner of articulation
how individual phonemes combine to form syllables
how variations of the same phoneme may occur in pronunciations of certain words
variations in speech patterns of individuals and groups in terms of regional accent, and
as a result of accommodation
the representation of the speech patterns of individuals and groups in different discourses;
the use of sound iconicity (e.g. onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, consonance) for
effect
how speakers use variations in pitch, intonation, volume and speed depending on
situational
aspects
how the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) can be used to represent and talk
about the different aspects of the sound system.
Key terms:
Phoneme: the basic unit of sound.
Diphthong: a vowel sound that is the combination of two separate sounds, where a speaker
glides from one to another.
Voicing: the act of the vocal cords either vibrating (voiced) or not vibrating (unvoiced)
in the production of a consonant sound.
Place of articulation: the position in the mouth where a consonant sound is produced.
Manner of articulation: the extent to which airflow is interrupted by parts of the
mouth in the production of consonant sounds.
Syllable: a sound unit with a vowel at its centre.
Accent: a regional variety of speech that differs from other regional varieties in
terms of pronunciation.
Accommodation: the ways that individuals adjust their speech patterns to match
others.
Sound iconicity: the use of the sound system to mirror form or meaning.
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): an internationally recognised system of
phonetic transcription.
38
Key techniques:
 Alliteration
o
Sibilance
o
Sound symbolism (when letters are chosen for an onomatopoeic quality, in order
to represent the sound they are describing – e.g. ‘Burst with hollow bang below
the hill’ – the ‘b’ *sounds* like an explosion)

Onomatopoeia
o
Lexical – words like ‘bang’, ‘boom’, ‘crash’, etc.
o
Non-lexical – words like ‘vroom’, ‘grr’, etc.

Assonance (repetition of a vowel sound)

Consonance (repetition of a consonant sound not at the start of a word)

Dissonance (clashing consonant sounds)

Rhyme

Rhythm

Repetition
o
Anaphora (repetition of a beginning word/phrase)
o
Cataphora (repetition of an ending word/phrase)

Accent

Dialect

Ellipses (missing out whole words, e.g. ‘You going down the pub?’)

Elision (missing out part of a word, e.g. ‘don’t’)

Phonological manipulation (plays on words or puns)

Plosive – when a letter with a harsh/abrupt feel (p, b, t, d, k, g) is foregrounded in a text

Fricative – when a letter with a hissing sound (f, v, s, sh, th, z) is foregrounded
39
Lexis and Semantics
Lexis and semantics is the catch all section for the study of the vocabulary system in English.
This section deals with everything the meanings of words, how words vary over time, distance
and context, all the way through to the entry of new words into the language. A massive range
so we have covered the two terms separately.
What you could study:
the denotative and connotational meanings of words
how meanings are constructed through the use of figurative language such as
metaphor
sense relationships between words through the concepts of semantic fields,
synonyms,
antonyms, hypernyms and hyponyms
how individuals and groups vary vocabulary choices according to audience and purpose,
and how levels of formality may vary according to these contextual factors
how speakers may use specialist registers and examples of jargon
how speakers’ sociolects and dialects reflect variations according to group
membership and geographical region
how variation in text design reflects variation in language use between individuals,
groups, communities and nations
how new words are formed through the process of neology, for example through
blending, compounding, and the forming of acronyms, initialisms and eponyms
how words and their meanings change over time, for example through narrowing,
broadening, amelioration, pejoration, and semantic reclamation.
Key terms:
Denotative and connotational meanings: the literal (denotative) and associated
(connotational) meanings of words.
Figurative language: language used in a non-literal way in order to describe something
in another’s terms (e.g. simile or metaphor).
Semantic fields: groups of words connected by a shared
meaning. Synonyms: words that have equivalent meanings.
Antonyms: words that have contrasting meanings.
Hypernyms: words whose meanings contain other words, (eg animal contains dog, cat and fish).
Hyponyms: words that can be included in a larger, more general category (eg the hyponyms
car, bus, aeroplane as a form of the hypernym transport).
Levels of formality: vocabulary styles including slang, colloquial, taboo, formal and frozen
levels.
Jargon: a technical vocabulary associated with a particular occupation or activity.
Sociolect: a language style associated with a particular social group.
Dialect: a language style associated with a particular geographical
region.
Neology: the process of new word formation, including the following: blends,
compounds, acronyms, initialisms, eponyms.
Semantic change: the process of words changing meaning, including the following:
narrowing, broadening, amelioration, pejoration, semantic reclamation.
40
Lexis
‘Lexis’ is a posh word for... well, words. As Mark Twain reportedly said, ‘The difference between
the right word and the almost right word is the difference between the lightning and the
lightning bug.’ Careful word choice is undoubtedly at the heart of every writer’s craft and
encompasses a number of techniques:
Key techniques:

Antithesis (contrast)

Connotated meaning / connotation

Dynamic verb (verbs which describe action, e.g. ‘run’, ‘play’

Stative verb (verbs which do not describe action but rather a state of being, e.g. ‘is’
‘am’)

Imperative verb

Modal verb

Auxiliary verb (‘helping’ verb, such as ‘Banks have not signed the required customer
code.’)

Adjective

Connective

Intensifier

Euphemism

Dysphemism (harsh, ‘to the point’ and perhaps taboo term, sometimes used for a dark,
humorous effect [e.g. ‘bog’ rather than ‘lavatory’])

Clipping (e.g. ‘phone’ for ‘telephone’ or ‘omnibus’ becomes ‘bus’)

Expletive

Taboo language

Demotic language

Slang

Colloquial language

Jargon

Field-specific lexis

Lexis of... / lexical field

Collocation (group of words/phrase associated together, e.g. ‘Fish and chips’, ‘Mr and
Mrs’, ‘Sad but true.’)

Vague language

Emotive language

Sensual language

Graphic language

Comparatives (Generally ‘-er’ words – e.g. ‘stronger’, ‘faster’)

Superlatives (Generally ‘-est’ words – e.g. ‘strongest’, ‘fastest’)

Trinomial (posh term for the ‘magic three’)
41
Semantics
Ah, the slippery slope that is defining ‘semantics’ – perhaps this is why the exam board have
dropped the separate section and included it with lexis. Essentially, ‘semantics’ means... well...
‘meaning’. It has to do with purpose, with content, with audience – and how you convey your
purpose and content to your audience. It refers to how meaning is shown through language
(lexis) and sentences (grammar) and also takes into account context. (E.g. ‘Net’ could mean
something very different in a webpage about Internet safety than it does when seen on a
fishing license. At any rate, the following techniques fall somewhere within the realm of
semantics.

Figurative language
o
Simile
o
Metaphor
o
Personification
o
Anthropomorphism

Allusion

Synecdoche (where a part stands for a whole, e.g. ‘All hands on deck!’)

Metonymy (where a single term stands for everything associated with it, e.g. ‘Press’
for all news papers)

Irony

Idiom

Cliché

Cohesion (how well the text fits together)

Coherence (how much sense a text makes)

Context
o
Context of production – context surrounding a text when it is produced
o
Context of reception – situations in which texts are read and those factors
which might influence a reader’s interpretation

Dual purpose – when a text has two clearly defined purposes

Register
42
Grammar
By ‘grammar’, of course we mean sentences and their construction. It would be self-defeating
to completely isolate sentence structure from lexis and phonology as often the three work in
harmony. You will also be expected to explore word formation (morphology) and order and
structure within the larger units of phrases, clauses and sentences (syntax).
What you could study:
how root morphemes combine with affixes to show tense or number (inflectional
function), or to form new words (derivational function)
how head words in phrases are modified to form larger structures to provide more detail
about people, places, objects or events
how elements are arranged in clauses to support meaning and to achieve different
kinds of effects
how point of view can be grammatically realised in different ways through
writers’ and speakers’ use of the active or passive voice
how English verbs show the concept of time through tense and aspect
how single clauses form multi-clause structures through co-ordination and
subordination, and how in writing, these represent different types of sentences
how clauses and sentences function in different ways, for example to form
statements, form questions, give commands or make exclamations.
Key terms:
Morpheme: the smallest grammatical unit, either a root or an
affix.
Root morpheme: a morpheme that can stand on its own as a
word.
Affix: a morpheme that combines with a root morpheme to create a new
word.
Phrase: a group of words centred around a head word.
Head word: the central word in a phrase which gives the phrase its name (e.g. noun
phrase, adjective phrase) and may be modified by other words.
Modification: the adding of additional words to provide more detail to a head word in a
phrase either before it (pre-modification) or after it (post-modification).
Clause: a group of words centred around a verb, which may be either grammatically
complete (main clause) or incomplete (subordinate clause).
Active voice: a clause where the agent (doer) of an action is the subject.
Passive voice: a clause where the patient (the entity affected by an action) is in the
subject position, and the agent either follows or is left out.
Tense: how the time of an event is marked (usually through verb inflection): past, present &
future.
Aspect: another element of marking the time of an event, by specifying whether they are
progressive (ongoing) or perfective (completed).
Coordination: the joining of two or more independent clauses via co-ordinating
conjunctions. Single words and longer phrases can also be co-ordinated.
Subordination: the joining of two or more clauses where only one is independent (the
43
main clause) and the others dependent (subordinate clause/clauses).
Sentence: a larger unit of meaning, which may be formed of a single clause (simple
sentence) or several clauses (compound or complex sentences).
Sentence function: the purpose a sentence fulfils in communication: as a statement,
question, command or exclamation. These are also referred to in many grammar books as
(respectively): declaratives, interrogatives, imperatives and exclamatives.
Word class: the grammatical category into which words can be placed, including noun,
adjective, verb, adverb, determiner, pronoun, preposition, conjunction.
Key techniques:

Adjectival phrase – a phrase with an adjective as its head, e.g. ‘very big’

Adverbial phrase – a phrase with an adverb as its head, e.g. ‘very quickly’

Anaphoric referencing – referring back to an already stated item (E.g. ‘The Prime
Minister spent his last day in office and at 3pm he left Downing Street for the last
time.’)

Cataphoric referencing – referring forward to an as yet undisclosed item (E.g. ‘I believe
him. Tony wouldn’t lie.’)

Substitution – replacing one set of lexical items for another (‘My mobile phone is out of
date; I must look into getting a newer model)

Minor sentence

Simple sentence

Complex sentence
o
Main clause
o
Subordinate clause

Compound sentence

Compound-complex sentence

Declarative sentence (This is a door.)

Imperative sentence (Close the door.)

Exclamative sentence (Close the door!)

Interrogative sentence (Why is the door open?)

Parallelism – the repeated pattern or structure in related words/phrases/clauses

Fronting – changing the normal word order of a sentence for purposes of emphasis,
putting the object first (e.g. ‘Music and women I cannot but give way to, whatever my
business is’ – Samuel Pepys, 1666)
44
Pragmatics
Pragmatics is all about the meanings between the lexis and the grammar and the phonology – it is
a way of explaining the language use in context by explaining aspects of meaning which cannot be
found in the plain sense of the word. A simplified way of thinking about pragmatics is to
recognise, for example, that language needs to be kept interesting - a speaker or writer does
not want to bore a listener or reader, for example, by being over-long or tedious. So, humans
strive to find linguistic means to make a text, perhaps, shorter, more interesting, more relevant,
more purposeful or more personal. The study of pragmatics is not always clear cut and there are
a lot of overlaps with semantics!
What you could study:
the implied meanings of words, utterances and speech acts in their specific
contexts
face, politeness and co-operation in language interaction
how text receivers draw inferences from others’ language uses
the influence of different contexts on the meanings of communicative acts
how attitudes, values and ideologies can be signalled through language
choices
how language is used to enact and reflect relationships between people.
Key terms:
Implicature: an implied meaning that has to be inferred as a result of a conversational
maxim being broken.
Inference: the understanding of implied meanings.
Irony: using language to signal an attitude other than what has been literally expressed.
Deixis: words that are context-bound where meaning depends on who is using them, and
where and when they are being used.
Speech acts: communicative acts that carry meaning beyond the words and phrases used
within them, for example, apologies and promises.
Politeness: the awareness of others’ needs to be approved of and liked (positive
politeness) and/or given freedom to express their own identity and choices (negative
politeness).
Face: the concept of how all communication relies on presenting a ‘face’ to listeners and
audiences, and how face-threatening acts (the threat to either positive or negative face)
and the management of positive and negative face needs contribute to interaction.
Cooperative principles in conversation: how interaction is generally based upon various kinds
of cooperative behaviour between speakers.
Key techniques:
See the key techniques page for semantics.
45
Discourse
The big picture! Discourse is the study of how texts are put together beyond the word or
sentence level which can include everything from how paragraphs are linked, through the
narrative structure of texts all the way to how texts form a part of beliefs, values and
ideologies in society. The first rule of discourse is…
What you could study:
discourse structure: how a text is structured overall (i.e. how its parts are
assembled). For example: a question and answer format; problem – solution
structure; narrative structure; adjacency pairs in a spoken interaction
how references are made within and between texts using cohesive devices and
referencing
narrative structures in texts
how texts are related to and contribute towards wider beliefs, ideologies and values in
society.
Key terms:
Discourse markers: words, phrases or clauses that help to organise what we say or write
(e.g. OK, So, “As I was saying…”).
Adjuncts: non-essential elements of clauses (usually adverbials) that can be omitted (e.g. “I’ll
see you in the morning”).
Disjuncts: sentence adverbs that work to express an attitude or stance towards material that
follows (eg “Frankly, I’m appalled at what she said” or “Sadly, not one of them survived”).
Narrative structures: how events, actions and processes are sequenced when recounting a
story. Anaphoric reference: making reference back to something previously identified in a
text (often using pronouns to refer to an already established reference point eg “The woman
stood by the door. She made detailed notes of what she could see”).
Cataphoric reference: making reference forwards to something as yet unidentified in a text.
Eg “It was warm. It was living. It was Uncle George.”
Exophoric reference: making reference to things beyond the language of a text itself (as
opposed to endophoric, which is within the language of the text), perhaps within a speaker’s
immediate physical context e.g. “Look at that”.
Interdiscursivity: the use of discourses from one field as part of another (eg the use of
science discourses in the selling of beauty products, or the use of commercial discourses in
education). Critical discourse analysis: the use of linguistic analysis to explore the
ideologies, positions and values of texts and their producers.
46
Graphology
Graphology, finally, is the actual way the text looks. It’s easy to get carried away here – don’t.
Examiners are more interested in what you have to say about lexis, grammar and phonology.
Make 2-3 interesting points at the most and then move on.
What you could study:
how text producers use aspects of text design to help create meaning, for example
through the use of layout, space, typographical and orthographical features and colour
how images are used on their own or in conjunction with writing and sound as multimodal
texts to represent ideas, individuals or groups
how variation in text design reflects variation in language use within individuals and
groups and across time, and as a result of advances in technology and shifting cultural
practices.
Key terms:
Layout: the way in which a text is physically structured.
Typographical features: the features of fonts used in texts such as font type, size and
colour.
Orthographical features: the features of the writing system such as spelling,
capitalisation and punctuation.
Multimodal texts: texts that rely on the interplay of different codes (eg the visual, the
written and the auditory) to help shape meaning.
Key techniques:

Photograph
o
High angle shot
o
Low angle shot
o
Long shot
o
Medium shot
o
Close-up
o
Bird’s eye view shot
o
Over-the-shoulder shot

Logo

Headline

Strapline
47

Caption

Graph

Text box

Pull-quote

Font / typography

Semiotics – cultural signs and symbols in texts

Iconic sign – a direct picture of the thing it represents, though often
simplified

Symbolic sign – draws on connotation and cultural convention

Empty spaces

layout
48
Additional definitions
The following terms won’t get you any marks for analysis of language but they are
terms you need to be very familiar with. You should recognise some of these from your
GCSEs:
Audience: the receivers or intended receivers of a text (written, spoken,
multimodal). The concept of an ideal audience/reader is often found in critical
discourse. Texts might also have multiple audiences.
Discourses: used in many different (and sometime contradictory) ways in language
study. Can be used to refer to a mode of language (e.g. spoken or written discourse),
a register (e.g. medical or legal discourse), a way of thinking about and presenting
something (e.g. representing language using a discourse of decay).
Foregrounding: the way in which texts emphasise key events or ideas through the
use of attention-seeking devices (in terms of lexis, semantics, phonology or
grammar) that either repeat content (parallelism) or break established patterns
(deviation). Deviation may be:
external: breaking from the normal conventions of language use, for example
in the use of nonsense words or ungrammatical constructions
internal: breaking from a pattern that has previously been set up in the
text for a striking effect.
Genre: the way of categorising and classifying different types of texts according to
their features or expected shared conventions. Genres come into being as the result
of people agreeing about perceived similar characteristics in terms of content or
style. Genres are fluid and dynamic and new genres continually evolve as a result of
new technologies and cultural practices.
Literariness: the degree to which a text displays qualities that mean that people
see it as literary and as literature. However, since many so called ‘non-literary’
texts display aspects of creative language use that is often seen as a marker of
being literary, it is best to think of literariness as a continuum rather than viewing
texts as being absolutely ‘literary’ or ‘non-literary’.
Mode: the way in which language is communicated between text producer and text
receiver and the physical channel through which this is carried out. At its simplest,
this could be spoken or written (visual or auditory channel). Mode also encompasses
ideas around planning and spontaneity, distance between text producer and
receiver, how transitory or long-lasting a text is. Mode is more than a binary
opposition, is sometimes visualised as a continuum and is constantly changing as new
communication technologies blur the lines between older forms.
Narrative: a type of text or discourse that functions to tell a series of events.
49
A narrative is the organisation of experience told by a narrator to any number
of narratees. A narrative has two distinctive parts:
the story: the events, places, characters and time of action that act as the
building blocks of the narrative
the narrative discourse: the particular shaping of those building blocks into
something worth telling through specific choices in language and structure.
Poetic Voice: the way in which a sense of identity is projected through language
choices so as to give the impression of a distinct persona with a personal history
and a set of beliefs and values. Grammatical voice (i.e. active and passive) is a
different concept and mentioned in the relevant section.
Point of view: the way in which events and experiences are filtered
through a particular perspective to provide a particular version of reality.
Point of view may be:
related to how a narrative is presented in terms of space and time through
the use of deixis, time frames, and flashbacks and flashforwards
related to a particular ideological viewpoint, such as an individual’s way of
seeing the world or thinking about events (often in an extreme way). These
might be shown through the use of modal verbs, adjectives and adverbs to
stress belief or commitment and/or the use of idiosyncratic words and
phrases
related to distinguishing between who tells and who sees, as in the case of a
narrative told in the third person but which seems to be filtered through a
particular character’s consciousness.
Positioning: how a text producer places or orientates him/herself to the subject
being presented and towards the audience or reader being addressed.
Purpose: the intention or objective behind a text in terms of what it is designed to
do and how it is used. Texts can have many different and overlapping purposes.
Register: a variety (or style) of language that is associated with a particular
situation of use. Registers may be either written, spoken or multimodal.
Representation: how experiences, views and ideas are ‘re-presented’ to readers,
listeners and viewers through language and other meaning-making resources in
order to influence their way of seeing the world.
50
English Language and Literature Achievement Action Plan –
Autumn Term
Name: ____________________________
Date: _________________

Current grade:

Predicted grade:

The AS/A2 grade the student wants to achieve:
What student is pleased with from the last term:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Concerns and issues student currently has:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Targets for the exam:
1. _______________________________________________________________
2._______________________________________________________________
How the student will achieve this outcome:
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Teachers’ comments:
51
Comparing Texts Template
Text A
Text B
Audience
Purpose
Structure and
Presentation
Language
52
Anthology Check Sheet
#
Text
Completed? Revised
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
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25
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27
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31
32
33
53
An Independent Learning Diary
Why keep one?







It will help you to develop your thinking.
It will help you to generate ideas.
It will help you to share ideas with the rest of the group.
It will help you to fix the facts of the text.
It will help to engage you more actively with the texts.
It will help your research and analytical skills.
It will help you to become an independent and reflective learner.
How should you keep a reading diary?










Use the log in this booklet.
Keep it beside you whenever you are completing independent work or reading.
When reading, jot down fleeting impressions, questions, ideas and images and keep
an open mind.
Write in a style and format comfortable to you.
You can include quotations, spider diagrams, charts and lists
Organise your ideas.
Look for patterns in the text and your own independent work.
Bring personal experience to bear on what you read.
Re-evaluate as you go along.
Use it to think over what has been said in class and further develop these ideas.
How should you apply it to this course?
Complete an independent learning task or read at least one kind of literary writing per
week:





Write an extra practice essay.
Research contexts.
Find and read relevant reviews and approaches to the texts.
Read a novel, play, poetry, short story etc.
Read other works by the set authors and make comparisons to your set text.
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Date
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Further Reading
In addition to subject specific reading, the following list of books may be
worth dipping into:
Achebe, Chinua Things Fall Apart
Ali, Monica Brick Lane
Allende, Isabel Paula
Atkinson, Kate One Good Turn
Atwood, Margaret The Blind Assassin
Austen, Jane Persuasion
Banks, Iain The Steep Approach to Garbadale
Barnes, Julian Flaubert’s Parrot
Boyd, William Any Human Heart
Bradbury, Malcolm The History Man
Bronte, Charlotte Villette
Burgess, Anthony A Clockwork Orange
Byatt, AS Possession
Calvino, Italo If on a Winter’s Night a Traveller
Camus, Albert The Outsider
Capote, Truman Breakfast at Tiffanys
Carcaterra, Lorenzo Sleepers
Carey, Peter Oscar and Lucinda
Carter, Angela The Magic Toyshop
Chandler, Raymond The Big Sleep
Conrad, Joseph The Secret Agent
Collins, Wilkie The Woman in White
Defoe, Daniel Moll Flanders
De Bernieres Captain Corelli’s Mandolin
Dickens, Charles Bleak House
Doyle, Roddy Paddy Clarke, Ha,Ha,Ha
Faulks, Sebastian Birdsong
Eco, Umberto The Name of the Rose
Eliot, George Middlemarch
Enright, Anne The Gathering
Faulks, Sebastian Engleby 2
Flaubert, Gustave Madame Bovary
Gibbons, Stella Cold Comfort Farm
Haddon, Mark A Spot of Bother
Hall, Sarah The Electric Michelangelo
Heller, Joseph Catch 22
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Hemingway, Ernest For Whom the Bell Tolls
Hornby, Nick Fever Pitch, A Long Way Down
Hosseini, Khaled The Kite Runner
Huxley, Aldous Brave New World
Ishiguru, Kasuo Artist of the Floating World
James, Henry Washington Square
Jhabvala, Ruth Prawer Heat and Dust
Joyce, James Ulysses
Kafka, Franz The Trial
Kerouac, Jack On the Road
Kingsolver, Barbara Poisonwood Bible
Kundera, Milan The Unbearable Lightness of Being
Kureishi, Hanif Buddha of Suburbia
Lampedusa, di Guiseppi The Leopard
Levi, Primo If this is a Man
Lodge, David Nice Work
McEwan, Ian Saturday
Mann, Thomas Death in Venice
Marquez, Gabriel Garcia Love in the Time of Cholera
Masters, Alexander Stuart—A Life Backwards
Morrall , Clare Astonishing Splashes of Colour
Morrison, Toni Beloved
Murdoch, Iris The Sea, The Sea
Naipaul, VS A House for Mr Biswas
Okri, Ben The Famished Road
Paton Walsh, Jill A Knowledge of Angels
Plath, Sylvia The Bell Jar
Proulx, E Annie The Shipping News
Rushdie, Salman Midnight’s Children
Seth, Vickram A Suitable Boy
Shelley, Mary Frankenstein
Smith, Ali The Accidental
Smith, Zadie On Beauty
Sterne, Lawrence The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy
Syede, Matthew Bounce
Thackeray, WM Vanity Fair
Updike, John Rabbit Angstrom, Four Novels
Walker, Alice The Color Purple
Waters, Sarah The Night Watch
Winterson, Jeanette Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit
Woolf, Virginia To the Lighthouse
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