Understanding English
Linguistics
Chapter 4 Syntax
: Left-to-Right Ordering
Tae-Jin Yoon
Dept. of English Language and
Literature
Chapter Overview and
Objectives

After completing this chapter, you should
be able to
◦ Use Phrase Structure (PS) rules to
construct tree diagrams for simple phrases
or structures.
◦ Use terms such as dominate, directly
dominate, sister, and daughter to identify
the relationships among various nodes in a
tree.
PS (phrase structure) rules
Principles that govern the left-to-right
sequence of items within a phrase.
 PS rules specify three types of
information.

① which elements are permitted in a
particular type of phrase
② the left-to-right ordering of those elements
③ whether any of the elements are optional
NP
VP→ V-(PP)
AP
the phrasal
category being
described
{alternativ
e items}
the categories and
items that comprise
the phrasal category
(an optional item)
V
V-NP
V-NP-PP
V-PP
V-AP
V-AP-PP
The battery died
Chris hit the ball
He drove the car into a tree
They are in the kitchen
The teacher is angry
My boss was very happy with her decision
Some examples of specific PS rules
for English
SENTENCE:
S→NP-VP
NOUN PHRASE:
NP→(Det)-(AP)-N-(PP) A noun phrase must contain a noun. The
noun may be preceded by a determiner, an
adjective phrase, or both, and it may be
followed by a prepositional phrase.
VERB PHRASE:
VP→ V-({NP, AP})-(PP)
A verb phrase must contain a verb. The
verb may be followed by a noun phrase, an
adjective phrase, or neither. The verb
phrase may end in a prepositional phrase,
but need not.
ADJECTIVE
PHRASE:
AP→ (I)-Adj
An adjective phrase must contain an
adjective. The adjective may be preceded by
an intensifier (e.g., very).
PREPOSITIONAL PP→Prep-NP
PHRASE:
A sentence consists of a noun phrase
followed by a verb phrase.
A prepositional phrase consists of a
preposition followed by a noun phrase.
Caution
Our preliminary PS rules describe a very
large number of English phrases.
 But, constructing a complete PS grammar
of English is beyond our scope here.

Tree diagrams

Diagrams which allow us to visualize how
the components in a phrase are related.
A diagram that allows us to see interrelationships
Structural relationships among the
nodes (i.e., branching points)
A
A
Dominate
B, C, D, & E
Daughters
B
C
A
Immediately
Dominate
B&C
Sisters
D
E
Recursion
the ability to repeat two types of phrases
by embedding them in each other
 an important property of human language
 example:

◦ NP → (Det)-(AP)-N-(PP)
◦ PP → Prep-NP

the cat in the hat on the table by the
chair in the corner of the kitchen in the
house under the tree ...
the cat in the hat on the table by the chair in the
corner of the kitchen in the house under the tree ...
Exercise C
Based on the examples just given,
complete the following questions
about Figure 4.1.
① What is the relationship
between V1 and PP2?
② What is the relationship
between PP2 and Prep2-NP3?
③ What is the relationship
between VP1 and the nodes
beneath it?
④ Is there any relationship
between PP1 and PP2?
Exercise C.2

Using the PS rules given earlier, draw
tree diagrams for the following
sentences.
①
②
③
④
The children laughed at the clown.
Haste makes waste.
A very small package arrived.
A meteor hit that red car.