Teaching to the Test? Identifying
Linguistic Demands of State
Assessments
Lissa Power-deFur, Ph.D.
Peggy Agee, SLPD
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Objectives
Participants will be able to …
• identify developmental progression of children's
comprehension of derivational and inflectional
morphemes
• identify the vocabulary demands of the academic
curriculum.
• analyze released test items for syntactic,
morphologic, and semantic complexity.
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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• The general
curriculum is the
Virginia Standards of
curriculum adopted by
Learning (SOL)
the school for all
Common Core State
children from
Standards
preschool through
(Oregon)
secondary school
Curriculum
Frameworks
(Mass, Nev, others)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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High Stakes Assessments
• Required by No Child Left Behind
– Students must pass assessments in
English/Language Arts, Math, and Science for
schools to meet Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP)
• 100% of students must pass state assessments
by 2014
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Vocabulary Growth
(Marzano, 2004; Pence and Justice, 2004)
• Students need to encounter new
vocabulary in context repeatedly
– Average child - needs 15 exposures for a new
word to become automatic
– Child with language impairment - needs 50 – 100
exposures
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Marzano’s meta-analysis of
research regarding growth of academic
vocabulary
 Grade 1: 2,703 –
26,000 words
 Grade 7: 4, 760 –
51,000 words
 Grade 12: 17,000 –
45,000 words (Marzano, 2004)
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PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
Regardless of study,
Students must
master a minimum
of 1000 new words
per year for 12
years!
Morphology and Syntax
Effects on Linguistic Complexity
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Morphology
How do learners gain morphologically
more complex words?
• Children learn to inflect words in primary
language development (birth to five)
• Children learn to derive words in later
language development (school age)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Inflected Forms
Constructed by adding morphemes which change the
form of the word, but not the meaning
Morphemes used for
– comparison (-er, -est) bigger, largest
– plurality (-s, -es) dogs, watches
– tense (-ed, -ing, en) jumped, running, eaten
– possession (-s) boy’s
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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More About “Inflections”
Addition of inflectional morpheme will result
in a “new word” belonging to the same
grammatical class as the “old” word (for
example: jump, jumps, jumping are all verbs)
Inflected forms can also be internal word
changes: ate, drove, children, geese, seen
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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“Inflections” Continued
Adding an auxiliary verb shows:
Mood (can, should, would, may, might)
Tense
Future (will + verb)
Present progressive (is, am, are + verbing)
Past progressive (was, were + verbing)
Future progressive (will be + verbing)
Present perfect (have, has + verben OR verbed)
Past perfect (had + verben OR verbed)
Future perfect (will have + verben OR verbed)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Derived Forms
Constructed by adding a prefix or a suffix,
creating new word (derived form)
Derived form differs in:
Form
Meaning , and/or
Grammatical class
Derived form, example:
 run (verb) + er = runner (noun)
 drive (verb) + able = drivable (adjective)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Now Try It Out!
Sort Words with Inflectional vs.
Derivational Morphemes
replay
illiterate
shoes
builder
responsibility
inspector
preview
confusion
mice
education
swam
traveling
chaotic
unlike
nicely
sporty
helpful
hideous
pushed
achievement
de-ice
gotten
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Inflected Forms
swam
mice
traveling
pushed
gotten
shoes
Derived Forms
replay
responsibility
confusion
unlike
helpful
de-ice
Illiterate
inspector
achievement
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
builder
preview
education
chaotic
sporty
hideous
nicely
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Categories of Derived Forms
• Derived adjectives
– Constructed from nouns and verbs (prude to
prudish; track to trackable)
• Derived nominals
– Constructed from adjectives or verbs (stable to
stability; enrich to enrichment)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Development of Derived Forms
Derived forms show a hierarchical and
progressive development!
• Derived nominals are more difficult to
comprehend than are derived adjectives
• Adolescents outperformed elementary-aged
subjects on comprehension of both derived
forms
Nippold & Sun (2008)
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ON TO SYNTAX. . . . .
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The Big Idea
“If a reader cannot derive meaning from
individual sentences that make up a text,
that is going to be a major obstacle in
text-level comprehension.”
Scott (2009)
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Structural Features of Sentences
Which are “Tough”
Number of propositions (ideas)
Number of embeddings
Appositive, subordinate clauses, relative clauses,
preposition phrases, infinitive phrases
Order of major sentence elements
Distance between crucial elements
Thompson & Shapiro (2007)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Propositions
Number of propositions aligns with number of
true verbs (i.e. clauses)
(1)The
authors of the constitution desired (2) that
the branches of government should be
responsible to one another (3)and so they
created a system of checks and balances at
the highest levels (4) which leads to greater
confidence in government decisions.
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Embeddings
Include:
• Appositives = elaboration of the noun
Sally, my aunt, is coming to visit.
• Expanded prepositional phrases = phrase initiated by
preposition
I’m going to the store for chips and crackers now.
• Relative clauses = clause initiated by pronoun (who, whose,
that)
I like the scarf that you are wearing with that suit.
• Other subordinate clauses = adverbial clauses initiated by
subordinating conjunction (e.g. because, so that, while)
Let’s play a game while Mom goes to the store for ice
cream.
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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The clown, a major headliner with Barnum and
Bailey Circus, was convicted of shoplifting
from many of the department stores which sell
jewelry and other expensive accessories
Red = appositive
Blue = expanded prepositional phrase
Green= expanded relative clause
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Does Word Order Help or Interfere
with Sentence Comprehension?
 S-V-O The boy pushed the girl
 Look at passive voice:
The boy was pushed by the girl.
Apples were gathered from the orchard.
 Examine a cleft sentence:
It was the ball that John kicked which was stolen.
 Consider “left-branching” subordinate clauses
When her arguments were not having the desired
effect, Mary made no further comments at the
meeting.
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Distance Between Crucial
Sentence Elements
“The major premise is that, when words
intervene between elements that are typically
closer together. . . , the reader has to work
harder.”
Scott (2009)
One player from the minors that the team signed to a
three-year contract yesterday will not attend spring
training.
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LET’S PRACTICE AS A GROUP
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Key:
Green = Participial phrase
Pink = verb form as adjective
Aqua = Derivational morpheme
Blue = dependent clause
Underlined = # of preposition phrases
purple = gerund
Orange = passive voice
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Look for dependant clauses:
• Type
• Frequency
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People thought Weihenmayer would
put his climbing partners at risk if he
attempted to climb Mount Everest
because they —
A thought he was not physically strong enough for the climb
B believed he would be unable to help other climbers in need
C knew he would not be aware of his surroundings
D thought he would be unable to keep up with his team
Reading, Gr 8 (2009)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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People thought Weihenmayer would
put his climbing partners at risk if he
attempted to climb Mount Everest
because they —
A thought he was not physically strong enough for the climb
B believed he would be unable to help other climbers in need
C knew he would not be aware of his surroundings
D thought he would be unable to keep up with his team
Reading, Gr 8 (2009)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Look for prepositional phrases:
• Type
• Frequency
and gerunds
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Black bears roam over
large territories. What
effect would building
shopping centers in
these territories have
on the bears?
F Promote an increase in black bear
reproduction
G Stabilize the black bear population
H Reduce the black bears’ habitat
J Introduce a new bear population to
the area
Science, Gr 8, 2009
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Black bears roam over
large territories. What
effect would building
shopping centers in
these territories have
on the bears?
F Promote an increase in black bear
reproduction
G Stabilize the black bear population
H Reduce the black bears’ habitat
J Introduce a new bear population to
the area
Science, Gr 8, 2009
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Look for passive voice.
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This picture shows a radiometer. It is
designed to be placed in a sunny
window. One side of each thin blade of the
radiometer is painted black, and the other
side is painted white. The Sun’s rays strike
the blades, and the device begins to spin.
The device is powered by which kind of
energy?
F Wind
G Solar
H Electrical
J Geothermal
Science, Gr. 8, 2009
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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This picture shows a radiometer. It is
designed to be placed in a sunny
window. One side of each thin blade of the
radiometer is painted black, and the other
side is painted white. The Sun’s rays strike
the blades, and the device begins to spin.
The device is powered by which kind of
energy?
F Wind
G Solar
H Electrical
J Geothermal
Science, Gr. 8, 2009
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Look for participial phrases and verb
forms used as adjectives
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Logan needs to order a cover
for his swimming pool. The
circular swimming
pool has a radius of 17 feet.
Which is closest to the number
of square feet needed to
completely
cover the pool?
Gr 6 Math, 2009
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Logan needs to order a cover
for his swimming pool. The
circular swimming
pool has a radius of 17 feet.
Which is closest to the number
of square feet needed to
completely
cover the pool?
Gr 6 Math, 2009
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Does the use of derivational and
inflectional morphemes and
syntactic complexity in state
assessments match students’
language acquisition?
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Analysis of Virginia middle school
math assessments revealed
(Lewis, 2011)
•Many errors due to conceptual
knowledge which includes students’
knowledge of vocabulary
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Examples of State Assessment
Items
Virginia Standards of Learning Assessments
Nevada Criterion Referenced Tests
New York State Testing Program
Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessments
Oregon Assessment of Knowledge and Skills
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Key:
Green = Participial phrase
Pink = verb form as adjective
Red = separation b/t subject and verb
Aqua = Derivational morpheme
Blue = dependent clause
Underlined = # of preposition phrases
purple = gerund
Orange = passive voice
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Morphology – G 4 Math
look for derivational morphemes
Millimeters, centimeters,
decimeters, meters, and
kilometers are metric
units used to measure
length.
1 centimeter (cm)=10 millimeters
1 decimeter (dm)= 10 centimeters
1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters
1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 meters
Review Questions:
Find each missing number.
1.
2.
3.
4.
40 cm = ____mm
200 cm = ____m
3 km = ____m
50 cm = ____dm
(Greenes et al, 2005)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Morphology – G 4 Math
look for derivational morphemes
Millimeters, centimeters,
decimeters, meters, and
kilometers are metric
units used to measure
length.
1 centimeter (cm)=10 millimeters
1 decimeter (dm)= 10 centimeters
1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters
1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 meters
Review Questions:
Find each missing number.
1.
2.
3.
4.
40 cm = ____mm
200 cm = ____m
3 km = ____m
50 cm = ____dm
(Greenes et al, 2005)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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G4 Reading
look for distance between subject and verb,
embeddings, # of propositions
He glided forward, his skis making soft whisking sounds in the
snow. This certainly was different from city skiing in Duluth,
where he would dodge the ragman’s cart or the milkman’s
wagon, where the sky was notched with chimney pots belching
smoke, where the snow turned sooty as soon as it fell.
Here in the great north woods all was still and white. Beads of
ice glistened on bare branches like jewels. The frosted needles of
pine and spruce pricked the eggshell sky, and a ghostly moon
began to climb over the treetops.
(Cooper et al, 2001)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Reading
look for distance between subject and verb,
embeddings, # of propositions
He glided forward, his skis making soft whisking sounds in the
snow. This certainly was different from city skiing in Duluth,
where he would dodge the ragman’s cart or the milkman’s
wagon, where the sky was notched with chimney pots belching
smoke, where the snow turned sooty as soon as it fell. [5
propositions]
Here in the great north woods all was still and white. Beads of
ice glistened on bare branches like jewels. The frosted needles
of pine and spruce pricked the eggshell sky, and a ghostly moon
began to climb over the treetops. [2 propositions]
(Cooper et al, 2001)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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G 4 - Social Studies
Look for derivational morphemes, verb as an
adjective.
The founders of our country created a federal
system in the United States. They had a deep
fear of government that was too powerful.
The country had just won independence from
the too-powerful British king. They favored a
government with limited power. So, they
chose a federal system.
(Buckley et al, 2010)
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Social Studies
Look for derivational morphemes, verb as an
adjective.
The founders of our country created a federal
system in the United States. They had a deep
fear of government that was too powerful.
The country had just won independence from
the too-powerful British king. They favored a
government with limited power. So, they
chose a federal system.
(Buckley et al, 2010)
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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7th Grade English
Massachusetts MCA
look for verb form as adjective, participial
phrase, empty subject, dependendent clause,
gerund
1. According to the tall tale, what indicates that the bear had left the fish for Jennes?
A. The bear left the fish in Jennes’ shack.
B. The bear batted the fish onto the shore.
C. The bear waved his paw to Jennes.
D. The bear cleaned up the spilled molasses.
“I crept around behind the camp, stuck my head in the window and yelled. He shot
through the door like a bullet and headed for the lake. I never saw such an odd gait on
a bear before—sort of mixture of running and galloping. And all on three legs. He was
holding up the paw daubed with molasses.”
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7th Grade English
Massachusetts MCA
look for verb form as adjective, participial phrase,
empty subject, dependendent clause, gerund
1. According to the tall tale, what indicates that the bear had left the fish for
Jennes?
A. The bear left the fish in Jennes’ shack.
B. The bear batted the fish onto the shore.
C. The bear waved his paw to Jennes.
D. The bear cleaned up the spilled molasses.
“I crept around behind the camp, stuck my head in the window and yelled. He
shot through the door like a bullet and headed for the lake. I never saw such an
odd gait on a bear before—sort of mixture of running and galloping. And all on
three legs. He was holding up the paw daubed with molasses.”
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7th Grade English
Massachusetts MCA
look for empty subject, derivational morpheme, gerund,
verb as adjective
2. Reread paragraphs 3 and 4. Which of the following phrases
provides the best context clue for the word daubed as it is used
in paragraph 4?
A. lapped up
B. smeared all over
C. headed for the lake
D. saw such an odd gait
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7th Grade English
Massachusetts MCA
look for empty subject, derivational morpheme, gerund,
verb as adjective
2. Reread paragraphs 3 and 4. Which of the following phrases
provides the best context clue for the word daubed as it is used
in paragraph 4?
A. lapped up
B. smeared all over
C. headed for the lake
D. saw such an odd gait
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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3rd Grade Science Virginia
SOLs look for participial phrase,
dependent clause, empty subject
7 Jake’s
cats eat food from a can. The cats come running into
the kitchen when they hear the electric can opener. Now, each
time Jake’s mother opens a can of corn, the cats come
running. This is an example of —
A learned behavior
B correct behavior
C instinct
D migration
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3rd Grade Science Virginia
SOLs look for participial phrase,
dependent clause, empty subject
7 Jake’s
cats eat food from a can. The cats come running into
the kitchen when they hear the electric can opener. Now, each
time Jake’s mother opens a can of corn, the cats come
running. This is an example of —
A learned behavior
B correct behavior
C instinct
D migration
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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3rd Grade Math Oregon
OAKS look for prepositional phrase,
dependent clause
Alex and Taylor are in separate rooms. Alex has 24 coins and Taylor
has 18 coins. Each person knows how many coins the other has.
Each boy is to put his coins into groups with the same number of
coins in them. They will win the grand prize if the number of groups
Alex has matches the number of groups Taylor has.
What is the greatest number of groups Alex could make and still have
a chance at winning the grand prize?
A 2
B 3
C 6
D 12
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3rd Grade Math Oregon
OAKS look for prepositional phrase,
dependent clause
Alex and Taylor are in separate rooms. Alex has 24 coins and Taylor
has 18 coins. Each person knows how many coins the other has.
Each boy is to put his coins into groups with the same number of
coins in them. They will win the grand prize if the number of
groups Alex has matches the number of groups Taylor has.
What is the greatest number of groups Alex could make and still
have a chance at winning the grand prize?
A 2
B 3
C 6
D 12
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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Nevada Reading Grade 6 (2011)
look for gerund, derivational morpheme, verb as adjective
Knowing the meaning of the word fable helps
the reader to know that fabled means
A fatal.
B famous.
C faint.
D faithful.
PA-LPdF (c) ASHA 2011
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New York Science Grade 4
look for participial phrase, verb as adjective,
prepositional phrase
• Electricity traveling through a wire is an
example of
A a force applied by a simple machine
B energy flowing through the water cycle
C Earth’s gravitational pull on an object
D energy being transferred from place to
place
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New York Science Grade 4
look for participial phrase, verb as adjective,
prepositional phrase
• Electricity traveling through a wire is an
example of
A a force applied by a simple machine
B energy flowing through the water cycle
C Earth’s gravitational pull on an object
D energy being transferred from place to
place
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INTERVENTION STRATEGIES
With thanks to graduate students
Kelsey Turner, Alli Chaplin
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INTERVENTIONS:
VOCABULARY AND MORPHOLOGY
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Vocabulary Instruction
• Students’ comprehension will increase by 1/3
when vocabulary instruction focuses on specific
words important to content as opposed to
focusing on a high-frequency word list.
• Knowledge of a given vocabulary term deepens
over time if a student encounters the word
multiple times.
– Each new encounter enables the student to revise
his/her understanding.
• Marzano, 2004
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“Marzano Strategies” –
Research based approaches that increase
Student Achievement
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Identifying similarities and differences (45% gain)
Summarizing and note-taking (34% gain)
Reinforcing effort and providing recognition (29% gain)
Homework and practice (28% gain)
Nonlinguistic representation (27% gain)
Cooperative learning (27% gain)
Setting objectives and providing feedback (23% gain)
Generating and testing hypothesis (23% gain)
Questions, cues, and advance organizers (22% gain)
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Marzano’s Similarities and
Differences
(45% gain)
• Strategies
– Comparing
• Similarities and differences between or across things or
ideas
• Graphic organizers (Venn diagrams, matrices)
– Classifying
• Grouping things that are alike into categories based on their
characteristics
• Graphic organizers (matrices, webs)
– Create similes and metaphors
• Finding relationships between two topics
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Compare and contrast
• Eliminate words/phrases that do not belong
“The Civil War”
conflict
states
slavery
colonies
emancipation
secession
north
west
minute men
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Paraphrasing
(From Ehren, 2010 and others)
• Review a brief scenario with students.
• Ask students to identify key words and
identify synonyms
• Discuss meanings of synonyms.
• Ask students to rewrite (paraphrase) the
scenario using the synonyms.
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Marzano’s Nonlinguistic
Representation
(27% gain)
• Graphic representations
– Web organizer, time-sequence patterns, cause-effect
patterns
•
•
•
•
•
Physical models
Mental pictures/stories
Drawing pictures and pictographs
Engaging in kinesthetic activity
Gains in vocabulary
– 37% over using definitions
– 21% over generating sentences
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Definitions?
(Marzano, 2004)
Not an effective strategy for learning new
vocabulary.
• Purpose of a definition is to identify the class the
word belongs to and then contrast with other
members of its class.
• A bachelor is a man who is unmarried.
– Students’ success with definitions relates to familiarity
with definition structure rather than comprehension
• Better to learn to describe words
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WORD INVESTIGATION
WORD: ______________________
Prefix
Root Word
Suffix
Part of Speech
Description:
Synonym
Word History:
Antonym
Example
Picture
LPdF: adapted from Tompkins, G.E. (2006). Literacy for the 21st Century (4th ed). Columbus: Pearson
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Rate knowledge of the word
1. Have never heard of the word before
2. Have heard of the word, but don’t know
what it means
3. Could figure out the word in a sentence
4. Know the word and can explain it
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Dealing with Passives
• Nonreversible constructions
– The Libyan crisis was discussed by Matt Lauer of NBC.
• Present with 3 alternatives – select one with same
meaning.
– The Libyan crisis was discussed by Cooper Anderson of
CNN.
– NBC’s Matt Lauer discussed the Libyan crisis.
– Matt Lauer said the crisis was tremendously dangerous.
Adapted from Wallace, G. (2008). Language Intervention for School-Age Students. MO: Mosby Elsevier
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Root Word Strategy
reported by Paul (2007)
• Introduce a root word.
• Discuss meaning of root word.
• Assist students to identify possible inflections and
derivations (prefixes and suffixes)
• Discuss how adding each morpheme changes the
meaning.
• Challenge students to find roots in textbooks and
literature.
• Encourage students to develop and maintain a
personal root word dictionary.
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Root Word: spec (to see)
Inspect
Spectator
Spectacle
Inspection
Inspector
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Word Investigation
Prefix
Root Word
Suffix
Part of Speech
Example
Picture
WORD:
Description:
Synonym
Antonym
LPdF: adapted from Tompkins, G.E. (2006). Literacy for the 21st Century (4th ed). Columbus: Pearson
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INTERVENTIONS: SYNTAX
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Describing words
Enhance
knowledge of
parts of
speech and
engage in
word play.
• Poetry: 11-word, 5-line
poem
1. One word, the title (noun)
2. Two words, each describing
the title (adjectives)
3. Three words, each
expressing an action (verbs)
4. Four words phrase,
expressing a feeling (start
with adjective)
5. One word, synonym for title
(noun)
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From Wallace, G. (2008).
Language intervention for
school-age students. MO:
Mosby Elsevier
Flame
Hot, bright
Burning, raging, spreading
Warm on my face
Fire
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Building compound and complex
sentences
• Provide semantically-related propositions
• Engage students in relating two thoughts
• Then add connectives from deck of
conjunction word cards
• Discuss the effect different connectives on
meaning
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Sentence Variations
(from Paul, 2007 and others)
Select two simple sentences.
Connect the two sentences with and.
Discuss the effect on meaning.
Create a deck of conjunction word cards.
Draw a card and connect the two sentences
with the target conjunction.
Discuss the change in meaning with each
conjunction.
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I walk up the hill. I look at the stars.
I walk up the hill and I look at the stars.
I walk up the hill before I look at the stars.
I walk up the hill after I look at the stars.
I walk up the hill while I look at the stars.
I walk up the hill so I can look at the stars.
I walk up the hill because I can look at the
stars.
• I walk up the hill until I can look at the stars.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Evidence of student understanding is
revealed when students apply
(transfer) knowledge in authentic
contexts.
» Tomlinson & McTighe (2006)
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References and Resources
Cirrin, F.M., Schooling, T.L., Nelson, N.W., Diehl, S.F., Flynn, P.F., Staskowski, M., Torrey,
T.Z., Adamczk, D.F., (2010). Evidence-based systematic review: effects of different
service delivery models on communication outcomes for elementary school-age
children. Language, speech and hearing services in schools, 41, 233-264.
Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning. (2000). How people learn:
Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C. National Academy Press.
Ebbels, S. et al (2007). Intervention for verb argument structure in children with
persistent SLI. JSLHR, 50(5), 1330-1349.
Hart, B. & Risley, T.R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of
young American children. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Hoffman, P., & Norris, J. (2006). Visual strategies to facilitate written language
development. In R. McCauley and M. Fey (Eds.), Treatment of language disorders
in children, pp. 347-382. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Larson, V., & McKinley, N. (2007). Communication solutions for older students.
Greenville, SC: Thinking Publications.
Marzano, R.J. (2004).Building background knowledge for academic achievement:
Research on what works in schools. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
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Marzano, R.J., Pickering, D.J., Pollack, J.E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works:
Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Nippold & Sun. (2008). Knowledge of morphologically complex words. LSHSS, 39(3),
365-374.
Nippold, M.(2007). Later language development: School-age children, adolescents, and
young adults (3rd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed
Nippold, M. (1993). Adolescent language developmental markers in adolescent
language: Syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. LSHSS, 24, 21-28.
Paul, R. (2007). Language disorders from infancy through adolescence. New Haven, CT:
Mosby.
Scott, C. (2005). Learning to write. In H. Catts and A. Kamhi (Eds), Language and
reading disabilities, 2nd ed., pp. 233-273. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Scott, C. (2009). A case for the sentence in reading comprehension. LSHSS, 40, 184191.
Thompson, C., & Shapiro, L. (2007). Complexity in treatment of syntactic deficits.
AJSLP, 18, 30-42.
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Children’s Texts
Buckley, S., Hanover, D., Hart, D., & Lacey, P. (2010). Social
Studies Alive: Regions of Our Country. Teachers’ Curriculum
Institute: Palo Alto, CA.
Cooper, J.D., Pikulski, J.J., Ackerman, P.A., Au, K.H., Chard, D.J.,
Garcia, G.G., Goldenberg, C.N., Lipson, M.Y., Page, S.E., Templeton,
S. Valencia, S.W., & Vogt, M. (2001). Reading: A Legacy of
Literacy. Houghton Mifflin: Boston MA.
Greenes, C., Larson, D., Leiva, M.A, Shaw, J.M, Stiff, L. Vogeli, B.R.
& Yeatts, K. (2005). Math: Virginia. Houghton Mifflin: Boston, MA.
Moyer, R., Daniel, L. Hackett, J., Prentice Baptiste, H., Stryker, P.,
& Vasquez, J. (2002). Science: Virginia Edition. Macmillan/McGraw
Hill: New York: NY.
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[email protected]
434-395-2722
[email protected]
434-395-2369
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