Westward Movement
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, economic
opportunity, industrialization, technological change, and
immigration fueled American growth and expansion. As the
population moved westward, new states were added to the Union.
By the early 20th Century, all the states from the Atlantic to the
Pacific Oceans had been admitted.
Following the Civil War, the westward movement of settlers intensified into the vast region
between the Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean. Many Americans had to rebuild their
lives after the Civil War. They responded to the incentive of free public land and moved
west to take advantages of the Homestead Act of 1862. Because of this, the forcible removal
of the American Indians from their lands would continue throughout the remainder of the 19th
century as settlers continued to move west following the Civil War.
The years immediately before and after the Civil War were the era of the
American cowboys, marked by cattle drives for hundreds of miles over
unfenced open land (range) in the West, the only way to get cattle to
market. Cattle drives ended by the late 1880’s since barbed wire fenced
in the open range. The cattle drives were ended by railroad routes and
stops.
Many Americans, particularly Southerners and African Americans,
moved to the west to take advantage of the Homestead Act, seek
new opportunities, and rebuild their lives. Exodusters is the name
for African Americans who migrated after the Civil War to towns on
the Great Plains.
The Homestead Act of 1862: Gave 160
acres of free public land in the western
territories to settlers who would live on and farm the land for five
years.
New technologies such as railroads and
the mechanical reaper opened new lands
in the West for settlement and made farming more prosperous by
the turn of the century, the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain
regions were no longer unsettled frontiers, but were becoming
regions of farms, ranches, and towns.
U.S. Economy in the late 1800’s and Early 1900’s
During the period from the Civil War to World War I (1860’s to 1910’s), the United States,
underwent an economic transformation that involved a developing industrial economy, the
expansion of big business, the growth of large-scale agriculture, and the rise of national labor
unions and industrial conflict. Technological change spurred growth of industry primarily in
northern cities.
The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrial growth with far-reaching social
and economic consequences, beginning in Britain during the second half of the eighteenth
century and spreading to Europe and later to other countries including the United States.
Major Inventions and Innovations of this Era:
Bessemer Steel: Air was blasted into the furnace to eliminate
impurities and make the steel stronger.
Light Bulb: Invented by Thomas
Edison. Because of this invention,
there could be longer work days and more productivity at night.
Telephone: Invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
Airplane: Invented by the Wright Brothers.
Their first flight was in 1903 in Kitty Hawk North Carolina.
Assembly Line: Invented by Henry Ford. Ford is an important
contributor to the modern automated assembly line concept. Products could be produced
cheaper and faster than ever before.
Subway System: The world’s first subway system began
construction in New York City around the turn of the century.
Major Reasons for Economic Transformations:
1) Government policies of laissez-faire capitalism and special considerations such as land
grants to railroad builders.
Capitalism is a type of economic system which ownership of the means of production and
distribution belongs to the people and/or corporations. Laissez-faire is a concept that
business should be left alone to operate without government restrictions. Interaction of
supply and demand influences price.
2) The Growth of Corporations.
Corporations are limited liability since they are business made up of many investors.
3) The increasing labor supply from immigration and migration from the farms.
4) America’s natural resources and navigable rivers.
5) America shifting from an agrarian (agriculture/farming) economy to an industrial
(machines and factories) economy.
6) Industrial leaders helped launch the U.S. economy.
All of these factors led to what was called the Gilded Age. The Gilded Age refers to a time
period of great population growth in the U.S. and lopsided display of wealth.
Major Industrial Leaders:
Andrew Carnegie
Steel
John D. Rockefeller
Oil
J.P. Morgan
Banking and Finance
Cornelius Vanderbilt
Railroads
The Progressive Movement
The Progressive Movement was used to reform problems created by industrialization
(Theodore Roosevelt’s “Square Deal” and Woodrow Wilson’s “New Freedom”).
Social Reconstruction lasting through the first part of the 20 th century was a time of
contradictions for many Americans. Industrial development raised the standard of living for
millions of Americans, but also brought about the rise of national labor unions
and clashed between industry and labor. Agricultural expansion was
accomplished through wars against the Plains Indians, leading to new federal
Indian policies.
Social problems in rural and urban settings gave rise to third-party movements
and the beginning of the Progressive Movement, which is social progress
through reform.
Causes of the Progressive Movement:
1) Excesses of the Gilded Age:
- Income Disparity (large economic inequalities between the rich and the poor).
- Age of the robber barons (big business with little or no real competition).
2) Working conditions for laborers:
- Working conditions were dangerous.
- Child labor was often used.
- Many workers were exploited with long hours, low wages, no job security, and no benefits.
- Company towns (entire towns built, employed and controlled by a particular company).
- Poor working conditions for women and children.
Goals of the Progressive Movement:
1) More government control for the people (Women’s suffrage, referendums, initiatives,
recalls)
2) Guaranteed economic opportunities through government regulations (workers’ rights,
trust busting).
3) Elimination of social injustices (Child labor).
Progressive Accomplishments:
In Local Governments:
New reforms were needed to meet the needs of increasing urbanization. The commission
and council manager form of administration in local governments.
In State Governments:
The referendum, initiative, and recall in state governments were started. In U.S. politics,
initiative is a procedure by which voters propose a law to the legislature. Referendum is a
legal procedure by which people can revoke a law passed by the legislature. A recall election
is a procedure by which voters can remove an elected official from office.
In Elections:
The 17th Amendment called for the direct election of senators. Primary elections started to
be used, and are when candidates had to campaign for party nominations and the people
would select the candidates who run. The secret ballot also began being used.
In Child Labor:
Muckraking literature described the abuses of child labor and child labor laws were passed.
Muckraker was the name given by Theodore Roosevelt to journalists who helped the public
become aware of social problems such as child labor and factory conditions; they raked up
society’s dirt and muck. Child labor laws were eventually passed outlawing it.
Labor Unions:
The Knights of Labor Union was formed in 1869. The American Federation of
Labor/AFL under the leadership of Samuel Gompers was
formed in 1886. Eugene Debs formed the American Railway
Union. The Industrial Ladies’ Garment Union fought for
reforms. Labor organizations were formed in the second half of
the 19th century and early twentieth century. The direct impacts
of labor unions were limited work hours and regulated work
conditions.
Labor Strikes were used in many cases. A strike is when workers stop working until their
demands are met. In some cases, strikes would become violent. This would often give labor
unions a bad name. Famous Labor Strikes include:
Haymarket Square: An 1886 strike in Chicago in which a bomb exploded, turning the
public against unions.
Homestead Strike: AFL strike in 1892 in Homestead, PA during which steel workers and
detectives were killed. It is one of the most serious labor disputes in U.S. history. The State
militia had to be called in.
Pullman Strike: Workers of the Pullman Railway Car Company clashed with federal troops
in 1894.
Anti-Trust Laws:
The Sherman Anti-Trust Act prevents any business structure that “restrains trade”
(monopolies).
The Clayton Anti-Trust Act expands the Sherman Anti-Trust Act; it outlaws price-fixing
and exempts unions from the Sherman Act.
Women’s Suffrage:
Women’s suffrage was a forerunner of the modern protest movement. It benefited from the
strong leadership (Susan B. Anthony). The suffrage movement encouraged women to enter
the labor force during World War I and it resulted in the 19th Amendment to the Constitution
(Women’s right to vote).
Immigrants, African Americans and the Growth of Cities
Immigrants in this time period, like the ones before them,
came to America seeking freedom from political and religious
persecution, employment opportunities, land, and better lives
for their families.
Prior to 1871, most immigrants to America came from
northern and western Europe (Germany, Great Britain,
Ireland, Norway, and Sweden). From 1871 until 1921, most
immigrants came from southern and eastern Europe (Italy,
Greece, Poland, Russia, present-day Yugoslavia and Hungary,
as well as China and Japan.)
Immigrants made valuable contributions to the industrial
growth of America during this time. Chinese workers helped
to build the Transcontinental Railroad. Immigrants worked in
textile and steel mills in the Northeast, the clothing industry in
New York City; Slavs, Italians, and Poles worked in the coal
mines of the East. They often worked for low wages and in
dangerous working conditions.
Immigrants from Europe entered America through Ellis Island
in New York Harbor. This started the concept of the “Melting
Pot.” “Melting Pot” refers to the assimilation of many
cultures into American society; public schools served an
essential role in assimilating immigrants. The immigrants
often settled into ethnic communities, which were
neighborhoods with people of similar cultures, languages, and
religions.
Immigrants often faced hardships and hostility since there was
fear and resentment that they would take jobs for lower pay
than American workers and there was religious and cultural
prejudice. Mounting resentment toward immigrants led
Congress to limit immigration through the Chinese Exclusion
Act and the Immigration Restriction Act. The Chinese
Exclusion Act of 1882 and Immigration Restriction Act of
1921 cut off Chinese immigration to the U.S. for decades.
Growth of Cities
Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and New York grew rapidly as manufacturing and
transportation centers.
Factories provided jobs, but workers’ families often faced
slum conditions and the need for public services. The
rapid growth of cities caused housing shortages and the
need for new public services, such as sewages and water
systems and public transportation. New York City began
construction of the nation’s first subway system around the
turn of the 20th century, and many cities built trolley or
streetcar lines.
Discrimination and Segregation Against African Americans
African Americans disagreed about how much to respond to
discrimination and segregation. Intimidation and crimes
were directed toward African Americans in the form of
lynching.
Ways to keep African Americans from voting included:
Poll tax: People had to pay for voting; it was a technique
used to keep poor citizens, including African Americans
from the polls.
Literacy test: Another way to keep voters away from polls, requiring them to demonstrate
the ability to read.
Literacy tests and poll taxes didn’t apply to people
who had been able to vote before 1867, their children,
or later descendants. They were under a grandfather
clause. African Americans could not vote before
1870. This means they were not grandfathered in.
In the late 19th and early 20th century,
African Americans moved to
Northern cities in search of jobs and
to escape poverty and discrimination
in the South. This is referred to as the
“Great Migration.”
Some African Americans looked to the courts to
People say that I look
like Mr. Cotton, but I
safeguard their rights. Equality rights were lost in
just don’t see it…
the Plessy v. Ferguson (1892) decision, which
established segregation. Plessy went took his case to
court, claiming that he should be on a railroad car for whites instead of
blacks. The judge (Ferguson) claimed that the railroad company was
justified. This famous case legitimized the move towards segregation
practices begun earlier in the South.
Ida B. Wells led an anti-lynching crusade and called on the federal
government to take action. She was a civil rights leader and an advocate for
women’s suffrage.
Booker T. Washington believed that the way to equality
was through vocational education and economic success; he accepted the
social separation of the races.
W.E.B. Du Bois (William Edward Burghardt Du Bois) felt
that education was meaningless without political equality
for African Americans and helped to form the NAACP.