February 11, 2006
to May 21, 2006
Museum of Art &
Archaeology
University of
Missouri
Columbia
Joan Stack and Laurel Wilson, Editors
Students in 19th and 20th Western Dress,
Winter Semester 2005
Students in Art History and Archeology
Sarah Carter, Meghan Munos, Nicole Papagni
Megan Albers, Andrea Alderson,
Kathryn Baker, Kate Bangert, Angela Bird,
Lindsay Braunecker. Elizabeth Brewer,
Courtney Cantwell, Kirstin Carmichael,
Amber Crosby, Kristin Cunningham,
Katie Diehl, Kathryn Fisher, Jayme Grubbs,
Kristin Hayward, Annalise Hombs,
Ashleigh Hombs, Erin Howard,
Aric Maiden, Lynda Manson, Cristy Phelps,
Marla Poteet, Lisa Steinhoff, Marisol Tirado,
Jenny Tully
Independent Students, Fall Semester 2005
Sarah Boston & Laura Prather
Missouri Historic Costume and Textile
Collection, Department of Textile and Apparel Management
Museum of Art and Archeology
College of Arts and Sciences
University of Missouri-Columbia
clothing, some not even visible, were also signs of upper
class status. The drawers, in particular, were unnecessary since they were open at the crotch, covering the legs
and providing another garment to make and care for.
The chemise had more multiple uses such as nightwear
and, for lower class women, a visible part of everyday
dress. Most under clothing was made of linen or cotton,
like these, so they could be easily washed in a wash-boiler with lye soap. Since silken and woolen outer clothing
was rarely cleaned, it was important to have a washable
barrier between the body and outer garments. This included the corset that had steel or featherbone reinforcement stays that did not wash very well.
“W.H.” (German (?), Early 19th Century)
“Portrait of a Lady”
Miniature, painted on ivory (76.521)
Gift of Mrs. Roy W. Swindell
Dress and Undress
Jayme Grubbs
T
his miniature painting was done by a German
artist, is believed to date between the 1830-1840, a
time when very tight corseting set the silhouette for
the rest of the 19th century. Corseting represented
fragility, decency, and submission, as well as sexuality,
confidence, and power. Since the ideal woman was
one who was frail and would never need to work, the
restriction of movement that accompanied a tiny waist
came to be a status symbol. Mothers and Grandmothers were responsible for making sure young girls of
marrying age were corseted, so that their appearance
and reputation would be respectable at a time when
marriage defined the socioeconomic life one would
have (Steele 51). The Industrial Revolution and the
development of the Singer sewing machine in the
1850s made corsets more available and affordable to
women who may not have previously had access to
this restrictive garment (Collins 122).
The corset was worn over a chemise and drawers
such as those shown here. Having several layers of
Chemise
Ca. 1850
1386
Donor: Unknown
Drawers
Ca. 1850
1412
Donor: Margaret Mason
the way. Heavy work shoes cover her feet. This picture provides a
glimpse into the life of a woman from the past at work in her daily
occupations, sewing for her family. Limited resources may have
required her to dress this way, or she may have simply ignored
fashion’s precepts in favor of comfort. Whatever the reason, this
woman was obviously hard at work, investing time to produce
things we now take for granted.
The simple work dress from the Missouri Historic Costume
and Textile Collection looks very similar to the dress depicted by
Millet. It has a simple, round neckline and long straight sleeves.
Although we cannot tell if Millet’s subject was wearing a dress
made of a printed fabric, it is likely it was printed since figures
conceal the soil of everyday life. The Missouri work dress is
simply fastened with hooks and eyes and it was cut slightly
shorter than fashionable dress so the housewife who wore it could
accomplish her work without tripping.
Jean Francois Millet (French, 18141875)
Title Unknown
Etching (X-17)
Black Discharge Print Work Dress
Ca. 1860
1900
Donor: Unknown
Jean Francois Millet
Laura Prather
J
ean Francois Millet, the son of a French peasant
and a realist painter belonging to the Barbizon school,
seldom painted people in their best clothing. Indeed,
country scenes of working men and women formed
the bulk of Millet’s work. In one of his etchings
he shows a woman seated near a cottage window,
bent over her sewing. She is wearing a simple dress
with drop off the shoulder sleeves. These are not the
woman’s fancy clothes, they are her work clothes. On
her head she wears a plain cap to keep her hair out of
Mourning Dress
Sarah Boston
T
he tradition of mourning became especially
influential in 1861 when Prince Albert of England
passed away. Queen Victoria wore black for the
remaining 40 years of her life to symbolize deep
mourning for her dead husband. This tradition soon
caught on in America, as well as in other nations. The
most public example of mourning in America was that
Mary Todd Lincoln wore mourning dress for several
years after President Lincoln was killed. This was also
the period of the Civil War, so there were thousands
and thousands of people that started wearing mourning
dress. The dress included black mourning crepe, a
crinkled, silk gauze that was fashioned into skirts,
Mourning Dress (Skirt, Sacque, Veil)
Ca. 1879
2005.6.1abc
Donors: Crum, Edwards, and Hazell
Boy’s Mourning Dress (Dress, Jacket)
Ca. 1860
1988.11.13ab
Donor: Missouri Historical Society
waists (bodices), sacques (a type of loose over-bodice),
and veils. Mourning jewelry made out of jet and hair was
incorporated into the dress of both men and women.
It was Harper’s Bazaar in 1867 that defined the acceptable
mourning times. The etiquette dictated that the widow’s
mourning time should be eighteen months. During this
time, she was to wear black crepe, but other materials were
acceptable including black fur, leather gloves, and seal-skin.
After six months, the mourning crepe could be replaced with
fabrics of grenadine and copeau fringe. After 12 months,
she removed the veil to return to everyday fabrics, still dyed
black.
Mourning dress for widowers was generally simpler
than for widows since they most often wore a black sash or
armband in the color black to show their respect. The men
wore jewelry made of jet, sometimes with locks of hair or
photographs in them. From the 1850s through the 1900s,
Godey’s Lady’s Book, a popular women’s magazine, wrote
instructions about how to turn hair into jewelry. This started
a trend nationwide and people began using hair as another
sign of mourning. Men’s mourning rings sometimes
included skulls and had the name of the deceased
inscribed on it. Mr. Singleton?, mourning the death
of his wife when this image was painted by George
Caleb Bingham, is wearing a mourning pin. It would
be easily apparent to all who saw him that he was
honoring her memory through this small article of
jewelry made of jet with a diamond as a memento of
her passing from life.
Another example of Victorian mourning jewelry
incorporates the gray, braided hair of a deceased
person into its design. The words “In Memory of”
appear in gold print on the black enamel, while an
inscription of the gold-plated back reads “William
Luxton/ died 16 July 1878 aged 70.”
The amount of mourning crepe used in the veil,
sacque, and skirt of this 1879 mourning dress indicates
that it was worn by a widow. The skirt and sacque
were cut in the fashionable silhouettes of that period.
Since much of the foundations of these garments
were made of mourning crepe, we can assume that the
wearer was well-to-do. Women of lesser means would
incorporate mourning crepe that could be removed for
the later stages of mourning, saving themselves the
expense of making a new dress.
Even children were expected to wear mourning
dress for the death of a parent; however, the rules
for children’s mourning required no mourning crepe
for those younger than 16 and much less black. This
boy’s dress and jacket made of black and white
silk, trimmed with a purple fringed braid was also a
mourning dress. Young children, like the boy who
wore these garments, dressed in mourning for a very
short period.
George Caleb Bingham (American, 1811-1879)
Portrait of Thomas Withers Nelson
Oil on canvas (2003.5)
Gilbreath- McLorn Museum Fund
Mourning Dress
Detail
Mourning Brooch, 1878
Gold-plated metal, black enamel, glass
and human hair
Lent by Museum of Funeral Customs,
Springfield, Illinois
“What He Ought To Wear: A Look at
Etiquette and Men’s Dress in Life and Art
Katie Baker
“G
ood manners and appropriate dress are part
and parcel of gentle people” (Vanderbilt, 197). Even
those who were in the lower rungs of the social ladder
did their best to dress the part of a gentle person.
Evening Tails, Vest, Trousers
1904
1871abc
Donor: Ruby
Erich Salomon (German, 1886-1944)
Banquet at Quai d’Orsay, Paris, July 1931, 1931
Photograph 5/100, 75.129.5
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Marvin Small
Men of the upper class, and those that emulated
them, followed the etiquette of their time as strictly
as women, especially when formality in dress was
expected.
It is when we view art that we must take
knowledge of etiquette regarding dress to get a better
understanding of what the artist wants us to see. The
clothing the subject is captured in tells us more about
that person than anything else. It is clothing that
dictates the place and the mood of the setting, and
therefore the key to the whole artistic expression.
Erich Solomon is a great artist to explore since he
took photography into another realm by capturing
candid photographs at political events to get truly
unique images of some of the most revered heads
of state at their most vulnerable (Museet, 8). This
is important because these men were expected to
uphold rules of etiquette, whether they were under
scrutiny or not. In a photograph taken at a banquet
in honor of the German Chancellor, we see five men
in formal attire, the dress is identified, the place and
mood are set, but these men are relaxed rather being
rigid as their clothing might dictate. Since they are
caught in a moment when their guard is down, we
are able to see them as they really are. While it was
the artist’s intention to show the human behind the
mask of clothing and political titles, he gave the
masses another way of gaining information about their
Exploring 1930s Dress:
The Depression and Social Realism
Katie Diehl & Cristy Phelps
T
he stock market crash of 1929, coupled with
the effects of the Depression, was enough to send
shock waves of destitution through all of society.
While women felt these economic pangs, they were
still expected to dress appropriately for their place
in society. A hat and gloves were necessary for any
public outing. This shows that, while women had
made great strides in dress reform and women’s rights,
they were still subjected to old rules. They were not to
be seen in public exposing such delicate areas, like the
hands, and were expected to wear some sort of head
covering (Ryan 67).
In 2nd Ave. El., Marsh, a social realist, shows the
viewer the harsh world of the 1930s. Marsh presents
the image of a woman on an elevated train. Her face
Grey Woolen Coat w/Fur Trim
Ca. 1938
2003.08.50
Donor: Giegerich
Reginald Marsh (American, 1888–1954)
2nd Ave. El, 1930
Etching (84.92)
Gift of Harry B. Cohen
conveys no emotion—she seems disconnected from
her surroundings. Her eyes are cast off to the side,
avoiding the viewer. Marsh reminds us of the typical
female gaze in art in which a woman is not allowed to
meet the viewer’s gaze, representing her subordinate
place in life (Land). She can be seen as symbolizing
the poor working class whereas the man, confident,
ugly, and threatening, seated near her on the train can
be seen an example of the social realist’s interpretation
of the economic pressures of the Depression
(Stockstad 447-448). The man snarls at the viewer,
directly meeting the viewer’s gaze. The woman,
like the working poor, is disconnected and drained
of life. She sits there, not contemplating her life, but
accepting it in apathetic despair, but still conforming
to standards of dress dictated by social custom.
2nd Ave. El, 1930
Detail
The purpose of Afrocentrism, including styles
worn in Africa as well as in America, is to encourage
Black Nationalism and ethnic pride as a psychological
weapon against the destructive and debilitating efforts
of universal racism (SkepDic). This photograph
by Jeffery Allan Salter’s shows one way in which
Afrocentrism is manifested. Wearing the traditional
dress is a way to include everyone in the unifying
culture and bring back traditions that might have
been lost (Magginis, 3). “Graduation from school is
a major event in the life and family of each student.
It is a time for personal reflection, personal pride in
accomplishment and tribal and community pride of
accomplishment. It should be automatically accepted
that the youth should be allowed to wear regalia that
identifies their heritage” (Majel, 1).
Jeffery Allan Salter (American, n.d.)
Siti Opio, 1990
Black and White Photograph (95.6.20)
Gift of Dr. Michael Cheers, New African
Visions, Incorporated
Afrocentric and African Dress
Andrea Alderson & Courtney Cantwell
A
frican traditions of dress are extremely
complex, diverse, and elaborate. The clothing is
often symbolic of the status and identity of different
individuals and groups. Even in societies where
clothing was minimal, dress involved nuances of
distinction and elaboration, which could understood
only by the people in the related culture. (LeBlanc
and Van Lowe, 2).
African-Americans in the United States in the
early 1960s usually wore Westernized clothing that
did not give any acknowledgement to their African
heritage. However, as African-Americans began to
fight for rights, they began to embrace their African
roots through dress. They no longer felt the need to
adopt the styles worn by white Americans, and they
had more of a desire to stand out and make a statement
of their heritage by wearing clothing that originated in
Africa.
Nigerian Dress
Ca. 1970s
1991.8.1
Donor: Freeman
Songs of My People, an exhibition of photographs
taken by 50 African-American photographers,
capturing pictures of African-Americans living their
daily lives across the country also helped to change
attitudes about stereotypes. This photograph by Bob
Black, a founding member of the Chicago Alliance
of African-American Photographers, shows a young
couple wearing formal dress at an occasion attended
by smiling people. This image illustrates how the
African-American population is proactive in taking
control of their future.
Bob Black (American, n.d.)
Crishon and Stevie Black, 1990
Black and White Photograph (95.6.4)
Gift of Dr. Michael Cheers, New African
Visions, Incorporated
Creating a New Destiny:
African American Media in the 1980s
Marla Poteet & Lyndi Manson
T
he 1980s was a transitional period for AfricanAmericans who were on their way to establishing
themselves in American society through education
and entrepreneurship. The media’s influence on the
African-American culture during the 1980s played
an extensive role on how African-Americans were
viewed. The Cosby Show, in particular, shaped opinion
about African-Americans because it portrayed an
upper middle class African-American family--the
Huxtables. Cosby’s purpose behind the show was to
acknowledge history and to change attitudes about
African-Americans. The Oprah Winfrey’s show
brought multi-racial topics to a multi-racial audience,
another ground-breaking idea. African-Americans
were encouraged to take charge of their future,
according to Ebony Magazine. Students were aspiring
to become doctors, lawyers, engineers, business men
and women, careers that had never seemed tangible in
the past, but because African-American students were
attending college in great numbers, these careers were
becoming reality.
Blue Evening Dress
Ca. 1986
1987.14.1ab
Donor: Marr
Robert Crumb (American, b. 1943)
The Nightmare, 1995
Photo lithograph and lithograph (99.6)
Gilbreath-McLorn Museum Fund
they were symbols of their husband’s wealth and
importance.
As a lifetime objectifier, Robert Crumb makes an
interesting case. He began his career in the 1960s
as an underground cartoonist, lifting the veil on the
American hypocrisies and his favored subject was
women. His piece titled “The Nightmare” (1995) is
typical of his representation of women. Crumb liked
his women voluptuous, tall and strong and that is how
he drew them. It was in stark contrast to his depiction
of his libido as a cartoon of small, weasel-like man,
inept with women and controlled by his fantasies. In
“The Nightmare,” he can be seen perched atop the
woman as if he has conquered her. It is interesting to
note that, although Crumb objectified women, he did
not illustrate them as abnormally thin, full-breasted
women as portrayed in mainstream culture, but as full
bodied voluptuous women.
She Knows What Her Body Can Do:
The Objectification of Woman by Society
and in the Artwork of Robert Crumb
Aric Maiden
E
very culture and period of history has beauty
ideals, but western society is preoccupied with body
size, exerting pressure on women to conform to the
thin body ideal. Previously the focus was to look nice;
however, mass culture has turned concern about the
body ideal into obsession, and a dangerous one at that.
A woman who happens to an attractive female body
holds much power, women know this and sometimes
succumb to the obsession to achieve an ideal with
tanning beds, cosmetics, and even plastic surgery.
During the 19th century women had little worth
as individual human beings but were like a product,
created behind closed doors and exhibited publicly.
As for any mass-produced product, consistency was
important, so women forced their bodies into an
hourglass silhouette controlled by the corset (Payne,
1965). This had dangerous effects since it diminished
lung capacity, deformed the body by forcing the rib
cage into a conical shape, and compacting the organs
into the lower abdomen (Steele, 2001). The corset had
the power to make a woman faint from the smallest
exertion, or even crack a rib, but was a small price
to pay. As young girls they were advertisements as
future wives and mothers, and as married women
Striped Tank Top
Ca. 1995
1999.6.33
Donor: Boyd
Purple Tights
Ca. 1984
2000.2.52
Donor: Roets
Black Boots
Ca. 1984-1986
1996.1.20ab
Donor: Roets
This history is quite a contrast with the 1942
photograph by Lisette Model of a large, happy
woman. Model conveyed messages and feelings
about people through photography, an art that truly
represents life. This photograph, taken a decade earlier
than the Catalina swimsuit was made, reveals a larger
woman who is happy with herself even though she
is completely unlike beauty queens whose bodies
were considered the cultural ideal. It is as though
the woman in the picture is making fun of models
and the influence they may have had on body image.
She, herself, is a model since she can wear a fitted
black swimsuit like those sold to beauty queens and
she can pose for the camera as well. She presents an
unselfconsciously confident picture of a woman who
enjoys life, unaffected by beauty ideals.
Black Bathing Suit
Ca. 1952
1622
Donor: Fisher
Maker: Catalina
Lisette Model (American, 1901-1983)
Coney Island Standing, 1942
Gelatin silver print photograph
(2002.7)
Gilbreath-McLorn Museum Fund
The Black Swimsuit
Jaime Minard
A
black swimsuit made by Catalina Sportswear
was wore by Mary E. Fisher during the early 1950s.
This particular model was advertised for the “fullfigured woman” (Fisher Record). Catalina Sportswear
capitalized on the popularity of their swimsuits by
promoting their swimwear through sponsorship of the
Miss America Pageant. Due to a dispute with 1950
Miss America, Catalina decided not to sponsor the
Miss America Pageant so the company went on to
develop the Miss Universe and Miss USA pageant,
which still take place today. (History of Pageants,
n.d., Miss Universe Scrapbook, n.d., Miss USA
History, n.d.).
appearance of the restaurants, food containers, and
dress worn by employees.
The “Burger Queen’s” uniform reflects the values
of the modern fast-food industry. By dressing
all employees in similar clothing, companies like
McDonalds and Burger King present efficient,
homogeneous faces to the public. The cut and style of
the uniforms are conventional and “clean-cut” so as
not to offend the sensibilities of mainstream America.
The material of the outfits is usually synthetic, easyto-clean, cheap and durable. In the 1970s, many fastfood uniforms were gender-specific: women wore
dresses, jumpers or skirts, and men wore pants. The
young woman who wore this uniform was not happy
with the conservative length of the skirt so shortened
it without removing the original hem, not necessary
today since fast food workers are more likely to wear
unisex uniforms.
Burger King Uniform
Ca. 1970
2006.1.1
Missouri Historic Costume Collection Purchase
Maker: Portrait Clothes Division of Barco
Kimbal Wells (American, b. 1939)
Burger Queen, 1977
Lithograph (78.228)
Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Christopher A. Graf
Burger Queen
Joan Stack and Laurel Wilson
B
urger Queen pictures a young woman seated
on the counter of a fast-food restaurant. She wears
the store’s uniform and wraps her arm around a cash
register. The title of the print helps identify the setting
by making reference to two giant fast-food franchises:
Burger King and Dairy Queen. It also identifies the
central figure, whose monumental form dominates
the composition. She is a “queen” of consumer
culture, seated on the “throne” of burger commerce.
It was in 1954 that fast food franchises began with
Burger King and McDonalds, replacing once-familiar
drugstore lunch counters. Part of the idea of fast-food
franchises was to provide a predictable standard of
quality and quantity of food throughout an entire chain
of restaurants. This also resulted in standardizing the
Works Cited
Arthur Tomson, Jean-Francois Millet and the Barbizon School (London, England, George Bell and Sons, 1903)
Baker, Kathryn. “What He Ought To Wear: A Look at Etiquette and Men’s Dress in Everyday Life
And Art in the First Half of the 20th Century,” Unpublished Paper, May 2005.
Collins, Gail. America’s Women. New York: Harper Collins Publishers Inc, 2003Crumb, Robert. The Complete
Crumb. Westlake Village, California: Fantagraphics Books, 1987.
Ebony. (1961-62). Volume 17. Pg. 58, 63-64, 70. Volume 25. Pg. 100.
Fishcer, Gayle. Pantaloons and Power. 2001 Kent State University Press
Godey’s Lady’s Book (1848-1900)
Godey’s Lady’s Book April 1849
Harper’s Bazaar (1867)
History of Pageants. Retrieved March 15, 2005 from http://www.pageantcenter.com/pagenat_history.htm.
Land, Norman. “Baroque Art in Holland.” History of Western Art II. University of Missouri-Columbia.
March 8, 2005.
Mourning dress. Retrieved November 29, 2005
http://www.fashion-era.com/mourning_fashion.htm
http://www.wcwa.net/Civilians/mourning.htm
http://www.deathonline.net/remembering/mourning/victorian.cfm
http://www.victoriana.com/library/harpers/funeral.html
http://www.chicagohs.org/AOTM/oct98/oct98fact2a.html
http://www.hairwork.com/remember.htm
Museet, Fotografiska. Erich Solomon: Unguarded Moments. Sweden: Hasselblad, 1974.
New Harmony Gazette, June 26, 1826.
Payne, Blanche, et. al. History of Costme. New York: Harper & Row, 1965.
Ryan, Mildred Graves. Cues for You. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, Inc., 1940.
Steele, Valerie. The Corset: a Cultural History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.
Stockstad, Marilyn. Art: A Brief History. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2000.
447-450.
Sunday Evening Post (1821-1830); May 8, 1830; vol. 9, no. 458; APS Online pg. 3
Sweet Clover or Nellie Milton’s Housekeeping, (Boston William H. Hill, Jr. & Co. 186
The Poughkeepsie Casket: a monthly literary journal; Aug. 1839; vol. 3; no. 10; pg. 78.
Vanderbilt, Amy. Amy Vanderbilt’s Etiquette. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1952.
,
Burger King Uniform Label, Detail
Ca. 1970
2006.1.1
Missouri Historic Costume Collection Purchase
Maker: Portrait Clothes Division of Barco
Published in conjunction with the exhibition, Dressing
the Part: Fashion and Art in the 19th and 20th Centuries, held at the Museum of Art and Archeology, February 11-May 21, 2006. The exhibition and catalog
were made possible through donations of Friends of
the Missouri Historic Costume and Textile Collection,
the Department of Textile and Apparel Management
in the College of Human Environmental Sciences and
the Museum of Art and Archeology, College of Arts
and Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia. Of
course there would be no exhibition without generous
donations of garments and artworks to the two institutions.
Exhibition co-curators: Joan Stack and Laurel Wilson
Photography: Howard Wilson
Printing: University Printing Services, University of
Missouri
© 2006, Missouri Historic Costume and Textile Collection, Department of Textile and Apparel Management and Museum of Art and Archeology, College of
Arts and Science, University of Missouri-Columbia.
Front Cover
Mourning Dress (Skirt, Sacque, Veil)
Ca. 1879
Gift of Julie Crum, Aileen Edwards, and
Jane Hazell
Black Hat
Ca. 1879
Gift of Patricia Roets
Boy’s Mourning Dress (Dress, Jacket)
Ca. 1860
Gift of the Missouri Historical Society
Portrait of Thomas Withers Nelson, 1844-45
By George Caleb Bringham (American, 1811-1879)