The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™
ISSN 2307-8235 (online)
IUCN 2008: T22694656A86737634
Scope: Global
Language: English
Sternula albifrons, Little Tern
Assessment by: BirdLife International
View on www.iucnredlist.org
Citation: BirdLife International. 2016. Sternula albifrons. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
2016: e.T22694656A86737634. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.20163.RLTS.T22694656A86737634.en
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THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™
Taxonomy
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Animalia
Chordata
Aves
Charadriiformes
Laridae
Taxon Name: Sternula albifrons (Pallas, 1764)
Synonym(s):
• Sterna albifrons Pallas, 1764
• Sternula albifrons Christidis and Boles (2008)
• Sternula albifrons AOU checklist (1998 + supplements)
Regional Assessments:
• Europe
Common Name(s):
• English:
• French:
Little Tern
Sterne naine
Taxonomic Source(s):
del Hoyo, J., Collar, N.J., Christie, D.A., Elliott, A. and Fishpool, L.D.C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife
International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions BirdLife International,
Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge, UK.
Taxonomic Notes:
Sternula albifrons (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Sterna.
Assessment Information
Red List Category & Criteria:
Least Concern ver 3.1
Year Published:
2016
Date Assessed:
October 1, 2016
Justification:
This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable
under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or
fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or
severe fragmentation). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline
is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population
trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). The population size is very large, and
hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000
mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or
with a specified population structure). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.
Previously Published Red List Assessments
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Sternula albifrons – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22694656A86737634.en
1
2012 – Least Concern (LC) – http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012-1.RLTS.T22694656A38877509.en
2009 – Least Concern (LC)
2008 – Least Concern (LC)
2004 – Least Concern (LC)
2000 – Lower Risk/least concern (LR/lc)
1994 – Lower Risk/least concern (LR/lc)
1988 – Lower Risk/least concern (LR/lc)
Geographic Range
Range Description:
Breeding populations of this species can be found through much of Europe, scattered along the coast
and inland in parts of Africa, in much of western, central and the extreme east and south of Asia, and in
northern parts of Australasia. Migratory individuals expand the range to include most of the coast of
Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, the western coast of India and most of the waters of south-east Asia and
Australasia, including New Zealand. One seasonally breeding colony is also present on Hawaii (del Hoyo
et al. 1996).
Country Occurrence:
Native: Afghanistan; Albania; Algeria; Armenia (Armenia); Australia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Bahrain;
Bangladesh; Belarus; Belgium; Benin; Bosnia and Herzegovina; British Indian Ocean Territory; Brunei
Darussalam; Bulgaria; Burundi; Cambodia; Cameroon; Chad; China; Congo; Congo, The Democratic
Republic of the; Côte d'Ivoire; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Djibouti; Egypt; Equatorial
Guinea; Eritrea; Estonia; Finland; France; Gabon; Gambia; Georgia; Germany; Ghana; Gibraltar; Greece;
Guam; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Hong Kong; Hungary; India; Indonesia; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Iraq;
Ireland; Israel; Italy; Japan; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Kenya; Korea, Democratic People's Republic of; Korea,
Republic of; Kuwait; Kyrgyzstan; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Latvia; Liberia; Libya; Lithuania;
Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malaysia; Mali; Marshall Islands; Mauritania; Mauritius;
Micronesia, Federated States of ; Moldova; Mongolia; Montenegro; Morocco; Mozambique; Myanmar;
Nepal; Netherlands; New Zealand; Niger; Nigeria; Northern Mariana Islands; Norway; Oman; Pakistan;
Palau; Palestinian Territory, Occupied; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Poland; Portugal; Qatar;
Romania; Russian Federation; Saudi Arabia; Senegal; Serbia (Serbia); Singapore; Slovakia; Slovenia;
Solomon Islands; Somalia; South Africa; Spain; Sri Lanka; Sweden; Switzerland; Syrian Arab Republic;
Taiwan, Province of China; Tajikistan; Tanzania, United Republic of; Thailand; Timor-Leste; Togo; Tunisia;
Turkey; Turkmenistan; Ukraine; United Arab Emirates; United Kingdom; Uzbekistan; Viet Nam; Western
Sahara
Vagrant: Angola (Angola); Burkina Faso; Cape Verde; Colombia; Faroe Islands; Fiji; Kiribati; Lebanon;
Luxembourg; Maldives; Malta; Namibia; New Caledonia; Samoa; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; United States
(Georgia - Native); Yemen
Present - origin uncertain: Sudan
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Sternula albifrons – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22694656A86737634.en
2
Distribution Map
Sternula albifrons
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Sternula albifrons – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22694656A86737634.en
3
Population
The global population is estimated to number c.190,000-410,000 individuals (Wetlands International
2015). The European population is estimated at 36,000-53,000 pairs, which equates to 71,900-106,000
mature individuals (BirdLife International 2015). National population estimates include: c.10,000100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000 breeding
pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000
breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and
c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
Trend Justification
The overall population trend is decreasing, although some populations have unknown or increasing
trends (Wetlands International 2015). In Europe the population size trend is unknown (BirdLife
International 2015).
Current Population Trend: Decreasing
Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)
Behaviour This is a strongly migratory (del Hoyo et al. 1996) coastal seabird which usually fishes in very
shallow water only a few centimetres deep, often over the advancing tideline or in brackish lagoons and
saltmarsh creeks. It has the most inshore distribution of all terns. It breeds between May and July
(Richards 1990) in solitary pairs (Flint et al. 1984) or small monospecific groups (del Hoyo et al. 1996)
usually of 1-15 pairs (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) (rarely over 40 pairs) (del Hoyo et al.
1996) occasionally amidst colonies of other terns (Flint et al. 1984). Breeding may be timed to coincide
with peak fish abundance (Perrow et al 2006). Northern breeders depart the breeding grounds from
late-July onwards (Richards 1990, del Hoyo et al. 1996), travelling first to moulting sites where they form
large roosts before continuing southwards (Tavecchia et al. 2006). The species is gregarious throughout
the year (Snow and Perrins 1998) and usually feeds singly, in small groups or larger scattered flocks
(Snow and Perrins 1998) and congregating in many thousands on passage in small wetlands where fish
fry are abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Habitat Breeding The species breeds on barren or sparsely
vegetated beaches, islands and spits of sand, shingle (del Hoyo et al. 1996), shell fragments, pebbles
(Flint et al. 1984), rocks or coral fragments (del Hoyo et al. 1996) on seashores (Flint et al. 1984) or in
estuaries, saltmarshes, saltpans, offshore coral reefs (del Hoyo et al. 1996), rivers, lakes (Flint et al.
1984, del Hoyo et al. 1996) and reservoirs (de Silva 1991). It may also nest on dry mudflats in grassy
areas (de Silva 1991, del Hoyo et al. 1996) but shows a preference for islets surrounded by saline or
fresh water where small fish can be caught without the need for extensive foraging flights (Snow and
Perrins 1998). Non-breeding Outside of the breeding season the species frequents tidal creeks, coastal
lagoons and saltpans and may foraging at sea (del Hoyo et al. 1996) up to 15 km offshore (Urban et al.
1986). Diet Its diet consists predominantly of small fish (e.g. Ammodytes spp., roach Rutilus rutilus, rudd
Scardinius erythrophthalmus, carp Cyprinus carpio and perch Perca fluviatilis) and crustaceans 3-6 cm
long as well as insects, annelid worms and molluscs (del Hoyo et al. 1996). In Scotland, Little Terns feed
mainly on small fish and invertebrates, including herring, sandeel, and shrimps (Crangon vulgaris)
(BirdLife International 2000). In Portugal, birds were found to feed mainly on sand-smelts (Atherina spp.)
and gobies (Pomatoschistus spp.), which were the most abundant fish species in the study areas (Catry
et al 2006). On Rigby Island, Australia, chicks were fed entirely on juvenile fish of the families Clupeidae,
Engraulidae, Pomatomidae and Carangidae, including pilchard, southern anchovy and blue sprat (Taylor
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Sternula albifrons – published in 2016.
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4
and Roe 2004). Breeding site The nest is a bare scrape (Richards 1990) positioned on the ground in less
than 15 % vegetation cover (del Hoyo et al. 1996) on beaches of sand, pebbles, shingle, shell fragments,
coral fragments or rock (Flint et al. 1984, del Hoyo et al. 1996) above the high tide-line and often only a
few metres away from shallow clear water (Snow and Perrins 1998). Alternatively in more marshy
habitats (e.g. coastal saltmarshes) the species may build a nest of shells or vegetation (del Hoyo et al.
1996). The species nests in small loose colonies, with neighbouring nests usually placed more than 2 m
apart (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Foraging range In Spain, 95% of foraging terns were observed less than 4
km away from the nearest colony (Bertolero et al 2005). However, the foraging range of individuals
varies according to whether they are currently breeding. In Norfolk, UK, birds with an active nest
occupied a range of <6.3 km2 with a range span of up to 4.6 km (Perrow et al 2006), whereas failed birds
ranged widely, travelling up to 27 km in a single foraging bout (Perrow et al 2006). In Portugal, ranges
were found to be significantly greater during incubation (April-May) than during chick rearing (June-July)
(Paiva et al 2007). Little Terns prefer channels and lagoons for foraging, rather than deeper marine
habitats (Bertolero et al 2005, Paiva et al 2007). They also prefer areas with abundant resources,
entrance channels and main lagoon channels with strong currents, and areas with alternative feeding
resources nearby (Paiva et al 2007). Areas subjected to strong human pressure (Paiva et al 2007) and
salt marshes (Bertolero et al 2005) are avoided. The species tends to forage preferentially at low tide
(Paiva et al 2007).
Systems: Terrestrial, Freshwater, Marine
Threats
The species is threatened by habitat destruction (Barcena et al. 1984) such as the development and
industrial reclamation of coastal breeding habitats (Barcena et al. 1984, del Hoyo et al. 1996) (e.g. for
the development of new harbour facilities) (Barcena et al. 1984). It is also highly vulnerable to human
disturbance (including birdwatchers) at coastal and inland nesting sites which can lead to nest failures
(Barcena et al. 1984, del Hoyo et al. 1996). Pesticide pollution (e.g. organochlorine pollutants, mercury
and DDT) (Barcena et al. 1984, Thyen et al. 2000, Choi et al. 2001) and artificially induced water-level
fluctuations in saltmarshes (Barcena et al. 1984) may also pose a threat to the species's reproductive
success (Barcena et al. 1984, Thyen et al. 2000, Choi et al. 2001). The species also suffers from local egg
collecting (Barcena et al. 1984) and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future
outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)
Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species and is covered under the
African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. It is on Annex II of the Bern Convention. Within the EU it is listed
on Annex I of the Birds Directive. Protective measures such as fencing-off sensitive nesting areas,
erecting warning signs and wardening are effective measures of increasing the breeding success of this
species on sandy beaches (Richards 1990, Medeiros et al. 2007). There is also evidence that earlier
breeders benefit more (i.e. have higher reproductive success) from protective measures, suggesting that
conservation efforts can be maximised if concentrated earlier in the season (Medeiros et al. 2007).
Breeding pairs are also known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have
been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation)
(Burgess and Hirons 1992). A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Sternula albifrons – published in 2016.
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5
in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance,
prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest
sites (Fasola and Canova 1996). The scheme particularly specifies that small bare islets of 0.1-0.8 ha with
very reduced vegetation cover (less than 30 %) and sward heights less than 20 cm should be maintained
or created as additional nesting sites for this species (Fasola and Canova 1996). Within Europe there are
258 Important Bird Areas identified across the European region. Within the EU there are 648 Special
Protection Areas which include this species.
Conservation Actions Proposed
The following information refers to the species's European range only: Management of existing Special
Protection Areas, including continuing measures to reduce human disturbance to breeding sites.
Credits
Assessor(s):
BirdLife International
Reviewer(s):
Butchart, S. & Symes, A.
Facilitators(s) and
Compiler(s):
Ashpole, J, Butchart, S., Calvert, R., Ekstrom, J., Hatchett, J., Malpas, L.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Sternula albifrons – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22694656A86737634.en
6
Bibliography
Barcena, F.; Teixeira, A. M., Bermejo, A. 1984. Breeding seabird populations in the Atlantic sector of the
Iberian Peninsula. In: Croxall, J. P.; Evans, P. G. H., Schreiber, R. W. (ed.), Status and Conservation of the
World's Seabirds, pp. 335-345. International Council for Bird Preservation.
BirdLife International. 2000. The Development of Boundary Selection Criteria for the Extension of
Breeding Seabird Special Protection Areas into the Marine Environment. OSPAR Convention for the
Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic. Vlissingen (Flushing).
BirdLife International. 2015. European Red List of Birds. Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities, Luxembourg.
Brazil, M. 2009. Birds of East Asia: eastern China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, eastern Russia. Christopher
Helm, London.
Burgess, N. D.; Hirons, J. M. 1992. Creation and management of articficial nesting sites for wetland birds.
Journal of Environmental Management 34(4): 285-295.
Catry, T., Ramos, J.A., Martins, J., Peste, F., Trigo, S., Paiva, V.H., Almeida, A., Luis, A., Palma, J. and
Andrade, P.J. 2006. Intercolony and annual differences in the diet and feeding ecology of little tern
adults and chicks in Portugal. Condor 108(2): 366-376.
Choi, J. W.; Matsuda, M.; Kawano, M.; Min, B. Y.; Wakimoto, T. 2001. Accumulation Profiles of Persistent
Organochlorines in Waterbirds from an Estuary in Korea. Archives of Environmental Contamination and
Toxicology 41: 353-363.
Delany, S.; Scott, D. 2006. Waterbird population estimates. Wetlands International, Wageningen, The
Netherlands.
del Hoyo, J., Collar, N.J., Christie, D.A., Elliott, A. and Fishpool, L.D.C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife
International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions BirdLife International,
Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge, UK.
del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., and Sargatal, J. 1996. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 3: Hoatzin to Auks.
Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.
de Silva, R. I. 1991. Status and conservation of the breeding seabirds of Sri Lanka. In: Croxall. J. P. (ed.),
Seabird Status and Conservation: A Supplement, pp. 205-211. International Council for Bird
Preservation, Cambridge, UK.
Fasola, M.; Canova, L. 1996. Conservation of gull and tern colony sites in north-eastern Italy, an
internationally important bird area. Colonial Waterbirds 19: 59-67.
Flint, V.E.; Boehme, R.L.; Kostin, Y.V.; Kuznetsov, A.A. 1984. A field guide to birds of the USSR. Princeton
University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
IUCN. 2016. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2016-3. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org.
(Accessed: 07 December 2016).
Medeiros, R.; Ramos, J. A.; Paiva, V. H.; Almeida, A.; Pedro, P.; Antunes, S. 2007. Signage reduces the
impact of human disturbance on little tern nesting success in Portugal. Biological Conservation 135: 99106.
Melville, D.S.; Shortridge, K.F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East AsianAustralasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: G. Boere, C.
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Galbraith and D. Stroud (eds), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationery Office,
Edinburgh, U.K.
Perrow, M. R., Skeate, E. R., Lines, P., Brown, D., Tomlinson, M. L. 2006. Radio telemetry as a tool for
impact assessment of wind farms: the case of Little Terns Sterna albifrons at Scroby Sands, Norfolk, UK.
Richards, A. 1990. Seabirds of the northern hemisphere. Dragon's World Ltd, Limpsfield, U.K.
Snow, D.W.; Perrins, C.M. 1998. The Birds of the Western Palearctic, Volume 1: Non-Passerines. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Sparks, T. H.; Huber, K.; Bland, R. L.; Crick, H. Q. P.; Croxton, P. J.; Flood, J.; Loxton, R. G.; Mason, C. F.;
Newnham, J.A.; Tryjanowski, P. 2007. How consistent are trends in arrival (and departure) dates of
migrant birds in the UK? Journal of Ornithology 148: 503-511.
Tavecchia, G.; Baccetti, N.; Serra, L. 2006. Modelling survival and movement probability of Little Tern
Sterna albifrons at a post-breeding moulting site: the effect of the colony of origin. In: Boere, G.;
Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 560-561. The Stationary Office,
Edinburgh, UK.
Taylor IR; Roe EL. 2004. Feeding ecology of little terns Sterna albifrons sinensis in south-eastern Australia
and the effects of pilchard mass mortality on breeding success and population size . Marine and
Freshwater Research 55(8): 799-808.
Thyen, S.; Becker, P. H.; Behmann, H. 2000. Organochlorine and mercury contamination of little terns
(Sterna albifrons) breeding at the western Baltic Sea, 1978-96. Environmental Pollution 108: 225-238.
Urban, E.K., Fry, C.H. and Keith, S. 1986. The Birds of Africa, Volume II. Academic Press, London.
Wetlands International. 2015. Waterbird Population Estimates. Available at: wpe.wetlands.org.
(Accessed: 17/09/2015).
Citation
BirdLife International. 2016. Sternula albifrons. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016:
e.T22694656A86737634. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22694656A86737634.en
Disclaimer
To make use of this information, please check the Terms of Use.
External Resources
For Images and External Links to Additional Information, please see the Red List website.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Sternula albifrons – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22694656A86737634.en
8
Appendix
Habitats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Habitat
Season
Suitability
Major
Importance?
5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.1. Wetlands (inland) - Permanent
Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls)
Breeding
Suitable
No
5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.1. Wetlands (inland) - Permanent
Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls)
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.5. Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater
Lakes (over 8ha)
Breeding
Suitable
No
5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.5. Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater
Lakes (over 8ha)
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.6. Wetlands (inland) - Seasonal/Intermittent
Freshwater Lakes (over 8ha)
Breeding
Suitable
No
5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.6. Wetlands (inland) - Seasonal/Intermittent
Freshwater Lakes (over 8ha)
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.1. Marine Neritic - Pelagic
Resident
Marginal
-
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.2. Marine Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs
Breeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.2. Marine Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.3. Marine Neritic - Subtidal Loose Rock/pebble/gravel
Breeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.3. Marine Neritic - Subtidal Loose Rock/pebble/gravel
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.4. Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy
Breeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.4. Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.5. Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud
Breeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.5. Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.7. Marine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp
Breeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.7. Marine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.9. Marine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged)
Breeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.9. Marine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged)
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.10. Marine Neritic - Estuaries
Breeding
Suitable
No
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.10. Marine Neritic - Estuaries
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Sternula albifrons – published in 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22694656A86737634.en
9
Habitat
Season
Suitability
Major
Importance?
13. Marine Coastal/Supratidal -> 13.4. Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal
Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes
Breeding
Suitable
No
13. Marine Coastal/Supratidal -> 13.4. Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal
Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
13. Marine Coastal/Supratidal -> 13.5. Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal
Freshwater Lakes
Breeding
Suitable
No
13. Marine Coastal/Supratidal -> 13.5. Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal
Freshwater Lakes
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
15. Artificial/Aquatic & Marine -> 15.4. Artificial/Aquatic - Salt Exploitation
Sites
Breeding
Suitable
No
15. Artificial/Aquatic & Marine -> 15.4. Artificial/Aquatic - Salt Exploitation
Sites
Nonbreeding
Suitable
No
Conservation Actions in Place
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Conservation Actions in Place
In-Place Research, Monitoring and Planning
Action Recovery plan: Yes
Systematic monitoring scheme: Yes
In-Place Land/Water Protection and Management
Conservation sites identified: Yes, over entire range
Occur in at least one PA: Yes
Invasive species control or prevention: No
In-Place Species Management
Successfully reintroduced or introduced beningly: No
Subject to ex-situ conservation: No
In-Place Education
Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: No
Included in international legislation: Yes
Subject to any international management/trade controls: No
Additional Data Fields
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Sternula albifrons – published in 2016.
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10
Distribution
Continuing decline in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in area of occupancy (AOO): No
Estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) (km²): 130000000
Continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in extent of occurrence (EOO): No
Continuing decline in number of locations: Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in the number of locations: No
Upper elevation limit (m): 2000
Population
Continuing decline of mature individuals: Unknown
Extreme fluctuations: No
Population severely fragmented: No
Continuing decline in subpopulations: Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in subpopulations: No
All individuals in one subpopulation: No
Habitats and Ecology
Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat: Unknown
Generation Length (years): 10.9
Movement patterns: Full Migrant
Congregatory: Congregatory (and dispersive)
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Sternula albifrons – published in 2016.
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The IUCN Red List Partnership
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species
Programme, the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership.
The IUCN Red List Partners are: Arizona State University; BirdLife International; Botanic Gardens
Conservation International; Conservation International; NatureServe; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew;
Sapienza University of Rome; Texas A&M University; and Zoological Society of London.
THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™