The Ancient Egyptians were highly organised with a very efficient central government.
The administrators needed a calendar simpler than one in which they did not know when
the month started until the Priests had looked at the sunrise, and in which all the months
had the same number of days and all the years the same number of months. So they
introduced a civil calendar containing twelve months each with thirty days, and each
month containing three weeks of ten days, and then five days of public holidays to bring
the year to three hundred and sixty five days. These five holidays celebrated the birthdays
of Osiris, Isis, Horus, Nephthys and Seth. The problem was that this calendar did not
have leap years.
The months of the year were in the following order
AKHET (the time of flooding) June 15 - October 15
1............... Thoth............... June 15 - July 15
2
Paophi
July 15 - August 15
3
Athyr
August 15 - September 15...............
4
Khoyak
September 15 - October 15
PERET (the time of sowing) October 15 - February 15
October 15 - November 15...............
1............... Tybi
2
Mekhir............... November 15 - December 15
Phamenat
3
December 15 - January 15
Pharmuti
4
January 15 - February 15
SHEMU (the time of harvest) February 15 - June 15
1............... Pakhons
February 15 - March 15...............
2
Payni
March 15 - April 15
3
Epiphi............... April 15 - May 15
4
Mesore
May 15 - June 15
Ancient History Sourcebook: A Collection of Mesopotamian Laws, c. 2250 - 550 BCE
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Ancient History Sourcebook:
A Collection of Mesopotamian Laws, c. 2250 - 550 BCE
Laws governing private as well as public and political life were written up in Mesopotamia as early as 2250 B.C. Unfortunately, most
of these early documents have been preserved in very fragmentary condition, so that only a few phases of early law and procedure are
now known to us. The following fragments date from the Akkadian through the Neo-Babylonian periods.
1.
BE it enacted forever and for all future days: If a son say to his father, "You are not my father," he [the father] can cut off his [the son's]
locks, make him a slave and sell him for money. If a son say to his mother, "You are not my mother," she can cut off his locks, turn him
out of town, or (at least) drive him away from home, deprive him of citizenship and of inheritance, but his liberty he
loses not. If a father say to his son, "You are not my son," the latter has to leave house and field and he loses everything. If a mother say
to her son, "You are not my son," he shall leave house and furniture. If a wife be unfaithful to her husband and then says, "You are not
my husband," let her be thrown into the river. If a husband say to his wife, "You are not my wife," he shall as a fine pay one half mana
of silver. If some one hires a servant and the latter dies or is rendered useless otherwise (e.g.,by flight, rebellion, or sickness) he shall
give to the owner as daily wages ten qa of grain a day.
2.
If an overseer or a fisherman ordered to the service of the king does not.come, but sends a hireling in his stead, that same overseer or
fisherman shall be put to death, and his house shall go into the possession of the hireling.
3.
If a man lets out his field to a farmer and he has received the rent for his field, and afterward a flood pours down upon that field, or
some animal destroys the harvest of the farmer; in case now the rent of this field is not yet paid, or ______. [The law here no doubt said
that, in case of damage by weather or animals, a renter of a field will have certain reduction granted. If he paid in advance, part of the
money will be refunded to him, if he pays at the end of the lease, he need not pay the full amount.]
4.
When a merchant gives to his clerk grain, wool, oil, or some other merchandise for sale, the clerk shall give a strict account and turn in
the money to the merchant: and the merchant shall give to the clerk a receipt for the money paid over to him.
5.
When a man has bought a male or female slave, and the sale is fought by a third party (the real owner) and is in consequence thereof
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Ancient History Sourcebook: A Collection of Mesopotamian Laws, c. 2250 - 550 BCE
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declared void, the seller of the slave has to pay for all damages.
6.
When in an inclosed yard a disturbance occurs, or again, when a lion kills, his keeper shall pay all damages, and the owner of the yard
shall receive the killed animals.
7.
When a peasant says to the date-vendor, "All the dates in this garden you may take for your money," that vendor shall not do so; but the
dates that grow in the garden shall be and remain the property of the owner, and with these dates he shall pay the vendor for the latter's
money and the interests accrued, as the written agreement calls for; but what remains of dates after that shall be and remain the property
of the owner.
8.
When a shepherd of small cattle, after having driven the herd from pasture, and when the whole troop has passed within the city gates,
drives his cattle to another rnan's field (within the city walls), and pastures it there, that shepherd shall take care of the field, which he
has given to his flock as pasture, and shall give to the owner of the field for every day the amount of sixty qa.
9.
If a man sell a slave girl for money, and another party proves just claims to her, and takes her away from her present owner, the seller
shall return the money to the buyer, to exactly the same amount that his receipt calls for; if in the meanwhile she has borne children, he
shall in addition pay for each child one half shekel.
10.
If a man, after having promised, either verbally or in writing, a certain dowry to his daughter, loses part of his property, he can give his
daughter a dowry in accordance with the property as it is now, and neither father-in-law nor son-in-law shall go to law on that account.
11. If a man has given his daughter a dowry, and the dlaughter dies without an issue, the dowry reverts to the house of her father.
12.
If a woman, whose dowry her husband has taken charge of, remains childless and loses her husband, her dowry shall be returned to her
in full out of the late husband's estate. If her husband during his lifetime has presented her part of his property, she shall retain this also
and still receive her own dowry in full. But if she had no dowry, the judge shall examine into the condition of her husband's estate and
then give her a proper share in accordance with her late husband's property.
Source:
From: William Muss-Arnolt, "Some Babylonian Laws," in Assyrian and Babylonian Literature: Selected Transactions, With a Critical
Introduction by Robert Francis Harper (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1904), pp. 445-447.
8/26/2008 1:40 PM
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Scanned by: J. S. Arkenberg, Dept. of History, Cal. State Fullerton. Prof. Arkenberg may have modernized the text.
This text is part of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copy-permitted texts
related to medieval and Byzantine history.
Unless otherwise indicated the specific electronic form of the document is copyright. Permission is granted for electronic copying,
distribution in print form for educational purposes and personal use. No representation is made about texts which are linked off-site,
although in most cases these are also public domain. If you do reduplicate the document, indicate the source. No permission is granted
for commercial use.
© Paul Halsall, March 1999
[email protected]
8/26/2008 1:40 PM
Ancient History Sourcebook: Aristotle: On the Constitution of Carthage, c. 340 BCE
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Ancient History Sourcebook:
Aristotle:
On the Constitution of Carthage, c. 340 BCE
The Carthaginians are also considered to have an excellent form of government, which differs from that of any other state in several
respects, though it is in some very like the Spartan. Indeed, all three states---the Spartan, the Cretan, and the Carthaginian---nearly
resemble one another, and are very different from any others. Many of the Carthaginian institutions are excellent. The superiority of
their constitution is proved by the fact that the common people remain loyal to the constitution. The Carthaginians have never had any
rebellion worth speaking of, and have never been under the rule of a tyrant. Among the points in which the Carthaginian constitution
resembles the Spartan are the following: The common tables of the clubs answer to the Spartan phiditia, and their magistracy of the
Hundred-Four to the Ephors; but, whereas the Ephors are any chance persons, the magistrates of the Carthaginians are elected
according to merit---this is an improvement. They have also their kings and their Gerousia, or council of elders, who correspond to the
kings and elders of Sparta. Their kings, unlike the Spartan, are not always of the same family, nor that an ordinary one, but if there is
some distinguished family they are selected out of it and not appointed by seniority---this is far better. Such officers have great power,
and therefore, if they are persons of little worth, do a great deal of harm, and they have already done harm at Sparta.
Most of the defects or deviations from the perfect state, for which the Carthaginian constitution would be censured, apply equally to all
the forms of government which we have mentioned. But of the deflections from aristocracy and constitutional government, some
incline more to democracy and some to oligarchy. The kings and elders, if unanimous, may determine whether they will or will not
bring a matter before the people, but when they are not unanimous, the people decide on such matters as well. And whatever the kings
and elders bring before the people is not only heard but also determined by them, and any one who likes may oppose it; now this is not
permitted in Sparta and Crete. That the magistrates of five who have under them many important matters should be co-opted, that they
should choose the supreme council of One Hundred, and should hold office longer than other magistrates (for they are virtually rulers
both before and after they hold office)---these are oligarchical features; their being without salary and not elected by lot, and any
similar points, such as the practice of having all suits tried by the magistrates, and not some by one class of judges or jurors and some
by another, as at Sparta, are characteristic of aristocracy.
The Carthaginian constitution deviates from aristocracy and inclines to oligarchy, chiefly on a point where popular opinion is on their
side. For men in general think that magistrates should be chosen not only for their merit, but for their wealth: a man, they say, who is
poor cannot rule well---he has not the leisure. If, then, election of magistrates for their wealth be characteristic of oligarchy, and
election for merit of aristocracy, there will be a third form under which the constitution of Carthage is comprehended; for the
Carthaginians choose their magistrates, and particularly the highest of them---their kings and generals---with an eye both to merit and to
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Ancient History Sourcebook: Aristotle: On the Constitution of Carthage, c. 340 BCE
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wealth. But we must acknowledge that, in thus deviating from aristocracy, the legislator has committed an error. Nothing is more
absolutely necessary than to provide that the highest class, not only when in office, but when out of office, should have leisure and not
disgrace themselves in any way; and to this his attention should be first directed. Even if you must have regard to wealth, in order to
secure leisure, yet it is surely a bad thing that the greatest offices, such as those of kings and generals, should be bought. The law which
allows this abuse makes wealth of more account than virtue, and the whole state becomes avaricious.
For, whenever the chiefs of the state deem anything honorable, the other citizens are sure to follow their example; and, where virtue has
not the first place, their aristocracy cannot be firmly established. Those who have been at the expense of purchasing their places will be
in the habit of repaying themselves; and it is absurd to suppose that a poor and honest man will be wanting to make gains, and that a
lower stamp of man who has incurred a great expense will not. Wherefore they should rule who are able to rule best. And even if the
legislator does not care to protect the good from poverty, he should at any rate secure leisure for them when in office. It would seem
also to be a bad principle that the same person should hold many offices, which is a favorite practice among the Carthaginians, for one
business is better done by one man.
The government of the Carthaginians is oligarchical, but they successfully escape the evils of oligarchy by enriching one portion of the
people after another by sending them to their colonies. This is their panacea and the means by which they give stability to the state.
Accident favors them, but the legislator should be able to provide against revolution without trusting to accidents. As things are, if any
misfortune occurred, and the bulk of the subjects revolted, there would be no way of restoring peace by legal methods.
Source:
From: The Politics of Aristotle, trans. Benjamin Jowett (Colonial Press, 1900), pp. 49-51.
Scanned by Jerome S. Arkenberg, Dept. of History, Cal. State Fullerton
This text is part of the Internet Modern History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copy-permitted texts
for introductory level classes in modern European and World history.
Unless otherwise indicated the specific electronic form of the document is copyright. Permission is granted for electronic copying,
distribution in print form for educational purposes and personal use. If you do reduplicate the document, indicate the source. No
permission is granted for commercial use of the Sourcebook.
(c)Paul Halsall May1998
[email protected]
8/26/2008 1:48 PM
Ancient History Sourcebook: Proverbs from Ki-en-gir (Sumer), c. 2000 B.C.
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Ancient History Sourcebook:
Proverbs from Ki-en-gir (Sumer), c. 2000 BCE
1. Whoever has walked with truth generates life.
2. Do not cut off the neck of that which has had its neck cut off.
3. That which is given in submission becomes a medium of defiance.
4. The destruction is from his own personal god; he knows no savior.
5. Wealth is hard to come by, but poverty is always at hand.
6. He acquires many things, he must keep close watch over them.
7. A boat bent on honest pursuits sailed downstream with the wind; Utu has sought out honest ports for it.
8. He who drinks too much beer must drink water.
9. He who eats too much will not be able to sleep.
10. Since my wife is at the outdoor shrine, and furthermore since my mother is at the river, I shall die of hunger, he says.
11.
May the goddess Inanna cause a hot-limited wife to lie down for you; May she bestow upon you broad-armed sons; May she seek out
for you a place of Happiness.
12. The fox could not build his own house, and so he came to the house of his friend as a conqueror.
13. The fox, having urinated into the sea, said AThe whole of the sea is my urine.@
14. The poor man nibbles at his silver.
15. The poor are the silent ones of the land.
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Ancient History Sourcebook: Proverbs from Ki-en-gir (Sumer), c. 2000 B.C.
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16. All the households of the poor are not equally submissive.
17. A poor man does not strike his son a single blow; he treasures him forever.
Source:
Scanned by: J. S. Arkenberg, Dept. of History, Cal. State Fullerton. Prof. Arkenberg has modernized the text.
This text is part of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copy-permitted
texts related to medieval and Byzantine history.
Unless otherwise indicated the specific electronic form of the document is copyright. Permission is granted for electronic copying,
distribution in print form for educational purposes and personal use. No representation is made about texts which are linked off-site,
although in most cases these are also public domain. If you do reduplicate the document, indicate the source. No permission is granted
for commercial use.
© Paul Halsall, August 1998
[email protected]
8/26/2008 1:30 PM
Ancient History Sourcebook: The Advice of an Akkadian Father to His Son, c. 2200 BCE
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Ancient History Sourcebook:
The Advice of an Akkadian Father to His Son, c. 2200 BCE
Do not set out to stand around in the assembly. Do not loiter where there is a dispute, for in the dispute they will have you as an
observer. Then you will be made a witness for them, and they will involve you in a lawsuit to affirm something that does not concern
you. In case of a dispute, get away from it, disregard it! If a dispute involving you should flare up, calm it down. A dispute is a
covered pit, a wall which can cover over its foes; it brings to mind what one has forgotten and makes an accusation against a man. Do
not return evil to your adversary; requite with kindness the one who does evil to you, maintain justice for your enemy, be friendly to
your enemy.
Give food to eat, beer to drink, grant what is requested, provide for and treat with honor. At this one's god takes pleasure. It is pleasing
to Shamash, who will repay him with favor. Do good things, be kind all your days.
Do not honor a slave girl in your house; she should not rule your bedroom like a wife, do not give yourself over to slave girls....Let
this be said among your people: "The household which a slave girl rules, she disrupts." Do not marry a prostitute, whose husbands are
legion, an Ishtar-woman who is dedicated to a god, a kulmashitu-woman. . . .When you have trouble, she will not support you, when
you have a dispute she will be a mocker. There is no reverence or submissiveness in her. Even if she is powerful in the household, get
rid of her, for she pricks up her ears for the footsteps of another.
My son, if it be the wish of a ruler that you belong to him, if you are entrusted with his closely guarded seal, open his treasure house
and enter it, for no one but you may do it. Uncounted wealth you will find inside, but do not covet any of that, nor set your mind on a
secret crime, for afterwards the matter will be investigated and the secret crime which you committed will be exposed.
Do not speak ill, speak only good. Do not say evil things, speak well of people. He who speaks ill and says evil---people will waylay
him because of his debt to Shamash. Do not talk too freely, watch what you say. Do not express your innermost thoughts even when
you are alone. What you say in haste you may regret later. Exert yourself to restrain your speech.
Worship your god every day. Sacrifice and pious utterance are the proper accompaniment of incense. Have a freewill offering for your
god, for this is proper toward a god. Prayer, supplication, and prostration offer him daily, then your prayer will be granted, and you
will be in harmony with god.
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Ancient History Sourcebook: The Advice of an Akkadian Father to His Son, c. 2200 BCE
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Source:
Scanned by: J. S. Arkenberg, Dept. of History, Cal. State Fullerton. Prof. Arkenberg has modernized the text.
This text is part of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copy-permitted
texts related to medieval and Byzantine history.
Unless otherwise indicated the specific electronic form of the document is copyright. Permission is granted for electronic copying,
distribution in print form for educational purposes and personal use. No representation is made about texts which are linked off-site,
although in most cases these are also public domain. If you do reduplicate the document, indicate the source. No permission is granted
for commercial use.
© Paul Halsall, July 1998
[email protected]
8/26/2008 1:39 PM
Assyrian Army
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The Assyrian Army Attacks a City
This picture illustrates some of the techniques the Assyrians
Chronologies
used to capture a city. On the left hand side some men scale
the wall with a ladder. On the right hand side a wheeled
battering ram is used to destroy the city walls. The three figures World: Barbarian Invasions
at the top next to the city have been impaled on spikes. The tall and Imperial Responses
figure on the far right with the long clothes is Tiglath Pileser III,
Middle East: Revival of
who is refered to in the Bible by his Babylonian name, Pul.(1)
Mesopotamian Empires
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Assyrian Army
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(1) From: Arther Ferrill, The Origins of War: From the Stone Age to Alexander the Great
(London: Thames & Hudson, 1985) p. 76.
Introduction and e-text copyright 2005 by David W. Koeller [email protected]. All
rights reserved.
8/26/2008 1:43 PM
Babylonian Calendar - Ancient Hebrew Calendar
http://www.bible-history.com/jewishyear/jewishyear_babylonian_calendar.html
Babylonian Calendar
Nisanu (the first month)
Aiaru (Procession month)
Simanu (Time of brickmaking)
Duzu (Month of Tammuz)
Abu (Moth of torches)
Ululu (Month of purification)
Tashritu (Month of beginnings)
Arahsamnu (Eighth month)
Kislimu
Tebetu (Month of violent rains)
Shabatu (Month of rain)
Addaru (Month of threshing)
Note: In post exilic books Babylonian names are employed for Jewish months.
The Babylonians
In ancient Babylon the study of science was very advanced, especially during Nebuchadnezzar’s time. Many priests became
astronomers, scientists who observed and recorded the movements of the stars and planets. For centuries, the Babylonians had
excelled in astronomy and mathematics. Early astronomers developed calendars based on the phases of the moon. At first their
calendars were not synchronized with the movements of the sun. Later, by adding seven months every nineteen years, the
astronomers created a more accurate calendar.
Another incredible scientific achievement was the division of the hour into 60 minutes. Our current use of an hour that is 60 minutes
long originates with the Babylonians.
The Egyptians
As with the Babylonians, the Egyptians also invented a lunar calendar, but it was based on both the moon and a star. The Egyptians
had observed the annual appearance of Sirius, the brightest star. They noticed that it was invisible for several months, but then it
appeared each year just at the time of the flooding. Their calendar was more accurate than the Babylonian one, corresponding
almost exactly with the seasons.
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Babylonian Calendar - Ancient Hebrew Calendar
http://www.bible-history.com/jewishyear/jewishyear_babylonian_calendar.html
Macedonian Calendar
Dios
Apellaios
Audynaios
Peritios
Dystros
Xanthikos
Artemisios
Daisios
Panemos
Loos
Gorpiaios
Hyperberetaios
The Jewish Calendar in Ancient Hebrew History
Bible History Online
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Calender System
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http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/dailylife/calendar.html
The Egyptian Calendar System
Menu
The calendar system of ancient Egypt is unique to both the cosmology of the Egyptians and their religion. Unlike the modern Julian calendar system, with it's
365 days to a year, the Egyptians followed a calendar system of 360 days, with three seasons, each made up of 4 months, with thirty days in each month. The
seasons of the Egyptians corresponded with the cycles of the Nile, and were known as Inundation (pronounced akhet which lasted from June 21st to October
21st), Emergence (pronounced proyet which lasted from October 21st to February 21st), and Summer (pronounced shomu which lasted from February 21st
to June 21st).
The beginning of the year, also called "the opening of the year", was marked by the emergence of the star Sirius, in the constellation of Canis Major. The
constellation emerged roughly on June 21st., and was called "the going up of the goddess Sothis". The star was visible just before sunrise, and is still one of
the brightest stars in the sky, located to the lower left of Orion and taking the form of the dogs nose in the constellation Canis Major.
Though the Egyptians did have a 360 day calendar, in a literal sense they did have a 365 day calendar system. The beginning of the year was marked by the
addition of five additional days, known as "the yearly five days". These additional five days, were times of great feasting and celebration for the Egyptians,
and it was not uncommon for the Egyptians to rituals, and other celebratory dealings on these days. The Egyptian calendar also took on other important
functions within Egyptian life specifically in dealing with the astrology of the people.
Archaeology of Egypt
History
Hieroglyphs
Religion
Daily Life
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8/26/2008 1:53 PM
Map of Nippur
http://www.thenagain.info/Classes/Sources/Nippur.html
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Map of Nippur
This drawing is based on a map of the ancient city of Nippur
Chronologies
made about 1500 BC. Nippur was a Babylonian city located
south of the capital city of Babylon on the Euphrates River.
Middle East: Early
Compare this to a modern map of archeological excavations at
Mesopotamian
Civilizations
Nippur.
1 of 3
8/26/2008 1:41 PM
Map of Nippur
http://www.thenagain.info/Classes/Sources/Nippur.html
Based on: H. W. F. Saggs, Civilization Before Greece and Rome (New Haven: Yale
Univ. 1989) p. 119.
Image and text copyright 1998 by David W. Koeller. All rights reserved.
2 of 3
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Map of Nippur
http://www.thenagain.info/Classes/Sources/Nippur.html
Introduction and e-text copyright 2005 by David W. Koeller [email protected]. All rights
reserved.
3 of 3
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Map of Sumerian Neolithic and Chalcolithic Archaeological Sites
Marriage and Divorce Documents: Mesopotamian
1 of 1
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Topics/Contracts/marri02.html
Marriage and Divorce Documents from the Ancient Near East
Mesopotamian
(Translator: J.J. Finkelstein)
Marriage Contract[a]
Old Assyrian, 19th century B.C. Text: B. Hrozný, Inscriptions Cunéiformes du Kultépé (Praha, 1952). Transliteration and translation, Hrozný, in Symbolae Koschaker (Studia
et Documenta II, 1939), 108ff. For bibliography of discussions cf. H. Hirsch, Orientalia, xxxv (1966), 259f
Laqipum has married Hatala, daughter of Enishru. In the country (i.e., Central Anatolia) Laqipum (5) may not marry another (woman)—(but) in
the City (i.e., Ashur) he may marry a hierodule.[1]
If within two years she (i.e., Hatala) does not provide him with offspring, (10) she herself will purchase a slavewoman, and later on, after she[2] will
have produced a child by him, (15) he may then dispose of her by sale wheresoever he pleases. [3] Should Laqipum choose to divorce her (text: "him"),
he must pay (her) five minas of silver- (20) and should Hatala choose to divorce him, she must pay (him) five minas of silver. Witnesses: Masa,
Ashurishtikal, (25) Talia, Shupianika.
[1] Akk. qadi$tum, who, according to Middle Assyrian Laws § 40, may be married to a free citizen, but her status would probably have been inferior to
that of a "first" wife under the circumstances envisaged in this contract.
[2]
The translation assumes that the subject is the slavewoman, but it is equally possible that Hatala is the subject, if the verb is rendered "provided" rather
than "produced," but the sense is not materially affected either way.
[3]
The rendering is based on the fact that the pronoun and the verb are masculine, but considering that the masculine is also used throughout in the
following two clauses, even when Hatala is clearly the object of the first and the second, it might be presumed that she is the subject here also, which
would configure better with the fact that it is she who was to provide the slavewoman to begin with, and presumably would also retain the right to sell
her.
[a] ANET p. {543}.
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Last modified 10/2/95
prepared by Alan Humm
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8/26/2008 1:55 PM
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Proverbs in Sumerian Cuneiform
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http://www.sumerian.org/proverbs.htm
Proverbs in Sumerian Cuneiform - Click on a sign to see its reading. Then click on Back.
ùkur-re a-na-àm mu-un-tur-re
é-na4-kín-na gú-im-šu-rin-na-kam
túg-bir7-a-ni nu-kal-la-ge-[da]m
níg-ú-gu-dé-a-ni nu-kin-kin-d[a]m
How lowly is the poor man!
A mill (for him) (is) the edge of the oven;
His ripped garment will not be mended;
What he has lost will not be sought for!
poor man how-is lowly
mill edge-oven-of
garment-ripped-his not-excellent-will be
what-lost-his not-search for-will be
ùkur-re ur5-ra-àm al-t[u]r-[r]e
ka-ta-kar-ra ur5-ra ab-su-su
The poor man --- by (his) debts is he brought low!
What is snatched out of his mouth must repay (his) debts.
poor man debts-is thematic particle-made small
mouth-from-snatch debts thematic particle-repay
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Sumer Prayer
http://www.thenagain.info/Classes/Sources/SumerPrayer.html
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Penitential Prayer to Every God
This prayer was found on a tablet which dates from the
mid-seventh century BC. The original prayer is from Sumer and
probably dates from somewhat earlier.
Chronologies
World: Primary Urban
Society
Middle East: Early
Mesopotamian Civilizations
Western Civilization: Early
Mythopoeic Thought
May the wrath of the heart of my god be pacified!
May the god who is unknown to me be pacified!
May the goddess who is unknown to me be pacified!
May the known and unknown god be pacified!
May the known and unknown goddess be pacified!
The sin which I have committed I know not.
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Sumer Prayer
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The misdeed which I have committed I know not.
A gracious name may my god announce!
A gracious name may my goddess announce!
A gracious name may my known and unknown god announce!
A gracious name may my known and unknown goddess announce!
Pure food have I not eaten,
Clear water have I not drunk.
An offense against my god I have unwittingly committed.
A transgression against my goddess I have unwittingly done.
0 Lord, my sins are many, great are my iniquities!
My god, my sins are many, great are my iniquities! . . .
The sin, which I have committed, I know not.
The iniquity, which I have done, I know not.
The offense, which I have committed, I know not.
The transgression I have done, I know not.
The lord, in the anger of his heart, hath looked upon me.
The god, in the wrath of his heart, hath visited me.
The goddess hath become angry with me, and hath grievously stricken me.
The known or unknown god hath straitened me.
The known or unknown goddess hath brought affliction upon me.
I sought for help, but no one taketh my hand.
I wept, but no one came to my side.
I lamented, but no one hearkens to me.
I am afflicted, I am overcome, I cannot look up.
Unto my merciful god I turn, I make supplication.
I kiss the feet of my goddess and [crawl before her] . . .
How tong, my god . . .
How long, my goddess, until thy face be turned toward me?
How long, known and unknown god, until the anger of thy heart be pacified?
How long, known and unknown goddess, until thy unfriendly heart be pacified?
Mankind is perverted and has no judgment.
Of all men who are alive, who knows anything?
They do not know whether they do good or evil.
0 lord, do not cast aside thy servant!
He is cast into the mire; take his hand.
The sin which I have sinned, turn to mercy!
The iniquity which I have committed, let the wind carry away.
My many transgressions tear off like a garment!
My god, my sins are seven times seven; forgive my sins!
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My goddess, my sins are seven times seven; forgive my sins!
Known and unknown god, my sins are seven times seven; forgive my sins.
From: "Penitential Psalms," Robert F. Harper, trans., in Assyrian and
Babylonian Literature, R. F. Harper, ed. (New York, 1901). Reprinted in:
Eugen Weber, ed., The Western Tradition, Vol I: From the Ancient World to
Louis XIV. Fifth Ed., (Lexington, MA; D.C. Heath,1995) pp. 38 and 39.
Introduction and e-text copyright 2005 by David W. Koeller [email protected]. All
rights reserved.
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The Code of Hammurabi
http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_1/hammurabi.html
The Code of Hammurabi [18th Century BCE]
Of the several law codes surviving from the ancient Middle East, the most famous after the Hebrew Torah is the Code of Hammurabi, sixth king of the
Amorite Dynasty of Old Babylon. It is best known from a beautifully engraved diorite stela now in the Louvre Museum which also depicts the king
receiving the law from Shamash, the god of justice. This copy was made long after Hammurabi's time, and it is clear that his was a long-lasting
contribution to Mesopotamian civil ization. It encodes many laws which had probably evolved over a long period of time, but is interesting to the
general reader because of what it tells us about the attitudes and daily lives of the ancient Babylonians. In the following selection, most of the long
prologue praising Hammurabi's power and wisdom is omitted.
What do these laws tell us about attitudes toward slavery? What indication is there that some Babylonian women engaged in business? Clearly men
had more rights than women in this society; but what laws can you identify that seem aimed at protecting certain rights of women? Which laws deviate
from the egalitarian standard of "an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth?" What qualities does this text say a ruler should have to enable him to write
new laws?
. . . Anu and Bel called by name me, Hammurabi, the exalted prince, who feared God, to bring about the rule of righteousness in the land, to destroy the
wicked and the evil-doers; so that the strong should not harm the weak; so that I should rule over the black-headed people like Shamash, and enlighten
the land, to further the well-being of mankind. . . .
15: If any one take a male or female slave of the court, or a male or female slave of a freed man, outside the city gates [to escape], he shall be put to
death.
16: If any one receive into his house a runaway male or female slave of the court, or of a freedman, and does not bring it out at the public proclamation
of the [police], the master of the house shall be put to death.
53: If any one be too lazy to keep his dam in proper condition, and does not so keep it; if then the dam break and all the fields be flooded, then shall he
in whose dam the break occurred be sold for money, and the money shall replace the [grain] which he has caused to be ruined.
54: If he be not able to replace the [grain], then he and his possessions shall be divided among the farmers whose corn he has flooded.
108: If a [woman wine-seller] does not accept [grain] according to gross weight in payment of drink, but takes money, and the price of the drink is less
than that of the corn, she shall be convicted and thrown into the water. (1)
109: If conspirators meet in the house of a [woman wine-seller], and these conspirators are not captured and delivered to the court, the [wine-seller]
shall be put to death.
110: If a "sister of a god"[nun] open a tavern, or enter a tavern to drink, then shall this woman be burned to death.
129: If a man's wife be surprised [having intercourse] with another man, both shall be tied and thrown into the water, but the husband may pardon his
wife and the king his slaves.
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The Code of Hammurabi
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130: If a man violate the wife (betrothed or child-wife) of another man, who has never known a man, and still lives in her father's house, and sleep with
her and be surprised [caught], this man shall be put to death, but the wife is blameless.
131: If a man bring a charge against [his] wife, but she is not surprised with another man, she must take an oath and then may return to her house.
132: If the "finger is pointed" at a man's wife about another man, but she is not caught sleeping with the other man, she shall jump into the river for [the
sake of her] husband. (2)
138: If a man wishes to separate from his wife who has borne him no children, he shall give her the amount of her purchase money and the dowry which
she brought from her father's house, and let her go.
141: If a man's wife, who lives in his house, wishes to leave it, plunges into debt [to go into business], tries to ruin her house, neglects her husband, and
is judicially convicted: if her husband offer her release, she may go on her way, and he gives her nothing as a gift of release. If her husband does not
wish to release her, and if he take another wife, she shall remain as servant in her husband's house.
142: If a woman quarrel with her husband, and say: "You are not congenial to me," the reasons for her prejudice must be presented. If she is guiltless,
and there is no fault on her part, but he leaves and neglects her, then no guilt attaches to this woman, she shall take her dowry and go back to her father's
house. (3)
143: If she is not innocent, but leaves her husband, and ruins her house, neglecting her husband, this woman shall be cast into the water.
195: If a son strike his father, his hands shall be [cut] off. (4)
196: If a [noble-]man put out the eye of another [noble-]man, his eye shall be put out. (5)
197: If he break another [noble-]man's bone, his bone shall be broken.
198: If he put out the eye of a [commoner], or break the bone of a [commoner], he shall pay one [silver] mina.
199: If he put out the eye of a man's slave, or break the bone of a man's slave, he shall pay one-half of its value.
200: If a man knock out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out.
201: If he knock out the teeth of a [commoner], he shall pay one-third of a [silver] mina.
In future time, through all coming generations, let the king, who may be in the land, observe the words of righteousness which I have written on my
monument; let him not alter the law of the land which I have given, the edicts which I have enacted; my monument let him not mar. If such a ruler have
wisdom, and be able to keep his land in order, he shall observe the words which I have written in this inscription; the rule, statute, and law of the land
which I have given; the decisions which I have made will this inscription show him; let him rule his subjects accordingly, speak justice to them, give
right decisions, root out the miscreants and criminals from this land, and grant prosperity to his subjects.
Hammurabi, the king of righteousness, on whom Shamash has conferred right (or law) am I. My words are well considered; my deeds are not equaled;
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The Code of Hammurabi
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to bring low those that were high; to humble the proud, to expel insolence.
Translated by L. W. King (1915), edited by Paul Brians.
(1)
This refers to a practice known as trial by ordeal which has been commonplace in many cultures, including Medieval Europe. It was believed that the
Euphrates River would act as judge of people accused of various crimes. If, when thrown into the river, the accused floated, she was considered
innocent; but if she sank, the river had found her guilty. For an interesting instance of a different trial by ordeal in ancient Hebrew law, see Numbers
5:11 31.
(2) I. e. to prove her innocence.
(3) The right of women to initiate divorce proceedings is extremely rare in ancient civilizations.
(4) Cf. Hebrew law, which prescribes the death penalty for such an act (Exodus 21:15) and extends its scope to mothers.
(5)
Note how punishments are administered according to the social status of the attacker and the victim. "Equality before the law" is a rare concept in
ancient times.
Back to table of contents
This is an excerpt from Reading About the World, Volume 1, edited by Paul Brians, Mary Gallwey, Douglas Hughes, Azfar Hussain,
Richard Law, Michael Myers Michael Neville, Roger Schlesinger, Alice Spitzer, and Susan Swan and published by Harcourt Brace
Custom Publishing.
The reader was created for use in the World Civilization course at Washington State University, but material on this page may be
used for educational purposes by permission of the editor-in-chief:
Paul Brians
Department of English
Washington State University
Pullman 99164-5020
This is just a sample of Reading About the World, Volume 1. Reading About the World
is now out of print. You can search for used copies using the following information:Paul Brians, et al. Reading About the World, Vol. 1, 3rd edition,
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The Code of Hammurabi
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Harcourt Brace College Publishing: ISBN 0-15-567425-0 or Paul Brians, et al. Reading About the World, Vol. 2, 3rd edition, Harcourt Brace College
Publishing: ISBN 0-15-512826-4.
Try Chambal:
http://www.chambal.com/csin/9780155674257/ (vol. 1)
http://www.chambal.com/csin/9780155128262/ (vol. 2)
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