Atmospheric Environment xxx (2013) 1e9
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Atmospheric Environment
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosenv
Anthropogenic sources of aerosol particles in a football stadium:
Real-time characterization of emissions from cigarette smoking,
cooking, hand flares, and color smoke bombs by high-resolution
aerosol mass spectrometry
Peter Faber a, *, Frank Drewnick a, **, Patrick R. Veres a, Jonathan Williams a,
Stephan Borrmann a, b
a
b
Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, D-55128 Mainz, Germany
Johannes Gutenberg University, Institute for Atmospheric Physics, J.-J.-Becherweg 21, D-55128 Mainz, Germany
h i g h l i g h t s
A combined laboratory and field study is conducted using modern online techniques.
The organic aerosol (OA) shows a temporal structure related to the football match.
Cigarette smoke and cooking emissions are the predominant components of OA.
Pyrotechnical devices are distinct sources of inorganic aerosol particles.
In general, the open-topped stadium exhibits a good venting capacity.
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 5 December 2012
Received in revised form
21 May 2013
Accepted 27 May 2013
Aerosol particles from several anthropogenic sources associated with football stadia including cooking,
cigarette smoking, burning of color smoke bombs and hand flares were analyzed by high-resolution
aerosol mass spectrometry. The physical and chemical characteristics of these different aerosols, in
particular the organic fraction, were explored in laboratory studies to obtain robust references. These
data were compared with field campaign results from a Bundesliga (German football league) match in the
Coface Arena (Mainz, Germany) on 20th April 2012. The field measurement revealed a strongly elevated
mass concentration of organic aerosols (OA) compared to background levels showing a temporal
structure clearly related to the match. PMF analysis established that during the football match event
cigarette smoke was the predominant component of submicron organic aerosol (67% of total OA).
Cooking emissions from food outlets within the stadium correlated well with the sales figures of the
catering stations and were also found to be of relevance (24% of total OA) especially in the period before
kickoff. Pyrotechnics were not observed during this football match and no signatures of these sources
were found in the mass spectra from the stadium measurements. All species that were elevated during
the football match returned to their initial background levels within one hour after the match had
finished. This demonstrates a good ventilation capacity of the open-topped Coface Arena.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
HR-ToF-AMS
Aerosol particles
Positive Matrix Factorization
Football stadium
Soccer
1. Introduction
The chemical and physical characteristics of aerosol particles
from primary emission sources determine their impact on local air
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 6131 305 5212; fax: þ49 6131 305 5002.
** Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 6131 305 5200; fax: þ49 6131 305 5002.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P. Faber), [email protected]
(F. Drewnick).
quality as well as on public health (Pöschl, 2005). While intensive
research has resulted in reasonable information on the aerosol from
most abundant sources (e.g. vehicular traffic), knowledge of the
characteristics of particles from uncommon anthropogenic aerosol
sources is still scarce in the scientific literature (Zhang et al., 2011).
Football stadia are special environments within urban areas and
represent on matchdays complex mixtures of several anthropogenic aerosol particle sources. The significance of a pollution source
is generally dependent on its emissions both on spatial and
1352-2310/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.072
Please cite this article in press as: Faber, P., et al., Anthropogenic sources of aerosol particles in a football stadium: Real-time characterization of
emissions from cigarette smoking, cooking, hand flares, and color smoke bombs by high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, Atmospheric
Environment (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.072
2
P. Faber et al. / Atmospheric Environment xxx (2013) 1e9
temporal scales. Since football stadia are only episodically used for
events, their importance as emitter is mostly limited to the local
scale for short time periods. Nevertheless, emissions are of particular interest due to the high and continuously rising number of
spectators that are exposed to these sources. Cooking activities as
those by the catering outlets within the stadium and cigarette
smoking e.g. by the spectators have been reported previously to
contribute substantially to the organic fine particulate matter not
only in indoor environments (Allan et al., 2010; Jones, 1999), but
also in the outdoor urban atmosphere (Mohr et al., 2012; Rogge
et al., 1994). They were therefore expected to contribute significantly to the particulate loading in football stadia. In addition, pyrotechnical devices are also potential sources of aerosol particles in
a stadium. Although any kind of pyrotechnical devices is strictly
forbidden in German stadia, Bengal fires, color smoke bombs, and
even fireworks are frequently deployed as a part of the devotee
choreography (Avgerinou and Giakoumatos, 2011). Investigations
of the predominant sources and the evolution of aerosol particles in
a football stadium with a special focus on the organic fraction of
particulate matter are therefore of interest.
State-of-the-art instruments for real-time measurements of
aerosol and trace-gas characteristics including a high-resolution
time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer (HR-ToF-AMS) were
operated in a field study within a German stadium during an official
Bundesliga football match. The organic particulate matter was
apportioned to the different sources by Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) to characterize the strength and the dynamic behavior of
the respective particle sources. Co-located measurements of
ambient gas-phase mixing ratios of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) using proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-ToF-MS) were also accomplished. A laboratory study
was additionally conducted to examine the chemical composition
of non-refractory submicron particulate matter and the mass
spectral characteristics of the organic fraction emitted by different
potential aerosol sources within the stadium including cooking
activities, cigarette smoking, hand flares, and multi-colored smoke
bombs. The laboratory measurements provided robust reference
mass spectra enabling reliable identification of these components
during the stadium campaign. Although some types of cooking
organic aerosol (COA) have been recently addressed in HR-ToF-AMS
analyses (e.g. Mohr et al., 2012), additional measurements considering the specific cooking conditions by the catering service in the
stadium were conducted. The remaining sources have been
addressed in the scientific literature for chemical and toxicological
purposes (Jones, 1999; Rogge et al., 1994; Hemmilä et al., 2007;
Chin and Borer, 1983), but have not been characterized in detail
by modern online techniques.
To our knowledge, this is the first systematic report concerning
aerosol particles emitted by various sources in a football stadium.
2. Experimental
2.1. Laboratory studies
2.1.1. Instrumentation and reference material
The laboratory study was accomplished by using the mobile
aerosol research laboratory (MoLa) which is equipped with
numerous state-of-the-art instruments for real-time measurements of aerosol, trace gas, and meteorological characteristics. The
full set of instruments operated in MoLa is described by Drewnick
et al. (2012). A thermal desorption HR-ToF-AMS (Aerodyne Res.,
Inc., USA; DeCarlo et al., 2006) operated in V-mode (resolution
m/Dm: 1430 (m/z 14)e2260 (m/z 184)) provided information on the
bulk as well as the size-resolved chemical composition of the
non-refractory PM1.
To investigate different types of COA, 1000 ml of a vegetable
deep-frying oil was heated for 10 min in a metal container to a
temperature of about 170 C. Afterward, chipped potatoes were
fried for 10 min. Additionally, a typical Thuringian bratwurst was
grilled on propane gas. All cooking products used in this experiment were common supermarket brands. The cooking processes
were similar to the ones followed by the caterer except for the
duration of frying potatoes (10 instead of 4 min). Cigarettes (Pall
Mall Red, British American Tobacco, GB) were smoked by two
different people to investigate the influence of different smoking
characteristics (e.g. puffing-rates) on the chemical composition of
environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). Furthermore, some common
pyrotechnical devices were tested. Besides smoke bombs (AX-18,
18 g, Björnax AB, Sweden) in different colors (yellow, blue, red,
orange, green), a hand flare with red light (Model HGY60-15000,
85.5 g, Ningbo Zhenhua Life-saving Equipment Co., Ltd, China) for
application as an emergency signal and often used in stadia because
of its high luminosity was also examined in the emission characterization experiments. All tests were accomplished in ambient air
at a rural site with low and constant background levels. The
emissions were continuously sampled by the upper front inlet of
MoLa at a distance of two meters (cooking, cigarette smoking) and
five meters (smoke bombs and hand flare) from the source,
respectively. All results were corrected for the ambient background.
2.2. Field study
2.2.1. Sampling site and instrumentation
The field campaign took place on April 19e23, 2012, in the
Coface Arena which is located on the western outskirts of the city of
Mainz, Germany (49 590 300 N, 8 130 2700 E). The Coface Arena is a
modern open-topped football stadium with a volume of about
200 000 m3 and a capacity of 34 000 spectators that is home to the
Bundesliga football team 1. FSV Mainz 05 e.V. The stadium houses 17
catering service stations and an additional VIP-catering area that
are fully equipped with propane grills and deep fryers. Cigarette
smoking is allowed in the Coface Arena with the exception of a nonsmoking family block (1667 seats), whereas pyrotechnics are
generally prohibited. A picture of the stadium with the location of
the instrumentation is provided by Veres et al. (2013).
Due to site limitations, only a selected set of instruments from
MoLa were deployed on the terrace in the north-east corner of the
Coface Arena. The instrumentation comprised the HR-ToF-AMS, a
Condensation Particle Counter (CPC, Model 3786, TSI, Inc., USA), a
Multi Angle Absorption Photometer (Carusso 5012, Thermo Electron Corp., USA), and the Airpointer gas measurement system
(Recordum Messtechnik GmbH, Austria). Two weather stations
(Vantage Pro2, Davis, USA) were used to monitor meteorological
parameters inside and outside the stadium. Co-located trace gas
measurements using a PTR-ToF-MS for VOCs and a Li-COR CO2
analyzer are described by Veres et al. (2013). All aerosol instruments sampled from a common inlet using a PM1 cyclone
(URG-2000-30EHB, URG Corp., USA) through a 3.7 m stainless steel
inlet line (1/2 inch) located approximately 12 m above ground level
between two blocks of the stadium.
On April 20 (20:30e22:15, local time), the Bundesliga football
match between FSV Mainz 05 and VFL Wolfsburg was held. The
official number of spectators was announced as 31 069 people.
With exception of a short time period around the match, there were
no significant activities inside the stadium, enabling sufficient
background measurements to be conducted before and after the
match. The meteorological conditions were relatively stable all the
time with a predominant south-westerly wind (225 ). Temperature
and relative humidity inside and outside the stadium were very
similar, neglecting any special kind of micro-climate in the stadium.
Please cite this article in press as: Faber, P., et al., Anthropogenic sources of aerosol particles in a football stadium: Real-time characterization of
emissions from cigarette smoking, cooking, hand flares, and color smoke bombs by high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, Atmospheric
Environment (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.072
P. Faber et al. / Atmospheric Environment xxx (2013) 1e9
Background aerosol particles were only partly influenced by the
urban area of Mainz as the city was located downwind.
2.3. Method/data analysis
The principles of AMS data analysis have been described in
detail by Canagaratna et al. (2007). Mass concentrations and particle size distributions of different AMS species as well as the
elemental composition of organic ion fragments (Aiken et al., 2007)
were determined by the standard ToF-AMS analysis toolkits
Squirrel v1.51H, PIKA v1.10H and APES light v1.05 (http://cires.
colorado.edu/jimenez-group/ToFAMSResources/ToFSoftware/)
within Igor Pro 6.22A (Wavemetrics, USA). The ionization efficiency
(IE) of the ion source was determined prior to the experiments. A
constant collection efficiency (CE) of 0.5 (Drewnick et al., 2004) was
applied to the entire dataset since it has been found to be widely
representative for ambient particles in many AMS studies (e.g.
Freutel et al., 2013). The relative ionization efficiencies (RIE) for the
AMS species were used as previously reported (Drewnick et al.,
2005). The RIE for ammonium was determined to be 3.8 based on
the analysis of dry ammonium nitrate particles, whereas the RIE for
potassium was set to 2.9 according to the findings of Drewnick et al.
(2006). Measurements of particulate-free air (using Disposable
filter unit BQ, Balston, USA) were conducted prior to the football
match to correct for instrumental background effects. Results of the
elemental analysis of OA from V-mode operation are generally in
good agreement with those from higher resolution W-mode
spectra except for the N:C ratio (Sun et al., 2011). For this reason the
N:C ratios reported within this study reflect only approximate
values due to large uncertainties.
PMF analysis which has been widely used to characterize the
sources and evolution of OA (Zhang et al., 2011) has been applied to
the AMS spectra from the football stadium using the PMF Evaluation Toolkit (PET) v2.05 (Ulbrich et al., 2009). To investigate the
stability of the PMF results in terms of different input matrices from
the same dataset, PMF was performed firstly to the unit mass resolution (UMR) data (m/z 12e300), secondly to the high-resolution
(HR) AMS data (m/z 12e120), and finally to combined HR (m/z
12e120) and UMR (m/z 121e300) organic spectra. The UMR
matrices were generated according to the guideline by Ulbrich et al.
(2009). The HR data and error matrices were prepared as described
by DeCarlo et al. (2010). Constrained isotopes were not included in
the PMF analysis. PMF solutions were generated by varying the
number of factors (1e7) as well as the rotational force parameter
(fPeak: 1 to 1; D ¼ 0.1). Additionally, PMF algorithms were started
from different random starting points (seeds, 0e50) to give an
indication for local minima in the dataset. Any averaged value is
provided with its 1s uncertainty. All data are reported in local time
(UTC þ 2).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Laboratory studies
3.1.1. Cooking activities
HR mass spectra and elemental ratios of COA from deep-frying
and grilling are provided in Fig. 1. According to previously reported COA (e.g. Allan et al., 2010; Mohr et al., 2012), m/z 41 (mostly
þ
þ
C3Hþ
5 ) and m/z 55 (C4H7 and C3H3O ) were the most abundant
peaks in the AMS mass spectra of both deep-frying and grilling
aerosol. The extracted mass spectra exhibited a significant contriþ
bution of the UMR ion series CnHþ
2nþ1 and CmH2mþ1CO (m/z 29, 43,
57, 71, .) that are particularly prevalent for branched and n-alþ
kanes as well as organic acids. The ion series CnH2n1
(m/z 41, 55,
69, 83, .) and CnHþ
2n3 (m/z 53, 67, 81, 95, .) that can be associated
3
with alkenes from unsaturated fatty acids and cycloalkanes were
also observed (Mohr et al., 2009). The UMR mass spectra of both
COA sources correlated very well with that from Chinese cooking
(Pearson’s R ¼ 0.97 and 0.98 for grilling and deep-frying, respectively) which is dominated by frying (He et al., 2010). Despite minor
deviations such as a higher abundance of the signals at m/z 39 and
57 for grilling, and more intensive signals at m/z 60 and 73 which
are known to appear from fatty acids (Mohr et al., 2009) for deepfrying, the mass spectra of grilling and deep-frying in this study
were alike (R ¼ 0.98). The elemental ratios of our COA fit well to the
results of freshly emitted cooking aerosols from Mohr et al. (2009)
and He et al. (2010). Ratios of N:C were generally very small indicating the minor content of N-containing compounds. Within the
deep-frying process, only heating the oil produced a less oxidized
aerosol (O:C ¼ 0.10) compared to frying the potatoes (O:C ¼ 0.12).
The particle number size distribution for the different cooking activities (Fig. 2) showed a tri-modal distribution with prominent
modes at 10 nm by nucleation of new particles, at around 30 nm
and at 100 nm particle mobility diameter (dmob). Grilling produced
particles that were dominated by PM1 mass (64 19% (1s)). While
heating the oil as well as cooling down of fried potatoes showed
high contribution of PM1 to total PM (87 19% and 84 19%, resp.),
the process of frying primarily produced aerosol particles in the
PM10 fraction (fraction of PM1 ¼ 31 12%) which is probably due to
bubble-bursting of oil in the presence of the water-containing potatoes. In general, PM emissions were highest for the final draining
of completely fried potatoes.
3.1.2. Cigarette smoking
Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) consists of a complex
mixture of mostly organic gas and particulate matter (Nazaroff and
Klepeis, 2003; Tang et al., 2012). The size distribution as well as the
chemical composition of freshly emitted smoke is dependent on
several factors such as the type of cigarettes used, smoking characteristics, and ambient conditions (Jones, 1999). We therefore
focused on the organic fraction of aerosol particles emitted by
cigarette smoking from two different smokers. HR organic mass
spectra and the elemental composition of ETS are presented in
Fig. 1. Altogether, the mass spectra of cigarette smoke for both
smokers correlated very well (R ¼ 0.99) despite minor variations in
the spectral pattern due to different smoking characteristics of the
smokers or slightly changed atmospheric conditions. The most
þ
prominent spectral fragments were m/z 39 (C3Hþ
3 ), m/z 41 (C3H5 ),
þ
and m/z 43 (C3Hþ
7 and C2H3O ) and the mass spectra were domiþ
nated by the UMR ion series CnHþ
2n1 as well as CnH2nþ1 and
CmH2mþ1COþ which indicate typical fragmentation patterns of
branched and n-alkanes, cycloalkanes, and alcohols. In addition,
clear signals of aromatic compounds C6H5CnHþ
2n (m/z 77, 91, 105,
119, .) were obvious. These results are in good agreement with the
chemical classes of ETS reported by Rogge et al. (1994). Previously
published AMS mass spectra and elemental ratios of ETS (Tang
et al., 2012) were similar to our results. The N:C ratio of ETS was
clearly elevated compared to that of many other sources of urban
aerosols (Sun et al., 2011) reflecting the high content of N-containing compounds in fine particulate cigarette smoke (Rogge et al.,
1994). The particle number size distribution of freshly emitted
cigarette smoke in this study exhibited a bi-modal distribution with
a clear nucleation mode peaking at 10 nm and a second mode at
around 40 nm dmob (Fig. 2). The mass of the smoke aerosols (PM10)
was dominated by the submicron fraction by 91 8%.
3.1.3. Magnesium hand flare
The hand flare is mainly composed of magnesium powder inside
a metal sleeve wrapped in colored paper. By lightning the hand
flare with the attached tear-off igniter, SO2 and NOx concentrations
Please cite this article in press as: Faber, P., et al., Anthropogenic sources of aerosol particles in a football stadium: Real-time characterization of
emissions from cigarette smoking, cooking, hand flares, and color smoke bombs by high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, Atmospheric
Environment (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.072
4
P. Faber et al. / Atmospheric Environment xxx (2013) 1e9
Fig. 1. HR organic mass spectra and elemental ratios of the laboratory-generated aerosols from emission sources in football stadia: (a) heating of frying oil at 170 C, (b) deep-frying,
(c) grilling, (d) cigarette smoking 1, (e) cigarette smoking 2, (f) yellow smoke bomb, (g) blue smoke bomb, (h) red smoke bomb, (i) orange smoke bomb, and (j) green smoke bomb.
The total organic and inorganic MS (k) with a special focus on metal fragments (l) of the hand flare is also provided. Peak heights for potassium and metal fragments are nonquantitative. Averaging times of the mass spectra ranged from 5 to 51 min.
were clearly enhanced for a short time period. Similar findings are
reported for burning black powder (Drewnick et al., 2006) that is
often used in such igniters. The hand flare is supposed to emit
mainly magnesium oxide which is refractory and could therefore
not be detected in the AMS. Nonetheless, the HR mass spectrum
gave some insights in the chemical composition of aerosol particles
from this pyrotechnical device (Fig. 1). Potassium that is likely used
for flame-colorizing and that is known for its highly efficient ionization in the AMS (Drewnick et al., 2006) caused prominent peaks
at m/z 39 and 41. Besides substantial contributions of chloride
(35Clþ, 37Clþ, 35HClþ, 37HClþ) some metals and metal chloride
fragments could also be detected by the AMS based on their isotopic abundance (mainly Na, Mg, Fe, but also minor contributions of
Cu, Zn, and others). Adsorption of these metal chlorides on the
heater of the AMS might unpredictably alter the surface ionization
potential of potassium explaining the strong signals at m/z 39 and
41. Quantitation of potassium may therefore be inappropriate in
this case. The organic mass spectrum showed strong similarity to
highly-oxidized organic aerosols (Mohr et al., 2012) and likely
originates from incineration of the wrapped paper, associated with
an increase of black carbon mass concentration. The aerosol from
this hand flare exhibited a number size distribution peaking at
around 150 nm dmob (Fig. 2). Nevertheless, only one third of the
total mass was located in PM1 (35 10%) indicating that mainly
large particles >1 mm were emitted which is evident in the particle
volume distribution.
3.1.4. Color smoke bombs
Color smoke bombs are normally composed of an oxidizer
(mostly KClO3), a fuel (lactose/sucrose), an organic dye, and some
additives that facilitate burning. Sublimation of the organic dye is
induced by the exothermal reaction of the oxidizer and the fuel
(400e600 C). The gases that are formed by this reaction are used
to blow the dye out of the smoke device. After cooling-down and
condensation the organic dye generates a fine aerosol that forms
the typical colored smoke (Hemmilä et al., 2007). AMS mass spectra
of the different color smoke bombs are provided in Fig. 1. Despite
clear distinctions due to the different chemical nature of the
organic dyes, most color smoke bombs tested here showed preþ
þ
dominant peaks at m/z 41 (C3Hþ
5 ), 43 (C3H7 ), 55 (C4H7 ), and 57
(C4Hþ
).
The
mass
spectra
of
the
orange-colored
device
differed
9
significantly from those of the others as its signal at m/z 44 (mostly
Please cite this article in press as: Faber, P., et al., Anthropogenic sources of aerosol particles in a football stadium: Real-time characterization of
emissions from cigarette smoking, cooking, hand flares, and color smoke bombs by high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, Atmospheric
Environment (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.072
P. Faber et al. / Atmospheric Environment xxx (2013) 1e9
5
Fig. 2. Qualitative analysis of the average particle number size distributions for the aerosol particles emitted by different sources in football stadia measured by the FMPS (left) and
OPC (right). Error bars represent the variability (1s) for each size bin. For each instrument the signals are scaled to their corresponding total number for a better comparison of the
peak shapes. The offset between both instruments is due to the different signal scaling. All these sources cover the particle size range from 10 to 500 nm which may be important for
health related issues due to the efficient respirability of these particles.
COþ
2 ) was considerably elevated. All smokes demonstrated signifiþ
cant contribution of the UMR ion series CnHþ
2nþ1 and CmH2mþ1CO
þ
as well as CnHþ
and
C
H
CO
.
Indications
of
aromatic
2n1
m 2m1
compounds (C6H5CnHþ
2n) were also found for the yellow-colored
bomb. Distinct presence of N-containing compounds at m/z 27,
31, 40, and 41 could be observed and might result from EI fragmentation of quinolone and azo type dyes that are frequently used
in such devices (Chin and Borer, 1983). Accordingly, the N:C ratios
(0.02e0.03) were even higher than those of particles from cigarette
smoking. With exception of the orange smoke bomb, the O:C ratios
(0.10e0.14) were in the range of those of the cooking and cigarette
smoking aerosols, whereas H:C ratios (1.73e1.87) were similar to
that of the hydrocarbon-like organic aerosol (HOA) reported by Sun
et al. (2011). In general, the UMR spectra of the smoke bombs
correlated well (R2 ¼ 0.89e0.97) with that of diesel from bus
exhaust (Canagaratna et al., 2004), but HR spectra revealed higher
contents of oxygenated as well as N-containing compounds in the
pyrotechnical devices. The color bomb aerosols exhibited bi- and
tri-modal particle number size distributions (Fig. 2), respectively,
that were totally different from those of cooking and cigarette
smoking. Besides a mode at 150 nm dmob and at around 400 nm
optical diameter (dopt), the yellow-, orange-, and red-colored
bombs also showed a mode at 750 nm dopt.
Knowledge of the chemical composition of the color smoke
bombs is crucial for estimating the emission factors. Only the
contents of KClO3 (30% w/w) and NH4Cl (19% w/w) are revealed by
the producer. In general, there exist many options of operational
compositions. Since the stoichiometric ratio (oxidizer/fuel) was
previously found to be 2.8 for such smoke bombs (Hemmilä et al.,
2007; Chin and Borer, 1983), we estimated the content of lactose/
sucrose as 30% w/w and concluded that all of the residual mass is
represented by the organic dye (21% w/w). Thermal degradation of
the dyes is only of minor importance (Chin and Borer, 1983) and the
organic dyes will be mostly present in the particle phase. The
emission factors for the different gaseous and particulate species x
(EFx) were therefore assessed based on the balance of the mass of
organic dye in the color smoke device (3.78 g, according to 21% of
18 g) and the mass concentrations measured by the AMS (orgAMS).
It was assumed that the chemical composition of PM1 measured by
the AMS is representative for all aerosol particles emitted by the
pyrotechnical devices. The EFxs are given in grams of a species per
smoke bomb of 18 g (g 18 g1) and in number of particles per smoke
bomb (# 18 g1), respectively:
x mg m3
3:78 g
$
EFx g 18 g1 ¼
18 g orgAMS mg m3
and
x # cm3
3:78 g
$1012 :
$
EFx # 18 g1 ¼
18 g orgAMS mg m3
The resulting emission factors for the AMS species, PM1, PM2.5,
PM10, black carbon (BC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
and for NO2, NO, O3 mass as well as for the particle number (CN) are
provided in Table 1.
Besides organics, the most abundantly emitted species by mass,
chloride and ammonium also contributed significantly to the total
PM emitted by color smoke bombs. BC and PAHs that might pose
serious risks to human health have also been detected. Both species
were assumed to originate from incomplete combustion of minor
contents of the organic dyes which is generally undesired and
hardly predictable (Chin and Borer, 1983). Thus, major deviations of
the emission factors for BC and PAHs were apparent. Contrary to
Please cite this article in press as: Faber, P., et al., Anthropogenic sources of aerosol particles in a football stadium: Real-time characterization of
emissions from cigarette smoking, cooking, hand flares, and color smoke bombs by high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, Atmospheric
Environment (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.072
6
P. Faber et al. / Atmospheric Environment xxx (2013) 1e9
Table 1
Average emission factors (EF) for different species calculated from measurements of
several multi-colored smoke bombs. The uncertainties have been calculated as the
standard deviation (1s) of the individual emission factors from the different measurements. Since the estimation was based on the amount of AMS-organics
(EF ¼ 3.78 g 18 g1) no uncertainty can be provided for this value.
Average EF
(g 18 g1)
AMS-Org
AMS-NO3
AMS-SO4
AMS-NH4
AMS-Chl
AMS-K
PAH
BC
3.78
0.01
0
0.68
1.93
0.14
0.01
0.60
0.01
0
0.18
0.54
0.10
0.01
0.60
Average EF
(g 18 g1 and # 18 g1, resp.)
PM1
PM2.5
PM10
CPC
NO2
NO
O3
6.01
6.96
7.14
4.60eþ15
0.55
0.68
0.86
1.88eþ15
0.05 0.09
0.17 0.02
1.01 0.27
that, nitrate and sulfate emissions were mostly negligible. In general, aerosol particles emitted by color smoke bombs were predominantly found in the PM1 fraction that comprised about 84% of
PM10 mass. Ozone was the most important gaseous species,
whereas CO2 and CO that are produced by the exothermal reaction
(Hemmilä et al., 2007) could not be detected significantly above
background level.
3.2. Field study
3.2.1. Real-time measurements in a football stadium
The time series of AMS species and BC mass concentrations
during the field measurements in the Coface Arena are shown in
Fig. 3. OA mass was found to be significantly elevated
(10.69 7.6 mg m3) compared to the background level
(1.91 0.52 mg m3) not only during the football match, but also
for a short time period before and after the match (17:40 to 23:20).
This period started about 3 h before kickoff and ended about 1 h
after the final whistle of the match. It can be directly assigned to the
activities related to the football match and is therefore hereafter
described as football match event. The organic aerosol concentrations exhibited a temporal structure clearly related to the football
match event with a distinctive peak right before kickoff and a
dominant signal during half-time. After the match had finished, OA
loadings dropped rapidly to their background level within 1 h. The
particle number concentration was also increased by the activities
during the match. In contrast, mass concentrations of particulate
nitrate, sulfate, ammonium, chloride, and BC were not significantly
elevated during the football match event and are therefore not
further addressed. The trace gas measurements revealed a reduction of ambient ozone as the stadium filled (detailed description by
Veres et al. (2013)) whereas the time series of NOx (NO2, NO), SO2,
and CO did not show any noteworthy variations during the match.
The event mass size distribution of OA measured by the AMS was
broader than that of background organic aerosol. The stronger
contribution of particles with a vacuum aerodynamic diameter
(dva) of less than 200 nm as well as large particles with
dva > 600 nm to the total OA mass compared to the background
measurements (Fig. 3) indicated the presence of freshly emitted
aerosol particles from different sources and processes of PM that
are present in the stadium during the football match event.
3.2.2. PMF results
Positive matrix factorization is widely used to extract factors of
constant mass spectral profiles and their varying contributions over
time representing different sources and oxidation states of organic
aerosols from AMS measurements by minimizing the residuals
between the observed and modeled data. The algorithm used
within this analysis tool provides only mathematically based solutions which may not be physically meaningful (Zhang et al.,
2011). PMF solutions for the different input matrices (HR, UMR,
Fig. 3. Time series of the PM1 mass fractions of the AMS species organics (green), sulfate (red), nitrate (blue), ammonium (orange), and chloride (pink) as well as BC (black) during
the whole campaign (a) and the football match event (20.04, 17:40e23:20) (b). Additional information on the average chemical composition of submicron PM as well as on the mass
size distribution of the organic fraction is provided for both the background and event measurements. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
Please cite this article in press as: Faber, P., et al., Anthropogenic sources of aerosol particles in a football stadium: Real-time characterization of
emissions from cigarette smoking, cooking, hand flares, and color smoke bombs by high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, Atmospheric
Environment (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.072
P. Faber et al. / Atmospheric Environment xxx (2013) 1e9
and combined HR-UMR) from AMS field measurement in the
football stadium were therefore evaluated by comparing their
interpretability concerning mass spectral similarities with reference AMS profiles from our lab study and from the literature. Time
series and diurnal cycles of the extracted factors were additionally
compared with independent tracer compounds from AMS as well
as co-located measurements following Lanz et al. (2007).
In contrast to many other studies, OA measured in the stadium
was not only characterized by mainly uniform mass concentrations
with some short peaks of high values, but by a dominating single
event that was characterized by a strong increase of mass concentration. Emissions during the football match event (6% of the
total campaign by time) contributed to about 33% of total OA mass.
Additionally, PM emissions and their associated AMS spectra during this event were different from background species due to other
sources and processes of OA. These peculiarities of our dataset
might present a challenge for PMF analysis. Accordingly, the OA
factors of the PMF solutions solved for different input matrices from
the stadium dataset under varying fPeak values showed significant
deviations in their mass spectral patterns compared to measurements with more uniform OA mass loadings (Freutel et al., 2013).
Nonetheless, most variants of these solutions were obviously not
reasonable and could be discarded. The UMR PMF solutions did not
show satisfactory separation of OA species present in the background aerosol from football match event emissions due to mass
spectral similarities of the different OA components in the UMR
mass spectra as mentioned by Zhang et al. (2011). These results
were, thus, no longer regarded. In contrast, HR data improved the
factor separation by PMF and also enhanced the interpretability of
sources and processing of OA because of an increased level of information in the mass spectra. HR PMF solutions were largely
capable of separating the background species from event emissions. Nevertheless, mass profiles of some OA species, especially
7
that of HOA was not satisfactory within the presetting of the PMF
analysis in this study. We therefore explored an approach of combined HR-UMR PMF following Docherty et al. (2008). Although
most solutions were not interpretable, the HR-UMR PMF 6-factor
solution with fPeak ¼ 0.4 and seed ¼ 0 (Q/Qexpected ¼ 1.4) was
chosen for further analysis as it showed physically meaningful
factors with a good separation of background and event species as
well as mass spectra of the factors that could be satisfactorily
interpreted. Good correlations were found for the extracted factors
and tracer compounds. Two factors that showed strong similarities
in their mass spectra (R ¼ 0.99) were assigned to be semi-volatile
oxygenated OA (SV-OOA), but the time series differed significantly and did not show reasonable agreement with atmospheric
tracers. Both factors were thus recombined into a single SV-OOA
factor by summing up the time series and by averaging the
loading-weighted mass spectra since results were then more
meaningful. Choosing the HR-UMR PMF 5-factor solution would
have prevented this factor splitting, but it was generally not satisfactory concerning the mass spectra and time series of the other
species.
Temporal variations and mass spectral patterns of the factors
extracted by PMF analysis of the HR-MS OA are shown in Fig. 4.
These factors can roughly be subdivided into background species
and event-related species based on their basic appearance. Since
this study focused on the OA emissions during a football match, the
background species are only briefly addressed.
The uncertainty of the chosen PMF 6-factor solution by varying
fPeak and seed parameters was calculated as described in detail by
Freutel et al. (2013). Only the reasonably interpretable solutions
(fPeak subset: 0.5 to 0.2; seed: 0 to 50) have been considered in
this estimation (Zhang et al., 2011). The uncertainties from fPeak
variation ranged from 7 to 30% (time series) and 2 to 23% (mass
spectra) and were caused by the dominant influence of the football
Fig. 4. Results from PMF analysis showing the mass concentration time series (left) as well as the HR-MS and elemental compositions (right) of the different OA components
present during the field campaign. The football match event is highlighted in light yellow. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to
the web version of this article.)
Please cite this article in press as: Faber, P., et al., Anthropogenic sources of aerosol particles in a football stadium: Real-time characterization of
emissions from cigarette smoking, cooking, hand flares, and color smoke bombs by high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, Atmospheric
Environment (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.072
8
P. Faber et al. / Atmospheric Environment xxx (2013) 1e9
match event on the total dataset. The uncertainties from seed
variation were comparable and ranged from 2 to 35% (time series)
and 1 to 22% (mass spectra), whereas the uncertainties for the
event-related factors were smaller than 4% for both, time series and
mass spectra.
3.2.2.1. Background species. Three types of organic aerosol species
measured in the stadium have been identified as background
aerosol: a highly oxidized and low-volatile OA (LV-OOA;
O:C ¼ 0.73), a semi-volatile OA (SV-OOA; O:C ¼ 0.44), and a
hydrocarbon-like OA (HOA; O:C ¼ 0.09). These findings are substantiated by and coincident with the results of e.g. Freutel et al.
(2013), Mohr et al. (2012), Sun et al. (2011), and Lanz et al. (2007).
All those background species also contributed to the total OA
during the football match event. However, since mass concentrations of LV-OOA, SV-OOA, and HOA were not significantly elevated
compared to the background levels, these OA components were of
minor importance during the match.
3.2.2.2. Event-related species. The organic aerosol mass during the
football match event was mainly composed of two factors that did
not appreciably contribute to the background OA. One of these two
factors was identified as COA. The HR-MS was very similar to those
generated by deep-frying and barbecuing in our laboratory study
(R ¼ 0.97 and 0.98, resp.) and is in accordance with the findings by
Mohr et al. (2012) and Sun et al. (2011) showing identical prevalent
ion series. Good correlation of the mass spectra was also found for
frying dominated Chinese cooking aerosol (R ¼ 0.95; He et al.,
2010). Due to a higher degree of oxidation of several ions (e.g. m/
z 55), the O:C-ratio of the PMF-COA factor (0.14) was slightly higher
than those found for the cooking OA in the laboratory studies
(0.09e0.12).
The second PMF factor was assigned to cigarette smoking OA
(CSOA). Its HR mass spectrum was very similar to those reported in
Section 3.1.2 (R ¼ 0.97 and 0.96, resp.). Nonetheless, a stronger
contribution of oxygenated ions at m/z 28 (COþ) and 44 (COþ
2 ) to the
total spectrum of OA could be observed for the stadium measurement leading to a higher O:C-ratio (0.18). Furthermore, the N:Cratio (0.015) was slightly increased compared to the laboratory
derived smoking OA. UMR spectra were also similar to that reported in the literature (Tang et al., 2012).
Deviations in the chemical composition of the reference organic
aerosols and the PMF factors might be caused by different source
characteristics (e.g. cigarette types or cooking ingredients) as well
as different atmospheric conditions (meteorology and oxidizing
properties).
The time series of both event-related PMF factors, COA and
CSOA, differed significantly from each other. The COA trace started
earlier than CSOA and dominated the first hour of the football
match event since catering activities began 2.5 h before kickoff.
COA revealed the highest concentration right before the football
match started and showed only a minor peak during half-time. The
sales figures of the catering outlets are expected to approximately
be reflected by the measured COA concentration, since the cooking
emissions are directly related to the catering activities. We therefore calculated the area under the curve of the COA time series for
different time intervals and compared these values to the estimated
sales figures for the same time intervals given by the official caterer.
The values from the COA factor (67.5% before, 26.3% during, and
6.2% after the match) fit very well to the official sales (60%, 30%, 10%
of total sales) supporting its origin from cooking. Besides high
concentrations during the football match event, the COA factor also
revealed some minor peaks during background measurements in
contrast to the CSOA factor. These minor peaks occurred in the
afternoon and early evening (15:00e20:00) and might originate
from a nearby restaurant that is also opened when there is no
match. A source from the City of Mainz can be neglected since the
wind came from the opposite direction.
The time series of CSOA started rising when the stadium began
to fill with fans about 2 h before kickoff and exhibited a predominant peak during half-time. Co-located measurements by PTR-ToFMS revealed similar time series for the VOCs acetonitrile, diacetyl,
and isoprene which could be attributed to combustion emissions
from cigarette smoking (Veres et al., 2013). Consequently, CSOA and
acetonitrile correlated very well (R ¼ 0.96) during the football
match event.
The average mass concentration of CSOA was obviously higher
than that of COA during the event, but their fractional contribution
to the total signal of both event-related factors varied considerably
over time. The average loadings of cooking and smoking related
emissions were approximately equal (COA 45%, CSOA 55%) in the
period before the match started due to extensive catering activities.
In contrast, CSOA was the dominant factor in the time of the match
and thereafter (85% of total mass of the event species) showing the
importance of cigarette smoking as emission source of particulate
matter in a stadium during a football match.
Application of any pyrotechnical devices such as hand flares and
color smoke bombs was not observed during the whole event.
Emissions from these sources were therefore not detected.
4. Conclusions
Laboratory-generated high-resolution mass spectra and size
distributions of aerosol particles from several sources that can be
found inside football stadia including cooking, cigarette smoking,
color smoke bombs, and hand flares have been reported here and
show significant differences in their physical and chemical characteristics. A field study in the Coface Arena revealed an elevated
mass concentration of OA not only during the Bundesliga football
match between FSV Mainz 05 and VFL Wolfsburg but also in a short
time period that could be directly related to the activities around
the match. Total PM1 emissions in the stadium exceeded by several
times the European PM2.5 target of 25 mg m3 that becomes
mandatory in the European Union in 2015. Combined HR-UMR PMF
analysis established that cigarette smoke was the predominant
component of OA, whereas cooking was assigned to be another
important source of OA especially in the period before the match
started. Currently, there is an ongoing controversial discussion to
ban smoking in German football stadia as has already been
implemented in other European countries following the regulations during the UEFA European Football Championship 2012. A
ban of smoking would lead to reduced OA mass loadings in a stadium (on average 67% of total OA) by eliminating the main source of
organic aerosols. The effect on specific smoking-related compounds
such as PAHs and N-containing substances may be even higher.
The laboratory testing of color smoke bombs and magnesium
hand flares revealed considerable emissions of both organic and
inorganic species e.g. chlorides, ammonium, potassium, and magnesium. Pyrotechnics were not observed during the football match,
and no signatures. However, the calculated emission factors for a
set of multi-colored smoke bombs may give a first approximation of
the impact of such emissions on local air quality. Assuming no air
exchange and uniform dispersion, the emissions of one smoke
bomb (18 g) would increase the OA concentration in the Coface
Arena on average by 19 mg m3 which is remarkable in comparison
to the loadings of CSOA and COA. The mass loadings of chloride as
predominant inorganic emission would be increased by
9.7 2.7 mg m3. Under realistic conditions the concentrations will
even be significantly higher in the close proximity of such a smoke
bomb. Besides, the total aerosol loadings are expected to decrease
Please cite this article in press as: Faber, P., et al., Anthropogenic sources of aerosol particles in a football stadium: Real-time characterization of
emissions from cigarette smoking, cooking, hand flares, and color smoke bombs by high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, Atmospheric
Environment (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.072
P. Faber et al. / Atmospheric Environment xxx (2013) 1e9
by time due to the air mass exchange between inside and outside
the stadium.
In general, the open-topped stadium investigated here exhibited a good venting capacity since concentrations of all species that
were elevated during the football match event reached their initial
background level only shortly after the spectators had departed
within one hour after the match had finished. Since this study
focused on the chemical and physical properties of PM emitted by
different sources during a football match, the effects of stadium
emissions on public health as well as on regional air quality should
be addressed in further investigations.
Acknowledgment
The authors acknowledge Thomas Böttger for technical support
and for setting-up the instrumentation. Matthias Britz and the 1.
FSV Mainz 05 e.V. are gratefully acknowledged for providing the
measurement site and local support. The authors also thank Darabi
Spanos for helpful information on the catering activities in the
stadium.
References
Aiken, A.C., DeCarlo, P.F., Jimenez, J.L., 2007. Elemental analysis of organic species
with electron ionization high-resolution mass spectrometry. Analytical Chemistry 79, 8350e8358.
Allan, J.D., Williams, P.I., Morgan, W.T., Martin, C.L., Flynn, M.J., Lee, J., Nemitz, E.,
Phillips, G.J., Gallagher, M.W., Coe, H., 2010. Contributions from transport, solid
fuel burning and cooking to primary organic aerosols in two UK cities. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 10, 647e668.
Avgerinou, V., Giakoumatos, S.G., 2011. The effect of hooliganism on Greek football
demand. In: Jewell, R.T. (Ed.), Violence and Aggression in Sporting Contests:
Economics, History and Policy. Springer, New York, pp. 155e174.
Canagaratna, M.R., Jayne, J.T., Ghertner, D.A., Herndon, S., Shi, Q., Jimenez, J.L.,
Silva, P.J., Williams, P., Lanni, T., Drewnick, F., Demerjian, K.L., Kolb, C.E.,
Worsnop, D.R., 2004. Chase studies of particulate emissions from in-use New
York City vehicles. Aerosol Science and Technology 38, 555e573.
Canagaratna, M.R., Jayne, J.T., Jimenez, J.L., Allan, J.D., Alfarra, M.R., Zhang, Q.,
Onasch, T.B., Drewnick, F., Coe, H., Middlebrook, A., Delia, A., Williams, L.R.,
Trimborn, A.M., Northway, M.J., DeCarlo, P.F., Kolb, C.E., Davidovits, P.,
Worsnop, D.R., 2007. Chemical and microphysical characterization of ambient
aerosols with the aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer. Mass Spectrometry
Reviews 26, 185e222.
Chin, A., Borer, L., 1983. Identification of combustion products from colored smokes
containing organic dyes. Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 8, 112e118.
DeCarlo, P.F., Kimmel, J.R., Trimborn, A., Northway, M.J., Jayne, J.T., Aiken, A.K.,
Gonin, M., Fuhrer, K., Horvath, T., Docherty, K.S., Worsnop, D.R., Jimenez, J.L.,
2006. Field-deployable, high-resolution, time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer. Analytical Chemistry 78, 8281e8289.
DeCarlo, P.F., Ulbrich, I.M., Crounse, J., de Foy, B., Dunlea, E.J., Aiken, A.C., Knapp, D.,
Weinheimer, A.J., Campos, T., Wennberg, P.O., Jimenez, J.L., 2010. Investigation
of the sources and processing of organic aerosol over the Central Mexican
Plateau from aircraft measurements during MILAGRO. Atmospheric Chemistry
and Physics 10, 5257e5280.
Docherty, K.S., Stone, E.A., Ulbrich, I.M., DeCarlo, P.F., Snyder, D.C., Schauer, J.J.,
Weber, R.J., Murphy, S.H., Seinfeld, J.H., Grover, B.D., Eatough, D.J., Jimenez, J.L.,
2008. Apportionment of primary and secondary organic aerosols in Southern
California during the 2005 Study of Organic Aerosols in Riverside (SOAR-1).
Environmental Science & Technology 42, 7655e7662.
Drewnick, F., Schwab, J.J., Jayne, J.T., Canagaratna, M., Worsnop, D.R., Demerjian, K.L.,
2004. Measurement of ambient aerosol composition during the PMTACS-NY
2001 using an aerosol mass spectrometer. Part I: mass concentrations. Aerosol Science and Technology 38, 92e103.
9
Drewnick, F., Hing, S.S., DeCarlo, P., Jayne, J.T., Gonin, M., Fuhrer, K., Weimer, S.,
Jimenez, J.L., Demerjian, K.L., Borrmann, S., Worsnop, D.R., 2005. A new time-offlight aerosol mass spectrometer (TOF-AMS) e instrument description and first
field deployment. Aerosol Science and Technology 39, 637e658.
Drewnick, F., Hings, S.S., Curtius, J., Eerdekens, G., Williams, J., 2006. Measurement
of fine particulate and gas-phase species during the New Year’s fireworks 2005
in Mainz, Germany. Atmospheric Environment 40, 4316e4327.
Drewnick, F., Böttger, T., von der Weiden-Reinmüller, S.-L., Zorn, S.R., Klimach, T.,
Schneider, J., Borrmann, S., 2012. Design of a mobile aerosol research laboratory
and data processing tools for effective stationary and mobile field measurements. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 5, 1443e1457.
Freutel, F., Schneider, J., Drewnick, F., von der Weiden-Reinmüller, S.-L., Crippa, M.,
Prévôt, A.S.H., Baltensperger, U., Poulain, L., Wiedensohler, A., Sciare, J., SardaEstève, R., Burkhart, J.F., Eckhardt, S., Stohl, A., Gros, V., Colomb, A., Michoud, V.,
Doussin, J.F., Borbon, A., Haeffelin, M., Morille, Y., Beekmann, M., Borrmann, S., 2013.
Aerosol particle measurements at three stationary sites in the megacity of Paris
during summer 2009: meteorology and air mass origin dominate aerosol particle
composition and size distribution. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 13, 933e959.
He, L.-Y., Lin, Y., Huang, X.-F., Guo, S., Xue, L., Su, Q., Hu, M., Luan, S.-J., Zhang, Y.-H.,
2010. Characterization of high-resolution aerosol mass spectra of primary
organic aerosol emissions from Chinese cooking and biomass burning. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 10, 11535e11543.
Hemmilä, M., Hihkiö, M., Linnainmaa, K., 2007. Evaluation of the acute toxicity and
genotoxicity of orange, red, violet and yellow pyrotechnic smoke in vitro.
Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 32, 415e422.
Jones, A.P., 1999. Indoor air quality and health. Atmospheric Environment 33,
4535e4564.
Lanz, V.A., Alfarra, M.R., Baltensperger, U., Buchmann, B., Hueglin, C., Prévôt, A.S.H.,
2007. Source apportionment of submicron organic aerosols at an urban site by
factor analytical modelling of aerosol mass spectra. Atmospheric Chemistry and
Physics 7, 1503e1522.
Mohr, C., Huffmann, J.A., Cubison, M.J., Aiken, A.C., Docherty, K.S., Kimmel, J.R.,
Ulbrich, I.M., Hannigan, M., Jimenez, J.L., 2009. Characterization of primary
organic aerosol emissions from meat cooking, trash burning, and motor vehicles
with high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry and comparison with ambient
and chamber observations. Environmental Science & Technology 43, 2443e2449.
Mohr, C., DeCarlo, P.F., Heringa, M.F., Chirico, R., Slowik, J.G., Richter, R., Reche, R.,
Alastuey, A., Querol, X., Seco, R., Peñuelas, J., Jimenez, J.L., Crippa, M.,
Zimmermann, R., Baltensperger, U., Prévôt, A.S.H., 2012. Identification and
quantification of organic aerosol from cooking and other sources in Barcelona
using aerosol mass spectrometer data. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 12,
1649e1665.
Nazaroff, W.W., Klepeis, N.E., 2003. Environmental tobacco smoke particles. In:
Morawska, L., Salthammer, T. (Eds.), Indoor Environment: Airborne Particles
and Settled Dust. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, pp. 245e274.
Pöschl, U., 2005. Atmospheric aerosols: composition, transformation, climate and
health effects. Angewandte Chemie International Edition 44, 7520e7540.
Rogge, W.F., Hildemann, L.M., Mazurek, M.A., Cass, G.R., Simoneit, B.R.T., 1994.
Sources of fine organic aerosol. 6. Cigarette smoke in the urban atmosphere.
Environmental Science & Technology 28, 1375e1388.
Sun, Y.-L., Zhang, Q., Schwab, J.J., Demerjian, K.L., Chen, W.-N., Bae, M.-S., Hung, H.M., Hogrefe, O., Frank, B., Rattigan, O.V., Lin, Y.-C., 2011. Characterization of the
sources and processes of organic and inorganic aerosols in New York city with a
high-resolution time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 11, 1581e1602.
Tang, X., Zheng, Z., Jung, H.S., Asa-Awuku, A., 2012. The effects of mainstream and
sidestream environmental tobacco smoke composition for enhanced condensational droplet growth by water vapor. Aerosol Science and Technology 46,
760e766.
Ulbrich, I.M., Canagaratna, M.R., Zhang, Q., Worsnop, D.R., Jimenez, J.L., 2009.
Interpretation of organic components from Positive Matrix Factorization
of aerosol mass spectrometric data. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 9,
2891e2918.
Veres, P.R., Faber, P., Drewnick, F., Lelieveld, J., Williams, J., 2013. Anthropogenic
sources of VOC in a football stadium: assessing human emissions in the atmosphere. Atmospheric Environment (accepted for publication).
Zhang, Q., Jimenez, J.L., Canagaratna, M.R., Ulbrich, I.M., Ng, N.L., Worsnop, D.R.,
Sun, Y., 2011. Understanding atmospheric organic aerosols via factor analysis of
aerosol mass spectrometry: a review. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
401, 3045e3067.
Please cite this article in press as: Faber, P., et al., Anthropogenic sources of aerosol particles in a football stadium: Real-time characterization of
emissions from cigarette smoking, cooking, hand flares, and color smoke bombs by high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, Atmospheric
Environment (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.072