SACRED GROVES, MARVELLOUS
WATERS, AND GRENDEL’S ABODE
Richard J. Schrader
Neither Germanic nor Latin literature p rovides an exact copy of Grendel's
abode,
though most
place or another.
e l e m e n t s of the s c e n e in B eow ulf c a n b e f o u n d in o n e
E v i d e n c e of b o r r o w i n g has b e e n detected,
considerable difference of opinion regarding
Malone convincingly dismissed
folklore
the o l d e r v i e w that w e h a v e
s e t t i n g a n a l o g o u s to t h a t in c h a p t e r s 65 a n d
c e n t u r y G r e t t i r ' s S a g a .^
of
the m a t t e r of
the p l a c e
is o w e d to V i r g i l
and not to G e r m a n i c tradition.
the techniques of the two poets,
w i t h o u t c l a i m i n g to p r o v e
Virgil."*
i n B e o w u lf a
66 o f t h e f o u r t e e n t h -
Indeed, A n d e r s s o n a r g u e s t h a t t h e " s c e n i c f u l l n e s s "
a m o n g t h o s e p o i n t i n g to the V i r g i l i a n pa r a l l e l s ,
compare
b u t t h e r e is
"sources."
that
2
Renoir
is
b u t h e d o e s so m a i n l y
to
usi n g o n e to il l u m i n a t e the o t h e r
the B eow ulf-po e t n e c e s s a r i l y d r e w u pon
I w o u l d l i k e to b r o a d e n the f i e l d o f R e n o i r ' s c o m p a r i s o n to i n c l u d e
the r e l e v a n t topoi
in c l a s s i c a l a n d l a t e r L a t i n l i t e r a t u r e .
In a d d i t i o n ,
A n d e r s s o n ' s a r g u m e n t c a n be e x t e n d e d to s h o w that the n earest p r e v i o u s
analogues
to G r e n d e l ' s home,
if n o t its s o u r c e s ,
tradition b eginning with Virgil,
a r e to be f o u n d in the L a t i n
together with certain commonplace
features
o f t h e C h r i s t i a n .h e l l .
Grendel's abode
is a h i d d e n l a n d w i t h swamps,
narrow paths over forbidding terrain,
that a re m i n g l e d w i t h b l o o d and gore.
when the w i n d blows,
steep and w i ndy bluffs,
and bottomless,
4
turbulent waters
T o s s i n g w a v e s rise u p to the c l o u d s
a n d a str e a m g oes d o w n b e n e a t h the m i s t s or d a r k n e s s
of
the bluffs.
E v e r y n i g h t f ire m a y b e seen on the water.
But the groves
(bearwas, 13 6 3 ) w h i c h o v e r h a n g it a r e c o v e r e d w i t h f r o s t ; t r e e s l o a n o v e r a
p a r t i c u l a r g r e y stone.
place
is s o f r i g h t f u l
risk going
This
the true p a r a l l e l s
from life but from his reading.
flourishes,
he p u t
(l u c u s , nemus)
It is s m a l l w o n d e r t h a t s o m e
for this d y n a m i c scene,
but,
as
"belong to the world of the i m a g i n a t i o n . " ”
*
The poet created a nonexistent place
grove
The
would rather die than
and w e s h all see that the a c t u a l a p p e a r a n c e
f e e l i n g s of the c h a r a c t e r s .
s o u g h t a real p l a c e as the o r i g i n a l
Malone remarks,
original
inhabit the area.
chased by hounds,
in.
is a c o m p o s i t e p i c t u r e ,
depends upon the
have
Serpents and other beasts
that a hart,
(to p o th e sia ), drawing a picture not
With considerable
ingenuity and numerous
to g e t h e r the c o n v e n t i o n a l
and marvellous
stream or pool.
sacr ed or h a u n t e d
Among those touches
n e e d e d to com p l e t e the scene w e r e e x p l i c i t s u g g e s t i o n s of hell.
Because
Persius,
it h a d b e c o m e p a r t o f t h e s t a n d a r d p o e t i c r e p e r t o i r e
Sat.
frequently,
1,
but not all
are p l a c e s o f t e r r o r .
s u c h a s t h ose in V i r g i l ' s E l y s i u m a n d
Like many,
the latter
( h i d d e n lan d )
(cf.
70), m e d i a e v a l r e a d e r s e n c o u n t e r e d t h e c l a s s i c a l g r o v e
is a s e c lu s io n n e m u s ,
in the O l d E n g l i s h p o e m
S o m e a r e e v e n l o c i a m o e n i,
Lethe Valley
(A e n e id 6 , 6 7 3 a n d 7 0 4 ) .
corresponding
to t h e d y g e l l o n d
(1357).
Christian poets often adapted
7
Vir g i l ' s Elysian Fields for their own visions of Paradise.
The majority
of the p a g a n g r o v e s are sac r e d p l a c e s w i t h a n a t m o s p h e r e of mystery.
are
the ha u n t s o f Cir c e ,
oracles,
Druids,
They
a n d the d r a g o n g u a r d i n g th e
golden fleece.^
Th e V i r g i l i a n l a n d s c a p e ha s the m o s t p a r a l l e l s to Beow ulf,
during Aeneas'
ca ta b a sis.
pitch-black Cocytus"
especially
The Sibyl promises him "clustering forests and
for his d escent.
The golden bough he will need
s h e l t e r e d b y a l u c u s in t h e s h a d o w s o f a d a r k v a l l e y
(6 , 1 3 1 - 3 9 ) .
is
He makes
h i s w a y to a c a v e p r o t e c t e d b y a l a k e o f b l a c k w a t e r a n d a g l o o m y n e m u s .
The
lake's poisonous
fumes prevent birds from flying overhead.
road to Ach e r o n begins,
(6 , 2 3 6 - 4 2 ,
inlet of
296).
the s e a ,
(1, 1 5 9 - 7 9 ) . 10
e i t h e r side.
the w a t e r
Where the
is t u r b u l e n t a n d c h o k e d w i t h a s l u d g e
S i nce G r e n d e l ' s m e r e was e v i d e n t l y c o n c e i v e d of as an
9
i t is w o r t h w h i l e a l s o to l o o k a t t h e P h o r c y s h a r b o r
It f e a t u r e s t o w e r i n g h e a d l a n d s o v e r s h a d o w i n g t h e w a t e r o n
Q u i v e r i n g leaves o n a c u r t a i n of trees g l i s t e n a g a i n s t a d a r k
an d mysterious grove.
Nymphs
l i v e in a c a v e a t the f o o t of the c l i f f s .
Also
o f i n t e r e s t is t h e G o r g e o f A m p s a n c t u s , w h i c h h a s d e n s e g r o v e s o n b o t h s i d e s
and a s w i r l i n g t o r r e n t in its m i d s t
is a v e n t of H a d e s ,
(7,
563-71).
along wit h an abyss where A c h e r o n breaks
place Turnus chooses for an ambush
is
steep slopes and narrow paths
522-31).
this
scenery,
It a l s o h a s a c a v e r n t h a t
there
(11,
through.
The
"apt for c o n c e a l m e n t " b e c a u s e of
Elsewhere,
and u n r e l a t e d to
is a s i m i l e c o m p a r i n g A e n e a s a n d T u r n u s t o a h u n t i n g
dog an d a stag trapped by a river or hemmed
in b y a s n a r e
(12,
746-55).
Comparing Hrothgar's famous account of where Grendel and his mother
live
(1357-76)
w i t h A en eid
6 , 237-42, R e n o i r p o i n t s o u t that "both p a s s a g e s
describe a body of black water surrounded bv foreboding cliffs and d a r k ­
ling woods;
either
v a p o r s o r w a v e s r i s e to t h e
weird that no normal animal-life dares approach
striking resemblances,
skies;
it.
and the place
is s o
Beyond these admittedly
the two p a s s a g e s are v a s t l y d i f f erent,
and I believe
that the differences are much more significant than the s i m i l a r i t i e s .
H e is t o o c a u t i o u s .
W a lth a rius-poet
A n d e r s s o n o b s e r v e s t h a t s i m i l a r b o r r o w i n g s b y the
w o u l d h a v e b e e n u n r e c o g n i z a b l e h a d h e w r i t t e n in Germ a n .
The scenery has been transplanted,
the source.
and only the Latin phrasing gives away
"If the B eow ulf p o e t h a d w r i t t e n in Latin, p e r h a p s his p h r a s i n g
would have betrayed the same
loan.
We cannot be certain.
such as a general comparison of scenic devices,
the
issue."
accounted
be
found
This he does,
looking at the
for b y the V i r g i l i a n b ac kg r ou nd .
Broader
may prove useful
tests,
in de ciding
"overall design," which
is b e s t
T h e d e t a i l o f B e o w u lf is n o t t o
in G e r m a n i c h e r o i c p o e t r y o r the saga.
C a r o l i n g i a n i m i t a t o r s a n d t h e W a lt.h a rlu s
l e n g t h . 13
12
is m o r e
Comparison with Virgil's
fruitful,
as he shows at
G o l d s m i t h too h a s n o t e d the a b s e n c e o f the k i n d o f n a t u r a l i s m
t h a t m i g h t b e p r o p e r t o G r e t t l r ’s Saga b u t is a l i e n t o B e o w u l f :
"The jou r n e y
t o t h e m e r e o n t h e c h e e r f u l m o r n i n g o f v i c t o r y is n o t d i f f i c u l t ,
and the
place a p p a r e n t l y not remote or i n a c c e s s i b l e ; whereas at the start o f the
perilous adventure
pitable.
This
the landscape
itself has become frightening and
is t h e m o s t e x t r e m e e x a m p l e
inhos­
in the p o e m o f t h e s y m b o l i c
t r e a t m e n t o f n a t u r a l a n d i n a n i m a t e o b j e c t s to r e f l e c t t h e f e e l i n g s i m p u t e d
„14
t o the m e n in the story.
S h e d o e s n o t s a y so, b u t t h i s i s a V i r g i l i a n
technique.1 ^
A lurid grove
in L u c a n ' s a c c o u n t o f the a s s a u l t o n M a s s i l i a w a s a l s o
a v a i l a b l e to the p o e t
of this i u c u s m a d e
trees.
waters
(P h a r s a l i a 3, 3 9 9 - 4 2 5 ; c f. 6 , 6 4 2 - 5 1 ) .
it d a r k and cold.
Birds w ould not p erch there,
fell there
from dark springs.
The boughs
Gore f rom sav a g e r i t e s was on the
nor w o uld wild beasts enter.
It w a s s a i d t h a t
Abundant
"the g l a re of
c o n f l a g r a t i o n c a m e f r o m tre e s that w e r e n o t o n fire, a n d t h a t s e r p e n t s
t w i n e d a n d g l i d e d r o u n d the stems."
T h e s e ar e the p o i n t s of c o n t a c t w i t h
t he s c e n e r y o f B e o w u l f , a n d a m e d i a e v a l C h r i s t i a n w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m p r e s s e d
w i t h L u c a n ' s d i s t a s t e for the local g o d s w o r s h i p p e d w i t h s u c h b a r b a r o u s
rites
(ba rb a r a r i t u ) .
out.
T h e i r g r a v e n images w e r e c r u d e b l o c k s .
P e o p l e st a y e d
A n u n c i v i l i z e d a n d u n c h r i s t i a n a t m o s p h e r e a t t a c h e d it s e l f t o m a n y of
the l u c i the B e o w u l f - p o e t m i g h t h a v e known.
P l a c e s like t h e s e w e r e a p p r o p ­
r i a t e f or t he G r e n d e l clan, w h o w e r e o u t c a s t s as C a i n ' s k i n a n d e t e r n a l
e x i l e s l i k e the devil:
deaSfaege deog,
in fenfreoGo
hae^ene sawle;
(D e a t h - doomed,
si^ S a n dreama leas
feorh a le gd e ,
p&r him hel onfeng.
(850-52)
[Grendel] c o n c e a l e d h i m s e l f when, d e v o i d o f joy, he
g a v e u p hi s life, his h e a t h e n soul,
in the f e n - r e f u g e ;
hell
r e c e i v e d h i m there.)
In t h i s r e g a r d it is w o r t h w h i l e to l o o k at a c o u p l e of s c e n e s in
Claudian,
t h o u g h he w a s p r o b a b l y not k n own in E n g l a n d at t h a t time.
His
p o e m o n the h o t s p r i n g s o f A p o n u s t e l l s o f a t r a n s l u c e n t l a k e o f g r e a t
d e p t h that p l u n g e s d o w n b e n e a t h c a v e r n s in dark,
turbulent eddies
o n t he b o t t o m "old w e a p o n s , k i n g s ’ [votive] g i f t s "
dona).
the mere
(v e t e r e s h a s t a e , r e g i a
O n e t h i n k s o f the e a ld s w e o r d t h a t B e o w u l f finds in th e h a l l b e n e a t h
(1663),
world's kings
the h i l t o f w h i c h is g i v e n to Hrothgar, b e s t of this
(1684-85).
T h o u g h p e r h a p s f i r e d b y Hell, t h e s e w a t e r s are
healthful and praiseworthy.
f i c t i o n a l l u c u s / nemus /
N o t so p l e a s a n t is the m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d
s i l v a on the slopes of Etna, w h e r e C e r e s g o e s to
m a k e a t o r c h t o a i d h e r in the s e a r c h for P r o s e r p i n e
3,
(Carm. Min.
It is c o v e r e d b y s t e a m e x c e p t w h e n the w i n d blows, m a k i n g v i s i b l e
26).
332-56).
(De R a p tu P r o s e r p i n a e
D e n s e w i t h f o l i a g e , it is f i l l e d w i t h t r o p h i e s of the gods,
i n c l u d i n g t h e h e a d s of g i a n t s
(compare the fate of A e s c h e r e
[1420-21]).
It
is so a w e s o m e t h a t even a C y c l o p s w o u l d n o t p a s t u r e h i s f l o c k t h e r e or cut
d o w n the trees.
I n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s in the A n g l o - S a x o n sce n e are p a r a l l e l e d e l s e w h e r e .
The "grove" o f B e o w u l f d i f f e r s from m o s t of its p r e d e c e s s o r s in that,
i n s t e a d o f b e i n g a t i g h t c l u s t e r w i t h p e r h a p s the ‘
.allest tree in the
centre,
it h as b e e n o p e n e d ,
for its w i n d i n e s s ,
so to speak, to a d m i t the mere.
This accounts
s o m e t h i n g e x p l i c i t l y a b s e n t f r o m the d e n s e l y - p a c k e d l u c i
of the Romans.
(530-47).
sunless,
^
An
interesting exception
cold
spring
" f r o n t t h e w i n d s , ” b u t in t h e c e n t r e
17
s u r r o u n d e d by a swamp.
Usually the entire place
G r e n d e l ’s a b o d e
counterparts
More
is t h e g r o v e i n S e n e c a ' s O e d ip u s
O n e o f its t r ees m u s t
is d a r k ,
is b l a c k ;
the E n g l i s h p o e t s t r e s s e s t h a t
and the trees ove r s h a d o w the water.
than a convention,
the place emitted
importantly,
there
18
it c a m e t o b e a r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e w e l l - k n o w n
Silius describes a grove
foul
it h a s l i t t l e l u x .
that h a r b o r e d a h u g e s e r p e n t
fumes into the air
19
(drawn from
(P unica 6 , 1 4 6 - 5 4 ) .
More
a t the g r o v e s a n d t e m p l e o f J u p i t e r A m m o n in t he G a r a m a n t e s ,
is a s p r i n g
and boiling
In m o s t L a t i n
the trees are so c l ose that t h e y k e e p o u t the sun a n d stars.
e t y m o l o g y e x c o n t r a r i i s : t h e l u c u s is s o - c a l l e d b e c a u s e
Livy);
is a
that
at n i ght
is l u k e w a r m a t m o r n i n g a n d e v e n i n g b u t c o l d a t m i d d a y
(3, 6 6 9 - 7 2 ) .
This natural wonder
is j u s t m e n t i o n e d b y
O v i d a n d w a s p a s s e d on to t h e M i d d l e A g e s in g r e a t e r d e t a i l a n d w i t h
v a r i a t i o n s by Pliny,
Augustine,
and I s i d o r e . C o o k
adduces a number of
s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e w a t e r s o f Beow ulf a n d t h o s e o f the c l a s s i c a l
world.
21
And
in S t a t i u s
( T h e b i i d 2, 5 1 9 - 2 3 ) a n i m a l s w i l l n o t f e e d i n t h e
p a s t u r e s neigliboring the f o r m e r a b o d e o f the Sphinx;
s t a y a w a y f r o m the g r o v e
even obscene birds
(nem us).
To destroy a sacred tree was
to r i s k d i v i n e r e t r i b u t i o n ,
Tr o jans removed the stump of F a u n u s ' wild olive tree
The barbarous grove at Massilia caused hesitation
destroy
it,
under-
as w h e n the
(Aen. 12, 7 6 6 - 7 3 ) .
in t h e m e n o r d e r e d to
so C a e s a r h i m s e l f s t r u c k t h e f i r s t b l o w
(P h a r s , 3, 4 2 6 - 3 9 ) .
T h e s e p r o f a n a t i o n s r e m i n d o n e o f s i m i l a r a c t i o n s b y m i s s i o n a r i e s to G e r m a n i c
tribes,
a n d th e B eow ulf- p o e t m u s t h a v e b e e n c o n s c i o u s t h a t the g r o v e s d o t t i n g
the L a t i n
landscape had the
same b a s i s as tho s e r e v e r e d by his a n c e s t o r s .
Tacitus records a number of them as places of worship and sacrifice
in
Germania.
III
W i t h the a r r i v a l o f C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s ,
warned a gainst such heathen practices as
or by fountains.
22
Pope Gregory
" p r o p h e c i e s in g r o v e s
[lucorum]
The Hessians were among those sacrificing to trees
a n d s p r i n g s , w h i c h l e d to St. B o n i f a c e ' s d r a m a t i c f e l l i n g of t h e D o n a r O a k
23
at G e i s m a r .
C h a r l e m a g n e r e p e a t e d t his a c t i o n b y d e s t r o y i n g the Irminsul,
the t r e e - t r u n k su p p o r t i n g the h e a v e n l y vault, w h e n he a t t a c k e d the Saxo n s
24
in 772.
A l c u i n r e p o r t s S t . W i l l i b r o r d ’s s i m i l a r v i o l a t i o n o f a n i s l a n d
(Heligoland)
s a c r e d to t h e n a t i v e s :
i t s a n i m a l s w e r e u n t o u c h a b l e a n d i ts
25
Boniface estab­
s p r i n g w a s n o t t o b e u s e d e x c e p t in c o m p l e t e s i l e n c e .
li s h e d m o n a s t e r i e s w h e r e m o n k s c l e a r e d the forests.
This attracted peasants,
w h o e n g a g e d in c u l t i v a t i o n a n d
of
the forest d e p t h s
"lor.t w h a t r e m a i n e d o f t h e i r p r i m i t i v e a w e
t h e t r i b a l g o d s h a d l i v e d u n d i s t u r b e d . " 26
in w h i c h
A C h r i s t i a n w i t h a m o n a s t i c e d u c a t i o n w o u l d h a v e g r e a t e r d e l i g h t in the
27
" m o r a l " c o n t e n t o f t h e s e s i t e s t h a n in t h e i r p i c t u r e s q u e n e s s .
Since they
had been mad e
into gardens of spiritual delights
a n d be d e s c r i b e d
in B i b l i c a l t e r m s
the Elysian Fields).
would
inspire
But nature,
they would recall Paradise
(no d o u b t a l s o w i t h r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f
w h e n u n e m b e l l i s h e d b y the w o r k of man,
the l e a r n e d w i t h horror.
A wilderness unhallowed by any
e v i d e n c e of p r a y e r or the spiritual life s u g g e s t e d the state o f o r i g i n a l
28
sin.
S o t h e h a u n t e d g r o v e a n d m e r e i n B e o w u l f , r i c h in l i t e r a r y , h i s t o r i c ­
al,
and religious overtones,
would have had hellish a ssociations even w i t h ­
o u t the c l u e s w r i t t e n i n t o them.
These are the
t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n w h i c h the p o e t w a s w o r k i n g .
Malone has
d o n e a w a y w i t h t h e o l d c l a i m t h a t " G r e n d e l ' s a b o d e in t h e p o e t ' s h y p o ­
thetical
source
(a f o l k - t a l e )
the a b o d e d e s c r i b e d
in t h e
did not differ
Icel a n d i c saga
in its e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s
from
[ G r e tt i r 's Saga], a n d that these
features were distorted and obscured
of
in t h e E n g l i s h p o e m b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n
29
the C h r i s t i a n hell'."
In the d e s i r e to see G r e n d e l as
'conceptions of
a waterfall
waterfall
troll,
the s t r e a m f l o wing d o w n into the e a r t h w a s v i e w e d a s a
i n s t e a d of
the o c e a n .
Grendel
is c l e a r l y d e s c r i b e d a s
"a d e v i l
t h o u g h t a n d d e e d , " b u t s i n c e h e is o f h u m a n s t o c k h i s d w e l l i n g p l a c e
fittingly a
"hell on e a r t h . " 3^
in
is
Tho C h r i s t i a n - L a t i n t r a d i t i o n is b e h i n d
the
B e o w u lf- p o e t ' s j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f fi r e and ice in t h i s hell, t h o u g h , as w e
h a v e seen,
an analogous motif
w a t e r s of c l a s s i c a l
is p r e s e n t
l i t e r a t u r e . 31
in t h e g r o v e s a n d m a r v e l l o u s
A n d t h i s h e l l h a s a f f i n i t i e s w i t h St.
Pa ul's v i s i o n in the s e v e n t e e n t h B l i c k l i n g homily.
waters that go underground,
a g r e y stone,
The parallels
include
frosty groves overhanging
the area,
mists,
d a r k n e s s , a n d w a t e r - m o n s t e r s , in l a n g u a g e o f t e n i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t
32
of B eow ulf.
T o g e t h e r w i t h t h e g r e a t l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e h o m i l y is t h e
later o f the
two,
its d i f f e r e n c e s
f r o m t h e V i s i o P a u l i h e r e w o u l d s e e m to
indicate
that the a u t h o r h a d a n eye on B eow ulf,
borrowed
f r o m t h e h o m i l y . 33
The imaginary scene
suggest the familiar
pagan rites
( e . g . , HE 1,
ancestors and the more
including the Bible,
i n B e o w u lf is n o t h e l l
l o cale of
7).
i t s e l f b u t a p l a c e m e a n t to
"devil-worship," as Bede commonly calls
I t brings? t o m i n d t h e c u s t o m s o f t h e p o e t ' s
immediate lu c i
where
rather than t h a t the p oet
a n d nemora o f h i s L a t i n r e a d i n g ,
the f a l s e g o d s o f the O l d T e s t a m e n t a r e s o m e t i m e s
worshipped
in t h e m .
Their association with pagan religion was
that Isidore mentioned
The
it i n h i s e t y m o l o g i e s o f t h e w o r d s f o r
"heathen soul" of Grendel
so i n t i m a t e
"grove."^
f i t t i n g l y d e p a r t s f r o m t h e r e to t h e p l a c e o f
w h i c h the g r o v e and m ere are o n l y e a r t h l y images.
Boston College
NOTES
1 K e m p M a l o n e , " G r e n d e l a n d h i s A b o d e , " in S t u d i a P h i l o l o g i e s e t
L i t t e r a r i a i n Honorem L. S p i t z e r , e d . A . G. H a t c h e r a n d K . L . S e l i g
1958)
(B e r n
297-308.
2
T h e o d o r e M. A n d e r s s o n ,
graphy of
E a r l y E p ic S c e n e r y : Homer, V i r g i l , and t h e
( I t h a c a / L o n d o n 1976)
M e d ie v a l Legacy
145-59.
s c h o l a r s h i p on B eo w u lf a n d Virgil.
t i v e S t u d y o f t h e B e o w u l f a nd t h e A e n e i d
D. C o r n e l i u s ,
"Palus
( Princeton 1931)
Inamabilis," Speculum 2
p a r a l l e l s t o t h e m i s t i g e m oras
H i s n. 1 p r o v i d e s a b i b l i o ­
C f . T o m B. H a b e r , A Compara­
(1927)
92-96.
321-25,
Roberta
lists classical
(162).
3 A l a i n R e noir, "The T e r r o r of the D a r k Waters: A Note o n V i r g i l i a n an d
Beowulfian Techniques,"
i n The L e a rn e d and t h e Lewed: S t u d i e s i n C haucer and
M e d ie v a l L i t e r a t u r e , ed. L a r r y D. B e n s o n
4
Fr.
Klaeber,
B o s t o n 1950)
Malone
esp.
ed.,
lines 837-56,
(at n. 1)
(Cambridge,
Mass.
1974)
147-60.
B e o w u l f a n d The F i g h t a t F in n s b u r g (3rd e d n . ,
1345-76,
1408-36.
298.
6 V i r g i l , O pera, ed. R . A . B . M y n o r s ( O x f o r d 1 9 6 9 ) ; The A e n e i d , t r a n s .
W.F.
Jackson
Knight
(Harmondsworth 1956).
All other classical authors and
Cla u d i a n are c i ted from the Loeb Classical Library editions.
R.
C u r t i u s , E uropean L i t e r a t u r e and t h e L a t i n M i d d le A g e s ,
R. T r a s k
(New Y o r k / E v a n s t o n
1963)
Cf.
trans.
Ernst
Willard
200.
7 E x a m p l e s i n c l u d e t h e n e m u s o f S e d u l i u s , Carmen P a s c h a l e 1, 5 4 (PL
19.558).
C o m p a r e the lu c u s in a ccessa
. . . a r c e o f A v i t u s , Carmina d e S p i r i -
t u a l i s H i s t o r i a e G e s t i s 1, 2 1 3 ( P L 59. 3 2 8 B ) w i t h Aen. 7, 11.
C f.
Curtius
(at n.
6 ) 200.
B e r n a r d F.
H u p p e ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f De Die J u d i c i i
E n g l i s h Pe Domes D&ge s h o w s h o w s u c h g r o v e s
Eden
and the Old
inevitably took on overtones of
( D o c t r i n e and P o e t r y : A u g u s t i n e ' s I n f l u e n c e on Old E n g l i s h P o e t r y
[ A l b a n y 1959]
80-93).
8 A en . 7, 11, 8 2 ; L u c a n , P h a r s a l i a 1, 4 5 3 - 5 4 ; V a l e r i u s F i a c c u s , A r g o ­
n a u t ! ca 5,
237.
9 Malone
^
(at n.
Andersson
(221-28)
298,
(at n.
Andersson
3)
(at n.
305.
f i n d s in B e o w u l f ' s a r r i v a l
in D e n m a r k
150.
2)
13 A n d e r s s o n , o p . c i t .
14
301,
149-50,
a s u g g e s t i o n o f this scene.
Renoir
12
1)
(at n . 2 ) ,
M a r g a r e t E.
151.
156-59.
Goldsmith,
The Mode and Meaning o f B e o w u l f ( L o n d o n 1970)
113-14.
^ Cf.
Andersson
(at n.
2)
157.
P h a r s . 3, 4 0 8 ; S i l i u s I t a l i c u s , Punica 6 , 1 4 6 ; S t a t i u s ,
Lucan,
Th e b a id 4, 4 2 1 - 2 2 .
Cf.
18
^
A l b e r t S. C o o k ,
Silius,
St. A u g u s t i n e ,
Seville,
20
" V a r i o u s N o t e s , " MLN 22
(1907)
146-47.
P unica 6 , 1 4 7 ; S t a t i u s , Th e b a id 4, 4 2 0 - 2 1 ; 10, 85.
D e D octrina
C h r i s t i a n a 3, 29, 4 1
E t y i m l o g i a e 1, 37, 24 (PL 8 2 . 1 1 5 ) .
Cf.
(PL 3 4 . 8 1 ) ;
Curtius
M eta m orpho ses 15, 3 0 9 - 1 0 ; N a t u r a l i s H i s t o r i a
5,
5,
(at n . 6 ) 4 4 a n d 497.
37; De C i v i t a t e
Dei 21, 7, 1 (PL 4 1 . 7 1 8 ) ; E ty m o l o g i a e 13, 1 3 , 1 0 (PL 8 2 . 4 8 3 ) .
op. c i t .
202,
Isidore of
C f.
Curtius,
n.37.
21 C o o k (at n. 13) 1 4 7 .
22
Germania 7, 9, 10, 39, 40, 43; R e i n h o l d R a u , e d . , B r i e f e d e s
Bonifatius
trans.
( D a r mstadt 1968)
Ephraim Emerton
no.
(1940;
43
rpt.
(ca.
1976)
738);
70.
The L e t t e r s o f S a i n t B o n i f a c e ,
For e a r l i e r a t t a c k s u p o n and
l e g i s l a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e s e a n d o t h e r p a g a n p r a c t i c e s see J.N.
e d . , The C o n v e r s i o n o f W e s te r n E urope,
1969) 5 1 -63 a n d 92-111.
23
W i l l i b a l d ' s l i f e o f St.
Vitae S a n c ti
Hillgarth,
3 50 -750 ( E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , N . J .
Boniface,
6, in W i l h e l m L e v i s o n , ed. ,
B o n i f a t i i A r c h i e p i s c o p i M o g u n t i n i , MGH, S c r i p t . R e r . M e ro v .
1 (Hanover 1905) .
24
J.M.
W a l l a c e - H a d r i l l , The B a r b a r i a n W est:
A.D. 4 0 0 -1 0 0 0
25
Vita
(New Y o r k 1962)
W illib ro rd i
10.
102.
The E a r l y M id d le Ages
Wallace-Hadrill
27
Jean Leclercq,
(at n.
24)
O.S.B.,
87.
Cf.
Rau
(at n.
22)
t r a n s . C a t h a r i n e M i s r a h i (New Y o r k 19 6 1 ) 1 6 4 - 6 5 .
28
F o r G r e n d e l s m e r e a s a g a r d e n i n malo s e e D . W .
Doctrine of Charity
Through
30
in M e d i a e v a l L i t e r a r y G a r d e n s :
S y m b o l i s m a n d A l l e g o r y , " S p e culu m
topography"
116-17.
29
of this
Malone
Malone,
Bede,
"Enemy territory"
(at n.
1)
art.
cit.
26
Robertson,
Jr.,
The
(1951)
24-49.
The
is d i s c u s s e d b y G o l d s m i t h
"symbolic
(at n.
14)
297.
299.
E c c l e s i a s t i c a l H is to r y o f th e E n g lis h P eo p le, ed. B e r t r a m
Colgrave and R.A.B.
Mynors
( O xf o r d 1969)
5, 12; A l c u i n ,
(Oxford 1982)
L i f e o f S t . G u t h l a c , ed. B. C o l g r a v e
(Cambridge 1956)
Hell
86.
A Topical Approach
and S a i n t s o f Y o r k , ed. P e t e r G o d m a n
references
n o.
The Love o f L e a r n i n g and t h e D e s i r e f o r God,
in H i l d e g a r d L.C. T r i s t r a m ,
The B i s h o p s , K i n g s ,
910-14,
988-90;
105.
Felix,
See a l s o the
"Stock Descriptions of Heaven and
in O l d E n g l i s h P r o s e a n d P o e t r y , " N e u p h i l o l o g i s c h e M i t t e i l u n g e n 79
( 1 9 7 8 ) 1 1 1 n. 37.
32
The original
(at n.
1)
304-5.
and a t r a n sl at io n of the r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e a re
Klaeber's edition
p a r a l l e l s in the notes.
33
Carleton Brown wrote,
(at n .
4),
"the d e s c r i p t i o n s in the V i s i o a n d
a re w h o l l y i n d e p e n d e n t e x c e p t that t r e e s o c c u r in b o t h -- w h i l e
description
in M a l o n e
like most, provides the verbal
in t h e H o m i l y p r e s e n t s a f u s i o n o f e l e m e n t s
in B eow ulf
the
in t h e o t h e r t w o "
("B e o w u lf a n d t h e B l i c k l i n g H o m i l i e s , a n d S o m e T e x t u a l N o t e s , " PMLA 53
[1938]
908).
Cf.
A n t o n e t t e D.
Healey,
ed..
The Old E n g l i s h V i s i o n o f
S t . P a u l f S p e c u lu m A n n i v e r s a r y Monographs 2 ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . 1 9 7 8 ) 52.
34
Ex.
34:13;
J u d g e s 6:30;
4 K i n g s 13:6,
18:4;
M i c h e a s 5:13.
E t y m o l o g i s e 1 4 , 8 , 30; 17, 6 , 6 - 7 (PL 8 2 . 5 2 4 , 6 0 6 - 7 ) . T h e u s u a l O l d
E n g l i s h g l o s s o f nemus i s b e a r u , a n d v i c e v e r s a
G losses
[A C o l l e c t i o n ]
[New Y o r k 1945]
12;
(H.D. M e r i t t ,
Henry Sweet,
E n g l i s h T e x t s , EETS, O . S . 83 [London 1885] 142).
Old E n g l i s h
e d ., The O l d e s t
In the L e t t e r fro m
A l e x a n d e r t o A r i s t o t l e , b e a r o t r a n s l a t e s nemus a n d s i m i l a r w o r d s a n d e x ­
p r e s s i o n s during Alexan d e r ' s encounter with the talking
Rypins,
EETS,
tree
(Stanley
e d . , T h r e e Old E n g l i s h P r o s e T e x t s i n MS. C o t t o n V i t e l l i u s A x v ,
O.S.
161
[London 1924]
40 ff.).