A Class Research Project to Help Students Understand Correlation and Other Basic
Research Concepts
Author(s) Kathleen P. Greenberg
Institution State University of New York College at Old Westbury
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The exercise is designed for use in introductory research methods courses. It is a class research
project that addresses the question of whether there is a significant relationship between
competitiveness and aggressive driving. Students recruit from two to four participants, and
have them each complete two paper-and-pencil tests that serve as measures of each variable.
Students bring the completed tests to class, where the data are analyzed using statistical
software. They then write an APA-style research report to communicate the findings.
Correlation, Applying Statistical Concepts, Applying Research Concepts
Kathleen Puglisi Greenberg
Assistant Professor
SUNY College at Old Westbury
P.O. Box 210
Old Westbury, NY 11568
The exercise was presented as a poster at the 2010 meeting of the Association for
Psychological Science.
TeachPsychScience.org is made possible with grant support from the Association for Psychological Science (APS)
Fund for Teaching and Public Understanding of Psychological Science to the site creators Gary Lewandowski,
Natalie Ciarocco, and David Strohmetz. All materials on this site have been subjected to a peer review process.
We welcome additional resources (www.teachpsychscience.org/submissions).
A Class Research Project to Help Students Understand
Correlation and Other Basic Research Concepts
I have been using a simple correlational study that I designed as a class research project to help students
acquire a basic understanding of correlational concepts and research design. The study’s purpose is to test
the hypothesis that a positive relationship exists between competitiveness as a personality trait and
aggressive driving. The exercise is inexpensive and easy for students to carry out, yet “sophisticated” enough
to teach them about the operationalization of variables and the importance of using appropriate control
techniques. It also yields a rich yet manageable data set for introductory methods students to analyze, as it
allows for exploration gender differences and possible relationships between each of the factors of interest
and the variables of age and driving experience. Over the past eight semesters in which I have used the
exercise, Pearson r values have been significant (p < .05) and within the range of .38 to .46, with an average
sample size of 50 participants. In addition there tend to be no gender differences in either variable, a finding
that serves to challenge students to think about gender stereotypes.
Learning Outcomes – After completing the exercise, students should be able to:
1.
define correlation as an association between two variables;
2. define the Pearson r as a measure of the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two
scale level variables;
3. differentiate between the sign and the absolute value of the Pearson r in terms of the aspect of the
relationship that each signifies;
4. interpret different values of the Pearson r as signifying weak, moderate, and strong negative and
positive relationships;
5. generate a hypothesis as to the likely strength and direction of a relationship between two variables;
6. interpret the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables as graphically depicted in
a scatterplot; and
7. refrain from making definitive causal inferences about the nature of a relationship between two
variables on the basis of correlational data alone.
Other concepts reinforced by the excise include operational definitions, control procedures, and basic
descriptive and inferential statistics. Further, because students must write a complete APA-style research
report at the conclusion of the study, the exercise also helps students further develop the many skills that
underlie the process of writing of such a report, which include the ability to:
1.
read, comprehend, and summarize primary source information; analyze and synthesize information
from multiple sources; and engage in deductive reasoning in establishing the logical basis for a study
(in the Introduction);
2. discriminate between essential and non-essential information (in the Method section);
3. summarize, organize, analyze, and represent quantitative information (in the Results section);
4. integrate new information into an existing framework, and engage in inductive reasoning in
considering the broader implications of the study’s findings (in the Discussion);
5. write in a manner that is clear, coherent, concise, and professional (in all sections of the report); and,
6. pay attention to detail (again, in all sections of the report) when formatting for consistency with APA
guidelines.
Overview of the Exercise
1.
I begin by asking students to share with the class their experiences with aggressive driving, either as the
target of an aggressive driver or as an aggressive driver, themselves. I then direct the class to think about
the kinds of personality traits that might covary with the tendency to drive aggressively. Given the
popularity of the term “road rage,” the traits of anger and hostility are typically mentioned first; however,
I then suggest the idea that some drivers may feel as though driving is a game, and, as such, may engage
in this behavior much the same as they would had they been playing a competitive sport or video game.
2. Next, I help students turn this bit of speculation into an empirical question, and explain that the question
we will be addressing with our research is whether there is a relationship between competitiveness as a
personality trait and the tendency to drive aggressively.
3. Following this introduction to the topic, I tell students that we need to find out what is already known
about the topic by searching the psychological literature. Each student must use PsycINFO to locate three
peer-reviewed articles, which they will summarize and be prepared to discuss in class. Through this
discussion, students become familiar with the empirical context for the study.
4. We then discuss how we will measure aggressive driving. I ask students to consider what it means to say
that someone drives aggressively. This leads them to specify the individual behaviors that define this
behavioral concept. Given their familiarity with these behaviors, they readily generate examples, such as
“horn honking,” “tailgating,” and “speeding.” Through this hands-on process, students gain direct
experience in operationally defining a variable. I then give students a copy of the “Aggressive Driving
Survey,” an unpublished instrument consisting of a series of statements that participants rate on a 5-point
scale based on how much they feel it describes them.
5. At this point, I ask students whether they think the ADS is a valid definition of the concept of aggressive
driving, and whether there are other and perhaps more valid ways of measuring it, such as by actually
observing someone driving. We then discuss the trade-offs that we often must make when we conduct
research, where it is sometimes not feasible to conduct a study in the manner we would like. This raises
the issue of methodological limitations, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of field and
laboratory research.
6. I then distribute the Competitive-Cooperative Attitude Scale (CCAS) developed by Martin (1976) to be
used as a measure of trait competitiveness. It consists of a list of behaviors that are each rated based on
how much participants identify with that behavior.
7. Students recruit at least two licensed drivers who have been driving for at least one year. They recruit an
equal number of men and women so that we can explore possible gender differences. They are reminded
to reverse the order in which participants complete the tests to control for possible order effects. They
are also told to record each participant’s age and gender, and the number of years each has been driving.
8. Students bring the completed tests to class, and I demonstrate how to use SPSS or Minitab to analyze the
data. (In our department, students take introductory research methods before they take statistics;
however, at this point, we have already discussed the basics of descriptive and inferential statistics, so I
generate the mean, standard deviation, and range for the aggressive driving and the competitiveness
scores, and for the variables of age and number of years driving. I also do a frequency count for the
gender variable and, of course, determine the value of the Pearson r for the two variables of interest. For
“fun,” we also analyze the data to see if there are gender differences in the two variables, and to
determine whether age and competitiveness, and age and aggressive driving, are related.
9. When all of the data have been analyzed, we discuss the implications of the findings, and review how to
write an APA-style report.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT PROTOCOL
STEP 1 – THE RESEARCH IDEA
Studies exploring the relationship between certain personality characteristics and aggressive driving often focus
on the traits of anger, hostility, and aggression (e.g., Deffenbacher, Huff, Lynch, Oetting, & Salvatore, 2000;
Lajunen & Parker, 2001; Matthews & Norris, 2002). But what about competitiveness? Could it be that some
people who drive aggressively are very competitive, and just want to “to win,” “get ahead,” or “be first?”
STEP 2 – TURNING THE IDEA INTO AN EMPIRICAL QUESTION
Is there a relationship between competitiveness and aggressive driving?
STEP 3 – DOING LIBRARY RESEARCH
I will start you off with some useful descriptors (driving behavior, highway safety, personality) and a full text
review article on the topic  Sharkin, B. (2004). Road rage: Risk factors, assessment, and intervention strategies.
Journal of Counseling and Development, 82(2), 191-198. You must then find two more primary research articles
from peer-reviewed journals to include in your report.
STEP 4 – COLLECTING THE DATA
 Recruit two adult research participants – one male and one female.
 Make sure that both are licensed drivers who have been driving for at least one year.
 Create an Informed Consent form, using the template you were given. Say that the purpose of the study is to
learn about people’s driving habits. Among other things, explain that the procedure will involve filling out
two brief questionnaires, and will take about 10 minutes.
 After obtaining the participant's consent, give him/her either the Aggressive Driving Survey* (ADS) or the
Competitive-Cooperative Attitude Scale** (CCAS). Toss a coin to determine the order of presentation for the
first participant, then reverse the order for the second participant.
 Instruct the participant to go on to the second questionnaire after the first has been completed.
 When the second questionnaire is complete, record the participant’s gender, age, and number of years
driving. Then debrief and dismiss with thanks.
STEP 5 – SCORING THE QUESTIONNAIRES AND ANALYZING THE DATA
 For the ADS, add the numbers to get a total score.
 For the CCAS, first recode the questions that are reverse-scored by changing the ratings for questions 5, 7,
16, 21, 22, 26, 27, and 28 so that a 5 becomes a 1, a 4 becomes a 2, a 2 becomes a 4, and a 1 becomes a 5.
Then, using the new numbers, add all the scores.
BRING BOTH SETS OF QUESTIONNAIRES TO CLASS ON _________________ so that we can analyze the data.
STEP 6 – WRITING UP THE REPORT FOR PUBLICATION (OK, FOR A GRADE)
Write the report in accordance with APA guidelines. It must include all key sections of an APA-style manuscript –
title page, abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, and reference sections – plus a table and a figure
(which I'll give you).
 Refer to the APA manual and/or the manuscript template I gave you, as needed.
 Refer to the Report Scoring Instrument for grade-specific guidelines.
 Refer to ME and/or a TA if all else fails, or if you’d prefer to talk to a human being.
* Created for the purposes of this study.
** Martin, H. J. (1976). The competitive-cooperative attitude scale. Psychological Reports, 95, 303-306.
AGGRESSIVE DRIVING SURVEY
This survey measures driving habits. Please reflect honestly on your own behavior behind the wheel as
you fill it out. Remember that your answers will not in any way be identified with you personally.
DIRECTIONS: Use the 5-point scale provided below to indicate how well, if at all, each of the following
statements describes you. Write the number in the space provided.
5
Exactly
like me
4
Very Much
like me
3
Somewhat
like me
2
Not Very Much
like me
1
Not At All
like me
1.
I often drive over the speed limit. ______
2.
I often change lanes or make turns without signaling. ______
3.
I often make illegal turns to get ahead. ______
4.
I often follow close to the car in front of me when the driver isn’t going fast enough. ______
5.
I often get angry at other drivers when I’m driving. ______
6.
I rarely come to a complete stop at a stop sign. ______
7.
I like it when I’m the first car in line at a red signal. ______
8.
I often stare at other drivers when they annoy me. ______
9.
I often deny the right of way to other motorists. ______
10.
I often cut other drivers off. ______
11.
If I really think about it, I actually feel superior to other drivers when I pass them. ______
12.
I often honk my horn out of frustration with other drivers. ______
13.
I often find myself thinking that I’m a better driver than most other drivers on the road. ______
14.
Whether or not they can hear me, I often yell or swear at other drivers. ______
15.
I often weave in and out of traffic. ______
16.
I don’t have a lot of patience for bad drivers. ______
17.
I often use obscene hand gestures directed at other drivers while on the road. ______
18.
I’ve used my high beams to retaliate against other drivers. ______
19.
I’ve stepped on my brakes to “punish” a tailgater. ______
20.
I often block cars from trying to pass or change lanes. ______
21.
I will chase another car when the driver has challenged me. ______
22.
I have gotten into a physical fight with another driver. ______
23.
I feel like I’m competing with other drivers even under everyday driving conditions. ______
24.
I feel the need to get where I’m going in the least amount of time. ______
25.
I think of highway and street driving as a kind of competition. ______
References
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (n.d.). Aggressive driving. Retrieved from nhtsa.gov/Aggressive
Bone, S. A., & Mowen, J. C. (2006). Identifying the traits of aggressive and distracted drivers: A hierarchical trait
model approach. Journal of Consumer Behavior, 5, 454-464.
Greenberg, K. P. (2012). A reliable and valid weighted scoring instrument for use in grading APA-style empirical
research reports. Teaching of Psychology, 39(1), 13-26.
Jovanović, D., Stanojević, P., & Stanojević, D. (2011). Motives for, and attitudes about, driving-related anger and
aggressive driving. Social Behaviour and Personality, 39(6), 755-764.
Krahe, B. (2005). Predictors of women’s aggressive driving. Aggressive Behavior, 31(6), 537-546.
Martin, H. J. (1976). The competitive-cooperative attitude scale. Psychological Reports, 95, 303-306.
McGarva, A. R., Ramsey, M., & Shear, S. A. (2006). Effects of driver cell phone use. The Journal of Social
Psychology, 146(2), 133-146.
Nordfjærn, T., Jørgensen, S., & Rundmo, T. (2011). A cross-cultural comparison of road traffic risk perceptions,
attitudes towards traffic safety and driver behaviour. Journal of Risk Research, 14(6), 657-684.
National Safety Council. (n.d.). Our driving concern. Employer traffic safety program. Retrieved from
http://www.nsc.org/safety_road/Employer%20Traffic%20Safety/Pages/NationalAggressiveDriving.aspx
Ruvio, A. A., & Shoham, A. (2011). Aggressive Driving: A consumption experience. Psychology and Marketing,
28(11), 1089-1114.
Warner, H. W., Ozkan, T., Lajunen, T., & Tzamalouka, G. (2011). Cross-cultural comparison of drivers’ tendency to
commit aberrant driving behaviours. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 14(5),
390-399.