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BE ST SEL L INGB OOK S: AWE SO ME RE VIEW SE RIE S O F JAMIA URDU
H INDPUB L ISH E D B Y JUH PRESSO F FAL AH -E -H IND L IB RARY. ISB N006527278
AWESOME
REVIEW
SERIES
OF
JAMIA URDU HIND
CHEMISTRY
(10+2)
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BE ST SEL L INGB OOK S: AWE SO ME RE VIEW SE RIE S O F JAMIA URDU
H INDPUB L ISH E D B Y JUH PRESSO F FAL AH -E -H IND L IB RARY. ISB N006527278
Preface
Dear Students of Jamia Urdu Hind of past and present,
We understand you don‘t need the help of anyone …………..,
But we just want to take care of the way you design everything.
Something we want to share with you owing to your association with JUH!!!
We can't find a reason why Allah gave this idea of writing Awesome Review Series of JUH with mnemonics to us to present
subjects in this review form having complete points touching all competitive exams of respective standard in the shortest form as
per your need and desire based on NCERT and Madrasa Board? But that is not the question to be asked; May be…….. The question is
how did Allah know that we needed a student like you.
Wonderful students are carefully created by Allah,
Wonderful moments are carefully planned by Allah,
Wonderful innovative truth seeker like you are carefully gifted by Allah!!
Always read between the line……
To educate the children of non-educated persons are tougher than that of educated persons hence Muslims are least educated
minority community in the country as per Decoded Minority Report since British Imperialism. There is declining Muslim IAS Officers
from 1950 (13 %) to 2000 (2.92 %) among its 14% population in India. IAS officer is the pillar of governance. Hence, more than
50000 Madarsa and 14% literacy to India are contributed by Muslims without grants from government. Madarsa has produced
architecture of Taj Mahal, Lal Qila, Qutub Minar along with Abusena in medicine and Khaiyam in mathematics. Madrasa for Urdu
Courses in India is like Dinosaurs with Lal Qila, Qutub Minar, Jama Masjid, Taj Mahal as remnant for scientific research. In the
past, Urdu has gathered a good deal of political dust, which it must shed in the interest of its health & growth. The basic problems
of a language are educational, literary or administrative and if we confine ourselves to these spheres, we will discover that solutions
become easier to find. India will never be a developed nation until power practice of biased mind will be ceased and surrendered
completely and voluntarily.
BP Singhal, MP(RS), Ex-DG, IPS said : Could a community that ruled India for over 950 years and belonged to a privileged class
even during British Raj, becomes socially handicapped. This now encounters the worst conditions (worse than SC/ST) in their own
land (as per minority report) and urgently needs emergency educational support to achieve 100% literacy so as to make India a
developed nation (Ref: Problems & Policy of Minority in India).
We provide education through literacy campaign in the country and our positive move has empowered the most deprived class to be
in the nation‘s mainstream. Education and Nation are incomplete without Urdu and like Hindi, Urdu is the thread of Bharat‘s beaded
necklace where all super power of the world is quit on the united front. One can use all the superlatives about the literary work of
the institution but this won't mean anything to anybody. We state the facts that are verifiable.
You are served by the country as you serve the country because your leaders are exactly like you.
No human society can develop in all its dimensions if it does not produce meaningful literature for its children and young readers.
Therefore, the framework of a society should be established around the pillars of knowledge by converting it into a democratic force
and take it into every corner of our country. There is a great hunger for knowledge in the country and our motto, therefore, should
be all for knowledge and knowledge for all (President of India).
People do not remember what one says but they always remember what one tries to make them feel and nothing is better than
honesty and goodness in the world!!! Never expect, do not criticize, do the best you can, surely you will rise very high in your life if
you have confidence, trust and hope like Einstein, Newton, Mendal, Aryabhat, Edison, Khaiyam, Abusena and Archemedes.
Confidence:
Once, all villagers decided to pray for rain. On prayer day, all people gathered and only one boy came with an umbrella………
that―s confidence……..
Trust:
Trust should be like the feeling of a one year old baby, when you throw him in air, he laughs....because he knows you will catch
him……..
That―s trust....
Hope:
A human being can live for 40 days without water, 8 minutes without air, but not a single second without one thing………
That―s hope..........
-Writer’s Union of JUH
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H INDPUB L ISH E D B Y JUH PRESSO F FAL AH -E -H IND L IB RARY. ISB N006527278
CONTENTS
Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
Structure of Atom
Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties
Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
States of Matter
Thermodynamics
Equilibrium
Redox Reactions
Hydrogen
The s-Block Elements
The p-Block Elements
Organic Chemistry – Some Basic Principles
Hydrocarbons
Carbon and its compounds
Environmental Chemistry
The Solid State
Solutions
Electrochemistry
Chemical Kinetics
Surface Chemistry
General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements
The p-Block
The d-and f-Block Elements
Coordination Compounds
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
Amines
Biomolecules
Polymers
Chemistry in Everyday Life
Mnemonics in Chemistry
Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
Definitions of the SI Base Units
Metre (m): The metre is the length of path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a
second (17th CGPM, 1983).
Kilogram (kg): The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram
(3rd CGPM, 1901).
Second (s): The second is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between
the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom (13th CGPM, 1967).
Ampere (A): The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite
length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these
conductors a force equal to 2 10-7 Newton per metre of length (9th CGPM, 1948).
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Kelvin (K): The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water (13th CGPM, 1967).
Mole (mol): The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are
atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be
atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles (14th CGPM, 1971).
Candela (cd): The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of (1/683) watt per steradian
(16th CGPM, 1979). (The symbols listed here are internationally agreed and should not be changed in other languages
or scripts).
The study of chemistry is very important as its domain encompasses every sphere of life. Chemists study the properties
and structure of substances and the changes undergone by them. All substances contain matter which can exist in
three states – solid, liquid or gas. The constituent particles are held in different ways in these states of matter and
they exhibit their characteristic properties. Matter can also be classified into elements, compounds or mixtures. An
element contains particles of only one type which may be atoms or molecules. The compounds are formed where
atoms of two or more elements combine in a fixed ratio to each other. Mixtures occur widely and many of the
substances present around us are mixtures. When the properties of a substance are studied, measurement is inherent.
The quantification of properties requires a system of measurement and units in which the quantities are to be
expressed. Many systems of measurement exist out of which the English and the Metric Systems are widely used. The
scientific community, however, has agreed to have a uniform and common system throughout the world which is
abbreviated as SI units (International System of Units). Since measurements involve recording of data which are always
associated with a certain amount of uncertainty, the proper handling of data obtained by measuring the quantities is
very important. The measurements of quantities in chemistry are spread over a wide range of 10–31 to 10+23. Hence, a
convenient system of expressing the numbers in scientific notation is used. The uncertainty is taken care of by
specifying the number of significant figures in which the observations are reported. The dimensional analysis helps to
express the measured quantities in different systems of units. Hence, it is possible to interconvert the results from one
system of units to another.
The combination of different atoms is governed by basic laws of chemical combination – these being the Law of
Conservation of Mass, Law of Definite Proportions, Law of Multiple Proportions, Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous
Volumes and Avogadro Law. All these laws led to the Dalton’s atomic theory which states that atoms are building
blocks of matter. The atomic mass of an element is expressed relative to 12C isotope of carbon which has an exact
value of 12u. Usually, the atomic mass used for an element is the average atomic mass obtained by taking into
account the natural abundance of different isotopes of that element. The molecular mass of a molecule is obtained by
taking sum of the atomic masses of different atoms present in a molecule. The molecular formula can be calculated
by determining the mass per cent of different elements present in a compound and its molecular mass.
The number of atoms, molecules or any other particles present in a given system are expressed in the terms of
Avogadro constant (6.022 1023). This is known as 1 mol of the respective particles or entities. Chemical reactions
represent the chemical changes undergone by different elements and compounds. A balanced chemical equation
provides a lot of information. The coefficients indicate the molar ratios and the respective number of particles taking
part in a particular reaction. The quantitative study of the reactants required or the products formed is called
stoichiometry. Using stoichiometric calculations, the amounts of one or more reactant(s) required to produce a
particular amount of product can be determined and vice-versa. The amount of substance present in a given volume of
a solution is expressed in number of ways, e.g., mass per cent, mole fraction, molarity and molality.
Structure of Atom
Atoms are the building blocks of elements. They are the smallest parts of an element that chemically react. The first
atomic theory, proposed by John Dalton in 1808, regarded atom as the ultimate indivisible particle of matter. Towards
the end of the nineteenth century, it was proved experimentally that atoms are divisible and consist of three
fundamental particles: electrons, protons and neutrons. The discovery of sub-atomic particles led to the proposal of
various atomic models to explain the structure of atom. Thomson in 1898 proposed that an atom consists of uniform
sphere of positive electricity with electrons embedded into it. This model in which mass of the atom is considered to
be evenly spread over the atom was proved wrong by Rutherford‘s famous alpha-particle scattering experiment in
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1909. Rutherford concluded that atom is made of a tiny positively charged nucleus, at its centre with electrons
revolving around it in circular orbits. Rutherford model, which resembles the solar system, was no doubt an
improvement over Thomson model but it could not account for the stability of the atom i.e., why the electron does
not fall into the nucleus. Further, it was also silent about the electronic structure of atoms i.e., about the distribution
and relative energies of electrons around the nucleus. The difficulties of the Rutherford model were overcome by Niels
Bohr in 1913 in his model of the hydrogen atom. Bohr postulated that electron moves around the nucleus in circular
orbits. Only certain orbits can exist and each orbit corresponds to a specific energy. Bohr calculated the energy of
electron in various orbits and for each orbit predicted the distance between the electron and nucleus. Bohr model,
though offering a satisfactory model for explaining the spectra of the hydrogen atom, could not explain the spectra of
multi-electron atoms. The reason for this was soon discovered. In Bohr model, an electron is regarded as a charged
particle moving in a well defined circular orbit about the nucleus. The wave
character of the electron is ignored in Bohr‘s theory. An orbit is a clearly defined path and this path can completely be
defined only if both the exact position and the exact velocity of the electron at the same time are known. This is not
possible according to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, therefore, not only
ignores the dual behaviour of electron but also contradicts Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Erwin Schrödinger, in
1926, proposed an equation called Schrödinger equation to describe the electron distributions in space and the allowed
energy levels in atoms. This equation incorporates de Broglie‘s concept of wave-particle duality and is consistent with
Heisenberg uncertainty principle. When Schrödinger equation is solved for the electron in a hydrogen atom, the
solution gives the possible energy states the electron can occupy [and the corresponding wave function(s) (
) (which in
fact are the mathematical functions) of the electron associated with each energy state]. These quantized energy states
and corresponding wave functions which are characterized by a set of three quantum numbers (principal quantum
number n, azimuthal quantum number l and magnetic quantum number ml) arise as a natural consequence in the
solution of the Schrödinger equation. The restrictions on the values of these three quantum numbers also come
naturally from this solution. The quantum mechanical model of the hydrogen atom successfully predicts all aspects of
the hydrogen atom spectrum including some phenomena that could not be explained by the Bohr model. According to
the quantum mechanical model of the atom, the electron distribution of an atom containing a number of electrons is
divided into shells. The shells, in turn, are thought to consist of one or more subshells and subshells are assumed to be
composed of one or more orbitals, which the electrons occupy. While for hydrogen and hydrogen like systems (such as
He+, Li2+ etc.) all the orbitals within a given shell have same energy, the energy of the orbitals in a multi-electron
atom depends upon the values of n and l: The lower the value of (n + l ) for an orbital, the lower is its energy. If two
orbitals have the same (n + l ) value, the orbital with lower value of n has the lower energy. In an atom many such
orbitals are possible and electrons are filled in those orbitals in order of increasing energy in accordance with Pauli
exclusion principle (no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers) and Hund’s rule of
maximum multiplicity (pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell does not take place until
each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each, i.e., is singly occupied). This forms the basis of the
electronic structure of atoms.
Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties
In this Unit, you have studied the development of the Periodic Law and the Periodic Table. Mendeleevís Periodic
Table was based on atomic masses. Modern Periodic Table arranges the elements in the order of their atomic numbers
in seven horizontal rows (periods) and eighteen vertical columns (groups or families). Atomic numbers in a period are
consecutive, whereas in a group they increase in a pattern. Elements of the same group have similar valence shell
electronic configuration and, therefore, exhibit similar chemical properties. However, the elements of the same period
have incrementally increasing number of electrons from left to right, and, therefore, have different valencies. Four
types of elements can be recognized in the periodic table on the basis of their electronic configurations. These are sblock, p-block, d-block and f-block elements.
Hydrogen with one electron in the 1s orbital occupies a unique position in the periodic table. Metals comprise more
than seventy eight per cent of the known elements. Nonmetals, which are located at the top of the periodic table, are
less than twenty in number. Elements which lie at the border line between metals and non-metals (e.g., Si, Ge, As) are
called metalloids or semi-metals. Metallic character increases with increasing atomic number in a group whereas
decreases from left to right in a period. The physical and chemical properties of elements vary periodically with their
atomic numbers. Periodic trends are observed in atomic sizes, ionization enthalpies, electron gain enthalpies,
electronegativity and valence. The atomic radii decrease while going from left to right in a period and increase with
atomic number in a group. Ionization enthalpies generally increase across a period and decrease down a group.
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Electronegativity also shows a similar trend. Electron gain enthalpies, in general, become more negative across a
period and less negative down a group. There is some periodicity in valence, for example, among representative
elements, the valence is either equal to the number of electrons in the outermost orbitals or eight minus this number.
Chemical reactivity is hightest at the two extremes of a period and is lowest in the centre. The reactivity on the left
extreme of a period is because of the ease of electron loss (or low ionization enthalpy). Highly reactive elements do
not occur in nature in free state; they usually occur in the combined form. Oxides formed of the elements on the left
are basic and of the elements on the right are acidic in nature. Oxides of elements in the centre are amphoteric or
neutral.
Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
Kösselís first insight into the mechanism of formation of electropositive and electronegative ions related the process to
the attainment of noble gas configurations by the respective ions. Electrostatic attraction between ions is the cause for
their stability. This gives the concept of electrovalency. The first description of covalent bonding was provided by
Lewis in terms of the sharing of electron pairs between atoms and he related the process to the attainment of noble
gas configurations by reacting atoms as a result of sharing of electrons. The Lewis dot symbols show the number of
valence electrons of the atoms of a given element and Lewis dot structures show pictorial representations of bonding
in molecules. An ionic compound is pictured as a three-dimensional aggregation of positive and negative ions in an
ordered arrangement called the crystal lattice. In a crystalline solid there is a charge balance between the positive and
negative ions. The crystal lattice is stabilized by the enthalpy of lattice formation. While a single covalent bond is
formed by sharing of an electron pair between two atoms, multiple bonds result from the sharing of two or three
electron pairs. Some bonded atoms have additional pairs of electrons not involved in bonding. These are called
lonepairs of electrons. A Lewis dot structure shows the arrangement of bonded pairs and lone pairs around each atom
in a molecule. Important parameters, associated with chemical bonds, like: bond length, bond angle, bond
enthalpy, bond order and bond polarity have significant effect on the properties of compounds. A number of
molecules and polyatomic ions cannot be described accurately by a single Lewis structure and a number of descriptions
(representations) based on the same skeletal structure are written and these taken together represent the molecule or
ion. This is a very important and extremely useful concept called resonance. The contributing structures or canonical
forms taken together constitute the resonance hybrid which represents the molecule or ion. The VSEPR model used for
predicting the geometrical shapes of molecules is based on the assumption that electron pairs repel each other and,
therefore, tend to remain as far apart as possible. According to this model, molecular geometry is determined by
repulsions between lone pairs and lone pairs ; lone pairs and bonding pairs and bonding pairs and bonding pairs. The
order of these repulsions being : lp-lp > lp-bp > bp-bp The valence bond (VB) approach to covalent bonding is basically
concerned with the energetics of covalent bond formation about which the Lewis and VSEPR models are silent.
Basically the VB theory discusses bond formation in terms of overlap of orbitals. For example the formation of the H2
molecule from two hydrogen atoms involves the overlap of the 1s orbitals of the two H atoms which are singly
occupied. It is seen that the potential energy of the system gets lowered as the two H atoms come near to each other.
At the equilibrium inter-nuclear distance (bond distance) the energy touches a minimum. Any attempt to bring the
nuclei still closer results in a sudden increase in energy and consequent destabilization of the molecule. Because of
orbital overlap the electron density between the nuclei increases which helps in bringing them closer. It is however
seen that the actual bond enthalpy and bond length values are not obtained by overlap alone and other variables have
to be taken into account. For explaining the characteristic shapes of polyatomic molecules Pauling introduced the
concept of hybridisation of atomic orbitals. sp,sp2, sp3 hybridizations of atomic orbitals of Be, B,C, N and O are used
to explain the formation and geometrical shapes of molecules like BeCl2, BCl3, CH4, NH3 and H2O. They also explain
the formation of multiple bonds in molecules like C2H2 and C2H4. The molecular orbital (MO) theory describes
bonding in terms of the combination and arrangment of atomic orbitals to form molecular orbitals that are associated
with the molecule as a whole. The number of molecular orbitals are always equal to the number of atomic orbitals
from which they are formed. Bonding molecular orbitals increase electron density between the nuclei and are lower in
energy than the individual atomic orbitals. Antibonding molecular orbitals have a region of zero electron density
between the nuclei and have more energy than the individual atomic orbitals. The electronic configuration of the
molecules is written by filling electrons in the molecular orbitals in the order of increasing energy levels. As in the case
of atoms, the Pauli exclusion principle and Hundís rule are applicable for the filling of molecular orbitals. Molecules
are said to be stable if the number of elctrons in bonding molecular orbitals is greater than that in antibonding
molecular orbitals. Hydrogen bond is formed when a hydrogen atom finds itself between two highly electronegative
atoms such as F, O and N. It may be intermolecular (existing between two or more molecules of the same or different
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substances) or intramolecular (present within the same molecule). Hydrogen bonds have a powerful effect on the
structure and properties of many compounds.
States of Matter
Intermolecular forces operate between the particles of matter. These forces differ from pure electrostatic forces that
exist between two oppositely charged ions. Also, these do not include forces that hold atoms of a covalent molecule
together through covalent bond. Competition between thermal energy and intermolecular interactions determines the
state of matter. ―Bulk‖ properties of matter such as behaviour of gases, characteristics of solids and liquids and change
of state depend upon energy of constituent particles and the type of interaction between them. Chemical properties of
a substance do not change with change of state, but the reactivity depends upon the physical state. Forces of
interaction between gas molecules are negligible and are almost independent of their chemical nature.
Interdependence of some observable properties namely pressure, volume, temperature and mass leads to different gas
laws obtained from experimental studies on gases. Boyle’s law states that under isothermal condition, pressure of a
fixed amount of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume. Charles’ law is a relationship between volume and
absolute temperature under isobaric condition. It states that volume of a fixed amount of gas is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature (V ∝ T ) . If state of a gas is represented by p1, V1 and T1 and it changes to state at p2, V2
and T2, then relationship between these two states is given by combined gas law according to which P1V1/T1=P2
V2/T2. Any one of the variables of this gas can be found out if other five variables are known. Avogadro law states
that equal volumes of all gases under same conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.
Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases is equal to the
sum of partial pressures exerted by them. Thus p = p1+p2+p3+ ... . Relationship between pressure, volume,
temperature and number of moles of a gas describes its state and is called equation of state of the gas. Equation of
state for ideal gas is PV=nRT, where R is a gas constant and its value depends upon units chosen for pressure, volume
and temperature. At high pressure and low temperature intermolecular forces start operating strongly between the
molecules of gases because they come close to each other. Under suitable temperature and pressure conditions gases
can be liquified. Liquids may be considered as continuation of gas phase into a region of small volume and very strong
molecular attractions. Some properties of liquids e.g., surface tension and viscosity are due to strong intermolecular
attractive forces.
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics deals with energy changes in chemical or physical processes and enables us to study these changes
quantitatively and to make useful predictions. For these purposes, we divide the universe into the system and the
surroundings. Chemical or physical processes lead to evolution or absorption of heat (q), part of which may be
converted into work (w). These quantities are related through the first law of thermodynamics via 
U = q + w. U,
change in internal energy, depends on initial and final states only and is a state function, whereas q and w depend on
the path and are not the state functions. We follow sign conventions of q and w by giving the positive sign to these
quantities when these are added to the system. We can measure the transfer of heat from one system to another which
causes the change in temperature. The magnitude of rise in temperature depends on the heat capacity (C) of a
substance. Therefore, heat absorbed or evolved is q = CT. Work can be measured by w = ñpexV, in case of expansion
of gases. Under reversible process, we can put pex = p for infinitesimal changes in the volume making wrev = ñ p dV. In
this condition, we can use gas equation, pV = nRT. At constant volume, w = 0, then 
U = qV , heat transfer at constant
volume. But in study of chemical reactions, we usually have constant pressure. We define another state function
enthalpy. Enthalpy change, H = U + ngRT, can be found directly from the heat changes at constant pressure, 
H=
qp. There are varieties of enthalpy changes. Changes of phase such as melting, vaporization and sublimation usually
occur at constant temperature and can be characterized by enthalpy changes which are always positive. Enthalpy of
formation, combustion and other enthalpy changes can be calculated using Hess’s law. First law of thermodynamics
does not guide us about the direction of chemical reactions i.e., what is the driving force of a chemical reaction. For
isolated systems, we define another state function, S, entropy for this purpose. Entropy is a measure of disorder or
randomness. For a spontaneous change, total entropy change is positive. Chemical reactions are generally carried at
constant pressure, so we define another state function Gibbs energy, G, which is related to entropy and enthalpy
changes of the system by the equation: G
nS. Temperature is an important factor in the equation. Many reactions
which are non-spontaneous at low temperature, are made spontaneous at high temperature for systems having positive
entropy of reaction.
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Equilibrium
When the number of molecules leaving the liquid to vapour equals the number of molecules returning to the liquid
from vapour, equilibrium is said to be attained and is dynamic in nature. Equilibrium can be established for both
physical and chemical processes and at this stage rate of forward and reverse reactions are equal. Equilibrium
constant, Kc is expressed as the concentration of products divided by reactants, each term raised to the stoichiometric
coefficient.
For reaction, a A + b B � c C +d D Kc = [C]c[D]d/[A]a[B]b. Equilibrium constant has constant value at a fixed
temperature and at this stage all the macroscopic properties such as concentration, pressure, etc. become constant.
For a gaseous reaction equilibrium constant is expressed as Kp and is written by replacing concentration terms by
partial pressures in Kc expression. The direction of reaction can be predicted by reaction quotient Qc which is equal to
Kc at equilibrium. Le Chatelier’s principle states that the change in any factor such as temperature, pressure,
concentration, etc. will cause the equilibrium to shift in such a direction so as to reduce or counteract the effect of
the change. It can be used to study the effect of various factors such as temperature, concentration, pressure, catalyst
and inert gases on the direction of equilibrium and to control the yield of products by controlling these factors.
Catalyst does not effect the equilibrium composition of a reaction mixture but increases the rate of chemical reaction
by making available a new lower energy pathway for conversion of reactants to products and vice-versa. All substances
that conduct electricity in aqueous solutions are called electrolytes. Acids, bases and salts are electrolytes and the
conduction of electricity by their aqueous solutions is due to anions and cations produced by the dissociation or
ionization of electrolytes in aqueous solution. The strong electrolytes are completely dissociated. In weak electrolytes
there is equilibrium between the ions and the unionized electrolyte molecules. According to Arrhenius, acids give
hydrogen ions while bases produce hydroxyl ions in their aqueous solutions. Brönsted-Lowry on the other hand,
defined an acid as a proton donor and a base as a proton acceptor. When a Brönsted-Lowry acid reacts with a base, it
produces its conjugate base and a conjugate acid corresponding to the base with which it reacts. Thus a conjugate
pair of acid-base differs only by one proton. Lewis further generalised the definition of an acid as an electron pair
acceptor and a base as an electron pair donor. The expressions for ionization (equilibrium) constants of weak acids (Ka)
and weak bases (Kb) are developed using Arrhenius definition. The degree of ionization and its dependence on
concentration and common ion are discussed. The pH scale (pH = -log[H+]) for the hydrogen ion concentration
(activity) has been introduced and extended to other quantities (pOH = – log[OH–]) ; pKa = –log[Ka] ; pKb = –log[Kb];
and pKw = –log[Kw] etc.). The ionization of water has been considered and we note that the equation: pH + pOH = pKw
is always satisfied. The salts of strong acid and weak base, weak acid and strong base, and weak acid and weak base
undergo hydrolysis in aqueous solution.The definition of buffer solutions, and their importance are discussed briefly.
The solubility equilibrium of sparingly soluble salts is discussed and the equilibrium constant is introduced as solubility
product constant (Ksp). Its relationship with solubility of the salt is established. The conditions of precipitation of the
salt from their solutions or their dissolution in water are worked out. The role of common ion and the solubility of
sparingly soluble salts is also discussed.
Redox Reactions
Redox reactions form an important class of reactions in which oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously. Three
tier conceptualisation viz, classical, electronic and oxidation number, which is usually available in the texts, has been
presented in detail. Oxidation, reduction, oxidising agent (oxidant) and reducing agent (reductant) have been viewed
according to each conceptualisation. Oxidation numbers are assigned in accordance with a consistent set of rules.
Oxidation number and ion-electron method both are useful means in writing equations for the redox reactions. Redox
reactions are classified into four categories: combination, decomposition displacement and disproportionation
reactions. The concept of redox couple and electrode processes is introduced here. The redox reactions find wide
applications in the study of electrode processes and cells.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the lightest atom with only one electron. Loss of this electron results in an elementary particle, the
proton. Thus, it is unique in character. It has three isotopes, namely : protium, deuterium and tritium. Amongst these
three, only tritium is radioactive. Inspite of its resemblance both with alkali metals and halogens, it occupies a
separate position in the periodic table because of its unique properties. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the
universe. In the free state it is almost not found in the earth‘s atmosphere. However, in the combined state, it is the
third most abundant element on the earth‘s surface. Dihydrogen on the industrial scale is prepared by the water-gas
shift reaction from petrochemicals. It is obtained as a byproduct by the electrolysis of brine. The H–H bond
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dissociation enthalpy of dihydrogen (435.88 kJ mol–1) is the highest for a single bond between two atoms of any
elements. This property is made use of in the atomic hydrogen torch which generates a temperature of ~4000K and is
ideal for welding of high melting metals. Though dihydrogen is rather inactive at room temperature because of very
high negative dissociation enthalpy, it combines with almost all the elements under appropriate conditions to form
hydrides. All the type of hydrides can be classified into three categories: ionic or saline hydrides, covalent or
molecular hydrides and metallic or non-stoichiometric hydrides. Alkali metal hydrides are good reagents for preparing
other hydride compounds. Molecular hydrides (e.g., B2H6, CH4, NH3, H2O) are of great importance in day-to-day life.
Metallic hydrides are useful for ultrapurification of dihydrogen and as dihydrogen storage media. Among the other
chemical reactions of dihydrogen, reducing reactions leading to the formation hydrogen halides, water, ammonia,
methanol, vanaspati ghee, etc. are of great importance. In metallurgical process, it is used to reduce metal oxides. In
space programmes, it is used as a rocket fuel. In fact, it has promising potential for use as a non-polluting fuel of the
near future (Hydrogen Economy). Water is the most common and abundantly available substance. It is of a great
chemical and biological significance. The ease with which water is transformed from liquid to solid and to gaseous
state allows it to play a vital role in the biosphere. The water molecule is highly polar in nature due to its bent
structure. This property leads to hydrogen bonding which is the maximum in ice and least in water vapour. The polar
nature of water makes it: (a) a very good solvent for ionic and partially ionic compounds; (b) to act as an amphoteric
(acid as well as base) substance; and (c) to form hydrates of different types. Its property to dissolve many salts,
particularly in large quantity, makes it hard and hazardous for industrial use. Both temporary and permanent hardness
can be removed by the use of zeolites, and synthetic ion-exchangers. Heavy water, D2O is another important
compound which is manufactured by the electrolytic enrichment of normal water. It is essentially used as a moderator
in nuclear reactors. Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 has an interesting non-polar structure and is widely used as an
industrial bleach and in pharmaceutical and pollution control treatment of industrial and domestic effluents.
The s-Block Elements
The s-Block of the periodic table constitutes Group1 (alkali metals) and Group 2 (alkaline earth metals). They are so
called because their oxides and hydroxides are alkaline in nature. The alkali metals are characterised by one s-electron
and the alkaline earth metals by two s-electrons in the valence shell of their atoms. These are highly reactive metals
forming monopositive (M+) and dipositve (M2+) ions respectively. There is a regular trend in the physical and chemical
properties of the alkali metal with increasing atomic numbers. The atomic and ionic sizes increase and the ionization
enthalpies decrease systematically down the group. Somewhat similar trends are observed among the properties of the
alkaline earth metals. The first element in each of these groups, lithium in Group 1 and beryllium in Group 2 shows
similarities in properties to the second member of the next group. Such similarities are termed as the ‘diagonal
relationship’ in the periodic table. As such these elements are anomalous as far as their group characteristics are
concerned. The alkali metals are silvery white, soft and low melting. They are highly reactive. The compounds of alkali
metals are predominantly ionic. Their oxides and hydroxides are soluble in water forming strong alkalies. Important
compounds of sodium includes sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide and sodium hydrogencarbonate.
Sodium hydroxide is manufactured by Castner-Kellner process and sodium carbonate by Solvay process. The chemistry
of alkaline earth metals is very much like that of the alkali metals. However, some differences arise because of
reduced atomic and ionic sizes and increased cationic charges in case of alkaline earth metals. Their oxides and
hydroxides are less basic than the alkali metal oxides and hydroxides. Industrially important compounds of calcium
include calcium oxide (lime), calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), calcium sulphate (Plaster of Paris), calcium carbonate
(limestone) and cement. Portland cement is an important constructional material. It is manufactured by heating a
pulverised mixture of limestone and clay in a rotary kiln. The clinker thus obtained is mixed with some gypsum (2-3%)
to give a fine powder of cement. All these substances find variety of uses in different areas. Monovalent sodium and
potassium ions and divalent magnesium and calcium ions are found in large proportions in biological fluids. These ions
perform important biological functions such as maintenance of ion balance and nerve impulse conduction.
The p-Block Elements
p-Block of the periodic table is unique in terms of having all types of elements – metals, non-metals and metalloids.
There are six groups of p-block elements in the periodic table numbering from 13 to 18. Their valence shell electronic
configuration is ns2np1–6 (except for He). Differences in the inner core of their electronic configuration greatly
influence their physical and chemical properties. As a consequence of this, a lot of variation in properties among these
elements is observed. In addition to the group oxidation state, these elements show other oxidation states differing
from the total number of valence electrons by unit of two. While the group oxidation state is the most stable for the
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lighter elements of the group, lower oxidation states become progressively more stable for the heavier elements. The
combined effect of size and availability of d orbitals considerably influences the ability of these elements to form 
bonds. While the lighter elements form p
–p
bonds, the heavier ones form d–p
or d–d
bonds. Absence of d
orbital in
second period elements limits their maximum covalence to 4 while heavier ones can exceed this limit. Boron is a
typical non-metal and the other members are metals. The availability of 3 valence electrons (2s22p1) for covalent bond
formation using four orbitals (2s, 2px, 2py and 2pz) leads to the so called electron deficiency in boron compounds.
This deficiency makes them good electron acceptor and thus boron compounds behave as Lewis acids. Boron forms
covalent molecular compounds with dihydrogen as boranes, the simplest of which is diborane, B2H6. Diborane contains
two bridging hydrogen atoms between two boron atoms; these bridge bonds are considered to be three-centre twoelectron bonds. The important compounds of boron with dioxygen are boric acid and borax. Boric acid, B(OH)3 is a
weak monobasic acid; it acts as a Lewis acid by accepting electrons from hydroxyl ion. Borax is a white crystalline solid
of formula Na2[B4O5(OH)4]·8H2O. The borax bead test gives characteristic colours of transition metals. Aluminium
exhibits +3 oxidation state. With heavier elements +1 oxidation state gets progressively stabilised on going down the
group. This is a consequence of the so called inert pair effect. Carbon is a typical non-metal forming covalent bonds
employing all its four valence electrons (2s22p2). It shows the property of catenation, the ability to form chains or
rings, not only with C–C single bonds but also with multiple bonds (C=C or C≡C). The tendency to catenation decreases
as C>>Si>Ge ~ Sn > Pb. Carbon provides one of the best examples of allotropy. Three important allotropes of carbon
are diamond, graphite and fullerenes. The members of the carbon family mainly exhibit +4 and +2 oxidation states;
compouds in +4 oxidation states are generally covalent in nature. The tendency to show +2 oxidation state increases
among heavier elements. Lead in +2 state is stable whereas in +4 oxidation state it is a strong oxidising agent. Carbon
also exhibits negative oxidation states. It forms two important oxides: CO and CO2. Carbon monoxide is neutral
whereas CO2 is acidic in nature. Carbon monoxide having lone pair of electrons on C forms metal carbonyls. It is
deadly poisonous due to higher stability of its haemoglobin complex as compared to that of oxyhaemoglobin complex.
Carbon dioxide as such is not toxic. However, increased content of CO2 in atmosphere due to combustion of fossil fuels
and decomposition of limestone is feared to cause increase in ‗green house effect‘. This, in turn, raises the
temperature of the atmosphere and causes serious complications. Silica, silicates and silicones are important class of
compounds and find applications in industry and technology.
Organic Chemistry – Some Basic Principles
In this unit, we have learnt some basic concepts in structure and reactivity of organic compounds, which are formed
due to covalent bonding. The nature of the covalent bonding in organic compounds can be described in terms of
orbitals hybridisation concept, according to which carbon can have sp3, sp2 and sp hybridised orbitals. The sp3, sp2
and sp hybridized carbons are found in compounds like methane, ethene and ethyne respectively. The tetrahedral
shape of methane, planar shape of ethene and linear shape of ethyne can be understood on the basis of this concept. A
sp3 hybrid orbital can overlap with 1s orbital of hydrogen to give a carbon - hydrogen (C–H) single bond (sigma,

bond). Overlap of a sp2 orbital of one carbon with sp2 orbital of another results in the formation of a carbon–carbon

bond. The unhybridised p orbitals on two adjacent carbons can undergo lateral (side-byside) overlap to give a pi (
)
bond. Organic compounds can be represented by various structural formulas. The three dimensional representation of
organic compounds on paper can be drawn by wedge and dash formula. Organic compounds can be classified on the
basis of their structure or the functional groups they contain. A functional group is an atom or group of atoms bonded
together in a unique fashion and which determines the physical and chemical properties of the compounds. The naming
of the organic compounds is carried out by following a set of rules laid down by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). In IUPAC nomenclature, the names are correlated with the structure in such a way that the
reader can deduce the structure from the name. Organic reaction mechanism concepts are based on the structure of
the substrate molecule, fission of a covalent bond, the attacking reagents, the electron displacement effects and the
conditions of the reaction. These organic reactions involve breaking and making of covalent bonds. A covalent bond
may be cleaved in heterolytic or homolytic fashion. A heterolytic cleavage yields carbocations or carbanions, while a
homolytic cleavage gives free radicals as reactive intermediate. Reactions proceeding through heterolytic cleavage
involve the complimentary pairs of reactive species. These are electron pair donor known as nucleophile and an
electron pair acceptor known as electrophile. The inductive, resonance, electromeric and hyperconjugation effects
may help in the polarisation of a bond making certain carbon atom or other atom positions as places of low or high
electron densities. Organic reactions can be broadly classified into following types; substitution, addition, elimination
and rearrangement reactions. Purification, qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic compounds are carried out
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for determining their structures. The methods of purification namely : sublimation, distillation and differential
extraction are based on the difference in one or more physical properties. Chromatography is a useful technique of
separation, identification and purification of compounds. It is classified into two categories : adsorption and partition
chromatography. Adsorption chromatography is based on differential adsorption of various components of a mixture on
an adsorbent. Partition chromatography involves continuous partitioning of the components of a mixture between
stationary and mobile phases. After getting the compound in a pure form, its qualitative analysis is carried out for
detection of elements present in it. Nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorus are detected by Lassaigne’s test.
Carbon and hydrogen are estimated by determining the amounts of carbon dioxide and water produced. Nitrogen is
estimated by Dumas or Kjeldahl’s method and halogens by Carius method. Sulphur and phosphorus are estimated by
oxidising them to sulphuric and phosphoric acids respectively. The percentage of oxygen is usually determined by
difference between the total percentage (100) and the sum of percentages of all other elements present.
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are the compounds of carbon and hydrogen only. Hydrocarbons are mainly obtained from coal and
petroleum, which are the major sources of energy. Petrochemicals are the prominent starting materials used for the
manufacture of a large number of commercially important products. LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) and CNG
(compressed natural gas), the main sources of energy for domestic fuels and the automobile industry, are obtained
from petroleum. Hydrocarbons are classified as open chain saturated (alkanes) and unsaturated (alkenes and
alkynes), cyclic (alicyclic) and aromatic, according to their structure. The important reactions of alkanes are free
radical substitution, combustion, oxidation and aromatization. Alkenes and alkynes undergo addition reactions,
which are mainly electrophilic additions. Aromatic hydrocarbons, despite having unsaturation, undergo mainly
electrophilic substitution reactions. These undergo addition reactions only under special conditions. Alkanes show
conformational isomerism due to free rotation along the C–C sigma bonds. Out of staggered and the eclipsed
conformations of ethane, staggered conformation is more stable as hydrogen atoms are farthest apart. Alkenes exhibit
geometrical (cis-trans) isomerism due to restricted rotation around the carbon–carbon double bond. Benzene and
benzenoid compounds show aromatic character. Aromaticity, the property of being aromatic is possessed by
compounds having specific electronic structure characterised by Hückel (4n+2)
electron rule. The nature of groups or
substituents attached to benzene ring is responsible for activation or deactivation of the benzene ring towards further
electrophilic substitution and also for orientation of the incoming group. Some of the polynuclear hydrocarbons having
fused benzene ring system have carcinogenic property.
TRY CARBerlearning.com 2
Carbon and its compounds
1. A covalent bond is a bond formed by sharing of electrons between atoms. In a covalent bond, the shared pair of
electrons belongs to the valence shell of both the atoms.
2. Properties of covalent compounds
i. Physical states: They are generally liquids or gases. Some covalent compounds may exist as solids.
ii. Solubility: They are generally insoluble in water and other polar solvents but soluble in organic solvents such as
benzene, toluene etc.
iii. Melting and boiling points: They generally have low melting and boiling points.
iv. Electrical conductivity: They do not conduct electrical current.
3. Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons towards itself.
4. Polar covalent bond: If the atoms forming a covalent bond have different electronegativities, the atom with higher
electronegativity pulls the shared pair of electrons towards itself. Thus, the atom with the higher electronegativity
develops a partial negative charge and the atom with the lower electronegativity develops a partial positive charge.
This covalent bond with some polarity is called a polar covalent bond.
5. Carbon is an element that always forms covalent bonds. All the living things, plants and animals
are made up of carbon-based compounds called organic compounds.
6. Carbon forms a large number of compounds because of two unique properties:
i. Tetravalency
ii. Catenation
7. Tetravalency of carbon: Carbon has atomic number 6 and has 4 electrons in its outermost shell.
It needs 4 electrons to attain the noble gas configuration. Thus, its valency is 4. In other words, carbon has the ability
to form four bonds with carbon or atoms of other monovalent elements.
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8. Catenation: Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of carbon, giving rise to a large number of
carbon compounds. This property is called catenation.
9. Allotropes of carbon
i. Diamond: It is a colourless transparent substance. It is extremely hard and does not conduct
electricity. It has a tetrahedral arrangement of carbon atoms in its structure.
ii. Graphite: It is a greyish black opaque substance. It is soft and slippery and conducts electricity. A graphite crystal
consists of layers of carbon atoms or sheets of carbon atoms.
iii. Buckminsterfullerene: It is an allotrope of carbon containing clusters of 60 carbon atoms joined together to form
spherical molecules. It is a football-shaped spherical molecule.
10. Hydrocarbons: A compound made up of only hydrogen and carbon is called a hydrocarbon.
11. Aliphatic or open chain hydrocarbons: These are the carbon compounds which have carbon–
carbon long open chains. They are classified as
i. Saturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have all carbon–carbon single bonds and are called
alkanes. General formula: CnH2n+2
ii. Unsaturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have at least one carbon–carbon double or triple
bond.
a. Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon–carbon double bond are called alkenes.
General formula = CnH2n, where n = number of carbon atoms
b. Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon–carbon triple bond are called alkynes.
General formula = CnH2n-2, where n = number of carbon atoms
12. Cyclic or closed chain hydrocarbons:
These are hydrocarbons which have a carbon–carbon closed chain. They are classified as
i. Alicyclic hydrocarbons: These are hydrocarbons which do not have a benzene ring in their structure.
ii. Aromatic hydrocarbons: These are hydrocarbons which have a benzene ring in their structure.
When hydrogen bonded to carbon of benzene is substituted with halogens, radicals or other functional groups, the
derivatives are called aromatic compounds.
13. Benzene: It is an aromatic hydrocarbon which has the molecular formula C6H6. It has alternating carbon–carbon
single and double bonds.
Benzene can also be represented as
14. Types of formulae for writing hydrocarbons
a. Molecular formula: The actual number of each type of atom present in the compound.
b. Structural formula: The actual arrangement of atoms is written.
c. Condensed formula: It is the shortened form of the structural formula.
15. Isomers: The organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures are
called isomers.
16. Conditions for isomerism
a. Only alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can have isomers.
b. The side chains cannot be present on the terminal carbons.
17. Homologous series: A series of organic compounds in which every succeeding member differs
from the previous one by a -CH2 group or a difference of 14 u in the molecular mass is called a homologous series. The
molecular formula of all the members of a homologous series can be derived from a general formula.
18. Properties of a homologous series: As the molecular mass increases in a series, the physical properties of
compounds show variation, but the chemical properties, which are determined by a functional group, remain the same
within a series.
19. Homologous series of alkanes: General formula: CnH2n+2, where n = number of carbon atoms.
20. Homologous series of alkenes: General formula: CnH2n, where n = number of carbon atoms.
21. Homologous series of alkynes: General formula: CnH2n-2, where n = number of carbon atoms.
22. Functional group: An atom or a group of atoms which when present in a compound gives specific properties to it,
irrespective of the length and nature of the carbon chain is called a functional group.
23. Some functional groups in carbon compounds
Heteroatom Functional group Formula of the
functional group
Prefix/suffix
Cl/Br Halo-
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Chloro -Cl
Bromo-Br
Named as prefix
Alcohol -OH -ol
Aldehyde-al
Ketone-one
Carboxylic acid-oic acid
24. IUPAC naming of organic compounds
i. Select the parent carbon chain.
1. Select the longest carbon chain as the parent chain.
2. If a double or a triple bond is present in the carbon chain, it should be included in the parent chain.
3. If a functional group is present, the carbon chain should include the functional group.
ii. Number the parent carbon chain from that carbon end such that the functional group, double bond,triple bond or
side chain gets the lowest number. Remember here that the aldehyde and carboxylic acid functional groups are
present on the terminal carbon atom.
iii. Identify the name and position of the functional group, double bond, triple bond or side chain.
iv. The name of the functional group is written with either a prefix or a suffix as given in the above
table.
v. If the name of the functional group is to be given as a suffix, the name of the carbon chain ismodified by deleting
the final ‗e‘ and adding the appropriate suffix. For example, a three-carbon chainwith a ketone group would be named
in the following manner: Propane − ‗e‘ = propan + ‗one‘ =propanone.
vi. Remember that in compounds which have carbon-containing functional groups, the name of the
word root includes the functional group carbon atom also.
vii. If the carbon chain is unsaturated, then the final ‗ane‘ in the name of the carbon chain issubstituted by ‗ene‘ or
‗yne‘ as given in the table above. For example, a three-carbon chain with adouble bond would be called propene, and
if it has a triple bond, it would be called propyne.
25. Chemical properties of carbon compounds
i. Combustion: The process of burning of a carbon compound in air to give carbon dioxide, water, heatand light is
called combustion. Saturated hydrocarbons burn in air to produce a blue, non-sooty flame,whereas unsaturated
hydrocarbons burn in air with a yellow, sooty flame.
iii. Substitution reaction: The reaction in which one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon are
replaced by some other atoms is called a substitution reaction. Saturated hydrocarbons undergo
substitution reactions.
iv. Addition reaction: The reaction in which an unsaturated hydrocarbon combines with another
substance to give a single product is called an addition reaction. These reactions are given by all
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
26. Hydrogenation of oils: When a vegetable oil is heated with hydrogen in the presence of finely
divided nickel as catalyst, then a saturated fat called vegetable ghee is formed. This is calledhydrogenation of oils.
27. All unsaturated compounds (alkenes or alkynes) decolourise bromine water but saturated
hydrocarbons, i.e. alkanes do not decolourise bromine water.
28. Ethanol (C2H5OH): The common name is ethyl alcohol. It is a colourless liquid soluble in water. Ithas no effect on
any litmus solution.
29. Reactions of ethanol


Burning: CH3CH2OH - 3O2 2CO2 3H2O Heat Light - 2CH3CH2OH + 2Na 2CH3CH2ONa + H2 - Hot conc. H2SO4 3 2 o
2 2 2 170 C - CH CH OH CH =CH + H O.
Alkaline KMnO4 Heat- 3 2 Or acidifiedK2Cr2O7 Heat 3 2 - CH CH OH+2[O] CH COOH+H O
30. Denatured alcohol: It is ethyl alcohol which has been made unfit for drinking purposes by adding small amounts of
poisonous substances such as methanol etc.
31. Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH): It is a colourless liquid soluble in water having smell of vinegar. It
turns blue litmus solution red.
32. Reactions of ethanoic acid
CH COOH +NaOH CH COONa H O- 2CH COOH +Na CO 2CH COONa H O CO- CH COOH +NaHCO CH COONa H O CO
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33. Esterification: Ethanoic acid reacts with alcohols in the presence of a little concentrated sulphuric acid to form
esters.
CH COOH +CH CH OH CH COOCH CH
Hydrolysis of esters
CH COOC H NaOH CH COONa+ C H OH
34. Soaps: These are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids.
35. Structure of soap molecule: The structure of soap molecule consists of a long hydrocarbon tail
at one end which is hydrophobic in nature. The other end is the ionic part which is hydrophilic in nature.
36. Cleansing action of soap: When soap is at the surface of water, the ionic end of soap orientsitself towards water
and the hydrocarbon ‗tail‘ aligns itself along the dirt. Thus, clusters ofmolecules are formed in which the hydrophobic
tails are in the interior of the cluster and the ionicends are on the surface of the cluster. This formation is called a
micelle.Soap in the form of a micelle is able to clean because the oily dirt will be collected in the centre ofthe
micelle. The micelles stay in solution as a colloid and will not come together to precipitate because of ion–ion
repulsion. Now, when water is agitated, the dirt suspended in the micelles is also easily rinsed away.
37. Detergents: These are generally sodium salts of long chain benzene sulphonic acids or long chainalkyl hydrogen
sulphates. Detergents do not form scum with hard water. This is because the charged ends of these compounds do not
form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and magnesium ions in hard water. Thus, they remain effective in hard
water.
39. Differences between soaps and detergents
Soaps are sodium or potassiumsalts of long chain carboxylic acids. Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate
salts of long chain carboxylic acids. Soaps are not effective for cleaning in hard water. Detergents are effective for
cleaning in hard and soft water. Soaps are biodegradable. Detergents are non-biodegradable.
Environmental Chemistry
Environmental chemistry plays a major role in environment. Chemical species present in the environment are either
naturally occurring or generated by human activities. Environmental pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in
the surrounding that have harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings. Pollutants exist in all the three states
of matter. We have discussed only those pollutants, which are due to human activities, and can be controlled.
Atmospheric pollution is generally studied as tropospheric and stratospheric pollution. Troposphere is the lowest
region of the atmosphere (~10 km) in which man along with other organisms including plants exist. Whereas
stratosphere extends above troposphere up to 50 km above sea level. Ozone layer is one of the important constituents
of stratosphere. Tropospheric pollution is basically due to various oxides of sulphur, nitrogen, carbon, halogens and
also due to particulate pollutants. The gaseous pollutants come down to the earth in the form of acid rain. 75% of the
solar energy reaching earth is absorbed by the earth surface and rest is radiated back to the atmosphere. These gases
mentioned above trap the heat which result into global warming. It is important to realise that these very gases are
also responsible for the life on the earth as they trap the requisite amount of solar energy for the sustainance of life.
The increase in the greenhouse gases is raising the temperature of the earth‘s atmosphere which, if not checked, may
eventually result in melting of polar ice caps and consequently may submerge the costal land mass. Many human
activities are producing chemicals, which are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer in the stratosphere, leading
to the formation of ozone hole. Through the ozone hole, ultraviolet radiations can penetrate into the earth‘s
atmosphere causing mutation of genes. Water is the elixir of life but the same water, if polluted by pathogens, organic
wastes, toxic heavy metals, pesticides etc., will turn into poison. Therefore, one should take care to follow
international standards to maintain purity levels of drinking water. Industrial wastes and excessive use of pesticides,
result into pollution of land mass and water bodies. Judicious use of chemicals required for agricultural practices can
lead to sustainable development. Strategies for controlling environmental pollution can be: (i) waste management
i.e., reduction of the waste and proper disposal, also recycling of materials and energy, (ii) adopting methods in dayto-day life, which results in the reduction of environmental pollution. The second method is a new branch of
chemistry, which is in its infancy known as green chemistry. It utilizes the existing knowledge and practices so as to
bring about reduction in the production of pollutants.
The Solid State
Solids have definite mass, volume and shape. This is due to the fixed position of their constituent particles, short
distances and strong interactions between them. In amorphous solids, the arrangement of constituent particles has
only short range order and consequently they behave like super cooled liquids, do not have sharp melting points and
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are isotropic in nature. In crystalline solids there is long range order in the arrangement of their constituent particles.
They have sharp
melting points, are anisotropic in nature and their particles have characteristic shapes. Properties of crystalline solids
depend upon the nature of interactions between their constituent particles. On this basis, they can be divided into four
categories, namely: molecular, ionic, metallic and covalent solids. They differ widely in their properties. The
constituent particles in crystalline solids are arranged in a regular pattern which extends throughout the crystal. This
arrangement is often depicted in the form of a three dimensional array of points which is called crystal lattice. Each
lattice point gives the location of one particle in space. In all, fourteen different types of lattices are possible which
are called Bravais lattices. Each lattice can be generated by repeating its small characteristic portion called unit cell.
A unit cell is characterised by its edge lengths and three angles between these edges. Unit cells can be either primitive
which have particles only at their corner positions or centred. The centred unit cells have additional particles at their
body centre (bodycentred), at the centre of each face (face-centred) or at the centre of two opposite faces (endcentred). There are seven types of primitive unit cells. Taking centred unit cells also into account, there are fourteen
types of unit cells in all, which result in fourteen Bravais lattices. Close-packing of particles result in two highly
efficient lattices, hexagonal close-packed (hcp) and cubic close-packed (ccp). The latter is also called facecentred
cubic (fcc) lattice. In both of these packings 74% space is filled. The remaining space is present in the form of two
types of voids-octahedral voids and tetrahedral voids. Other types of packing are not close-packings and have less
efficient packing of particles. While in body-centred cubic lattice (bcc) 68% space is filled, in simple cubic lattice only
52.4 % space is filled. Solids are not perfect in structure. There are different types of imperfections or defects in them.
Point defects and line defects are common types of defects. Point defects are of three types - stoichiometric defects,
impurity defects and non-stoichiometric defects. Vacancy defects and interstitial defects are the two basic types of
stoichiometric point defects. In ionic solids, these defects are present as Frenkel and Schottky defects. Impurity
defects are caused by the presence of an impurity in the crystal. In ionic solids, when the ionic impurity has a different
valence than the main compound, some vacancies are created. Nonstoichiometric defects are of metal excess type and
metal deficient type. Sometimes calculated amounts of impurities are introduced by doping in semiconductors that
change their electrical properties. Such materials are widely used in electronics industry. Solids show many types of
magnetic properties like paramagnetism, diamagnetism, ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism.
These properties are used in audio, video and other recording devices. All these properties can be correlated with their
electronic configurations or structures.
Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. Solutions are classified as solid, liquid and gaseous
solutions. The concentration of a solution is expressed in terms of mole fraction, molarity, molality and in percentages.
The dissolution of a gas in a liquid is governed by Henry’s law, according to which, at a given temperature, the
solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. The vapour pressure of the
solvent is lowered by the presence of a non-volatile solute in the solution and this lowering of vapour pressure of the
solvent is governed by Raoult‘s law, according to which the relative lowering of vapour pressure of the solvent over
a solution is equal to the mole fraction of a non-volatile solute present in the solution. However, in a binary liquid
solution, if both the components of the solution are volatile then another form of Raoult‘s law is used. Solutions which
obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of concentration are called ideal solutions. Two types of deviations from
Raoult‘s law, called positive and negative deviations are observed. Azeotropes arise due to very large deviations from
Raoult‘s law. The properties of solutions which depend on the number of solute particles and are independent of their
chemical identity are called colligative properties. These are lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point,
depression of freezing point and osmotic pressure. The process of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure higher than the
osmotic pressure is applied to the solution. Colligative properties have been used to determine the molar mass of
solutes. Solutes which dissociate in solution exhibit molar mass lower than the actual molar mass and those which
associate show higher molar mass than their actual values. Quantitatively, the extent to which a solute is dissociated
or associated can be expressed by van‘t Hoff factor i. This factor has been defined as ratio of normal molar mass to
experimentally determined molar mass or as the ratio of observed colligative property to the calculated colligative
property.
Electrochemistry
The Hydrogen Economy
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At present the main source of energy that is driving our economy is fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas. As more
people on the planet aspire to improve their standard of living, their energy requirement will increase. In fact, the per
capita consumption of energy used is a measure of development. Of course, it is assumed that energy is used for
productive purpose and not merely wasted. We are already aware that carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of
fossil fuels is resulting in the ‗Greenhouse Effect‘. This is leading to a rise in the temperature of the Earth‘s surface,
causing polar ice to melt and ocean levels to rise. This will flood low-lying areas along the coast and some island
nations such as Maldives face total submergence. In order to avoid such a catastrope, we need to limit our use of
carbonaceous fuels. Hydrogen provides an ideal alternative as its combustion results in water only. Hydrogen
production must come from splitting water using solar energy. Therefore, hydrogen can be used as a renewable and
non polluting source of energy. This is the vision of the Hydrogen Economy. Both the production of hydrogen by
electrolysis of water and hydrogen combustion in a fuel cell will be important in the future. And both these
technologies are based on electrochemical principles. An electrochemical cell consists of two metallic electrodes
dipping in electrolytic solution(s). Thus an important component of the electrochemical cell is the ionic conductor or
electrolyte. Electrochemical cells are of two types. In galvanic cell, the chemical energy of a spontaneous redox
reaction is converted into electrical work, whereas in an electrolytic cell, electrical energy is used to carry out a
nonspontaneous redox reaction. The standard electrode potential for any electrode dipping in an appropriate solution
is defined with respect to standard electrode potential of hydrogen electrode taken as zero. The standard potential of
the cell can be obtained by taking the difference of the standard potentials of cathode and anode. The standard
potential of the cells are related to standard Gibbs energy.(V = – RT ln K) of the reaction taking place in the cell.
Concentration dependence of the potentials of the electrodes and the cells are given by Nernst equation. The
conductivity, , of an electrolytic solution depends on the concentration of the electrolyte, nature of solvent and
temperature. Molar conductivity, Ëm, is defined by = /c where c is the concentration. Conductivity decreases but
molar conductivity increases with decrease in concentration. It increases slowly with decrease in concentration for
strong electrolytes while the increase is very steep for weak electrolytes in very dilute solutions. Kohlrausch found that
molar conductivity at infinite dilution, for an electrolyte is sum of the contribution of the molar conductivity of the
ions in which it dissociates. It is known as law of independent migration of ions and has many applications. Ions
conduct electricity through the solution but oxidation and reduction of the ions take place at the electrodes in an
electrochemical cell. Batteries and fuel cells are very useful forms of galvanic cell. Corrosion of metals is essentially an
electrochemical phenomenon. Electrochemical principles are relevant to the Hydrogen Economy.
Chemical Kinetics
Chemical kinetics is the study of chemical reactions with respect to reaction rates, effect of various variables,
rearrangement of atoms and formation of intermediates. The rate of a reaction is concerned with decrease in
concentration of reactants or increase in the concentration of products per unit time. It can be expressed as
instantaneous rate at a particular instant of time and average
rate over a large interval of time. A number of factors such as temperature, concentration of reactants, catalyst,
affect the rate of a reaction. Mathematical representation of rate of a reaction is given by rate law. It has to be
determined experimentally and cannot be predicted. Order of a reaction with respect to a reactant is the power of its
concentration which appears in the rate law equation. The order of a reaction is the sum of all such powers of
concentration of terms for different reactants. Rate constant is the proportionality factor in the rate law. Rate
constant and order of a reaction can be determined from rate law or its integrated rate equation. Molecularity is
defined only for an elementary reaction. Its values are limited from 1 to 3 whereas order can be 0, 1, 2, 3 or even a
fraction. Molecularity and order of an elementary reaction are same. Temperature dependence of rate constants is
described by Arrhenius equation (k = Ae–Ea/RT). Ea corresponds to the activation energy and is given by the energy
difference between activated complex and the reactant molecules, and A (Arrhenius factor or pre-exponential factor)
corresponds to the collision frequency. The equation clearly shows that increase of temperature or lowering of Ea will
lead to an increase in the rate of reaction and presence of a catalyst lowers the activation energy by providing an
alternate path for the reaction. According to collision theory, another factor P called steric factor which refers to the
orientation of molecules which collide, is important and contributes to effective collisions.
Surface Chemistry
Adsorption is the phenomenon of attracting and retaining the molecules of a substance on the surface of a solid
resulting into a higher concentration on the surface than in the bulk. The substance adsorbed is known as adsorbate
and the substance on which adsorption takes place is called adsorbent. In physisorption, adsorbate is held to the
adsorbent by weak van der Waals forces, and in chemisorption, adsorbate is held to the adsorbent by strong chemical
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bond. Almost all solids adsorb gases. The extent of adsorption of a gas on a solid depends upon nature of gas, nature of
solid, surface area of the solid, pressure of gas and temperature of gas. The relationship between the extent of
adsorption (x/m) and pressure of the gas at constant temperature is known as adsorption isotherm. A catalyst is a
substance which enhances the rate of a chemical reaction without itself getting used up in the reaction. The
phenomenon using catalyst is known as catalysis. In homogeneous catalysis, the catalyst is in the same phase as are the
reactants, and in heterogeneous catalysis the catalyst is in a different phase from that of the reactants. Colloidal
solutions are intermediate between true solutions and suspensions. The size of the colloidal particles range from 1 to
1000 nm. A colloidal system consists of two phases - the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium. Colloidal systems
are classified in three ways depending upon (i) physical states of the dispersed phase and dispersion medium (ii) nature
of interaction between the dispersed phase and dispersion medium and (iii) nature of particles of dispersed phase. The
colloidal systems show interesting optical, mechanical and electrical properties. The process of changing the colloidal
particles in a sol into the insoluble precipitate by addition of some suitable electrolytes is known as coagulation.
Emulsions are colloidal systems in which both dispersed phase and dispersion medium are liquids. These can be of: (i)
oil in water type and (ii) water in oil type. The process of making emulsion is known as emulsification. To stabilise an
emulsion, an emulsifying agent or emulsifier is added. Soaps and detergents are most frequently used as emulsifiers.
Colloids find several applications in industry as well as in daily life.
General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements
Uses of Aluminium, Copper, Zinc and Iron: Aluminium foils are used as wrappers for chocolates. The fine dust of the
metal is used in paints and lacquers. Aluminium, being highly reactive, is also used in the extraction of chromium and
manganese from their oxides. Wires of aluminium are used as electricity conductors. Alloys containing aluminium,
being light, are very useful. Copper is used for making wires used in electrical industry and for water and steam pipes.
It is also used in several alloys that are rather tougher than the metal itself, e.g., brass (with zinc), bronze (with tin)
and coinage alloy (with nickel). Zinc is used for galvanising iron. It is also used in large quantities in batteries, as a
constituent of many alloys, e.g., brass, (Cu 60%, Zn 40%) and german silver (Cu 25-30%, Zn 25-30%, Ni 40–50%). Zinc
dust is used as a reducing agent in the manufacture of dye-stuffs,
paints, etc. Cast iron, which is the most important form of iron, is used for casting stoves, railway sleepers, gutter
pipes , toys, etc. It is used in the manufacture of wrought iron and steel. Wrought iron is used in making anchors,
wires, bolts, chains and agricultural implements. Steel finds a number of uses. Alloy steel is obtained when other
metals are added to it. Nickel steel is used for making cables, automobiles and aeroplane parts, pendulum, measuring
tapes, chrome steel for cutting tools and crushing machines, and stainless steel for cycles, automobiles, utensils, etc.
Metals are required for a variety of purposes. For this, we need their extraction from the minerals in which they are
present and from which their extraction is commercially feasible.These minerals are known as ores. Ores of the metal
are associated with many impurities. Removal of these impurities to certain extent is achieved in concentration steps.
The concentrated ore is then treated chemically for obtaining the metal. Usually the metal compounds (e.g., oxides,
sulphides) are reduced to the metal. The reducing agents used are carbon, CO or even some metals. In these reduction
processes, the thermodynamic and electrochemical concepts are given due consideration. The metal oxide reacts
with a reducing agent; the oxide is reduced to the metal and the reducing agent is oxidised. In the two reactions, the
net Gibbs energy change is negative, which becomes more negative on raising the temperature. Conversion of the
physical states from solid to liquid or to gas, and formation of gaseous states favours decrease in the Gibbs energy for
the entire system. This concept is graphically displayed in plots of G0 vs T (Ellingham diagram) for such
oxidation/reduction reactions at different temperatures. The concept of electrode potential is useful in the isolation of
metals (e.g., Al, Ag, Au) where the sum of the two redox couples is +ve so that the Gibbs energy change is negative.
The metals obtained by usual methods still contain minor impurities. Getting pure metals require refining. Refining
process depends upon the differences in properties of the metal and the impurities. Extraction of aluminium is usually
carried out from its bauxite ore by leaching it with NaOH. Sodium aluminate, thus formed, is separated and then
neutralised to give back the hydrated oxide, which is then electrolysed using cryolite as a flux. Extraction of iron is
done by reduction of its oxide ore in blast furnace. Copper is extracted by smelting and heating in a reverberatory
furnace. Extraction of zinc from zinc oxides is done using coke. Several methods are employed in refining the metal.
Metals, in general, are very widely used and have contributed significantly in the development of a variety of
industries.
Aluminium Iron Copper Zinc
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1. Bauxite, Al2O3. x H2O
2. Cryolite, Na3AlF6
1. Haematite, Fe2O3
2. Magnetite, Fe3O4
1. Copper pyrites, CuFeS2
2. Copper glance, Cu2S
3. Malachite, CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
4. Cuprite, Cu2O
1. Zinc blende or Sphalerite, ZnS
2. Calamine, ZnCO3
3. Zincite, ZnO
The p-Block
Helium
Helium is a non-inflammable and light gas. Hence, it is used in filling balloons for meteorological observations. It is also
used in gas-cooled nuclear reactors. Liquid helium (b.p. 4.2 K) finds use as cryogenic agent for carrying out various
experiments at low temperatures. It is used to produce and sustain powerful superconducting magnets which form an
essential part of modern NMR spectrometers and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) systems for clinical diagnosis. It is
used as a diluent for oxygen in modern diving apparatus because of its very low solubility in blood. Neon is used in
discharge tubes and fluorescent bulbs for advertisement display purposes. Neon bulbs are used in botanical gardens and
in green houses. Argon is used mainly to provide an inert atmosphere in high temperature metallurgical processes (arc
welding of metals or alloys) and for filling electric bulbs. It is also used in the laboratory for handling substances that
are air-sensitive. There are no significant uses of Xenon and Krypton. They are used in light bulbs designed for special
purposes.
Groups 13 to 18 of the periodic table consist of p-block elements with their valence shell electronic configuration
ns2np1–6. Groups 13 and 14 were dealt with in Class XI. In this Unit remaining groups of the p-block have been
discussed. Group 15 consists of five elements namely, N, P, As, Sb and Bi which have general electronic configuration
ns2np3. Nitrogen differs from other elements of this group due to small size, formation of p–p
multiple bonds with
itself and with highly electronegative atom like O or C and non-availability of d orbitals to expand its valence shell.
Elements of group 15 show gradation in properties. They react with oxygen, hydrogen and halogens. They exhibit two
important oxidation states, + 3 and + 5 but +3 oxidation is favoured by heavier elements due to ‗inert pair effect‘.
Dinitrogen can be prepared in laboratory as well as on industrial scale. It forms oxides in various oxidation states as
N2O, NO, N2O3, NO2, N2O4 and N2O5. These oxides have resonating structures and have multiple bonds. Ammonia can
be prepared on large scale by Haber‘s process. HNO3 is an important industrial chemical. It is a strong monobasic acid
and is a powerful oxidising agent. Metals and non-metals react with HNO3 under different conditions to give NO or
NO2. Phosphorus exists as P4 in elemental form. It exists in several allotropic forms. It forms hydride, PH3 which is a
highly poisonous gas. It forms two types of halides as PX3 and PX5. PCl3 is prepared by the reaction of white
phosphorus with dry chlorine while PCl5 is prepared by the reaction of phosphorus with SO2Cl2. Phosphorus forms a
number of oxoacids. Depending upon the number of P–OH groups, their basicity varies. The oxoacids which have P–H
bonds are good reducing agents. The Group 16 elements have general electronic configuration ns2np4. They show
maximum oxidation state, +6. Gradation in physical and chemical properties is observed in the group 16 elements. In
laboratory, dioxygen is prepared by heating KClO3 in presence of MnO2. It forms a number of oxides with metals.
Allotropic form of oxygen is O3 which is a highly oxidising agent. Sulphur forms a number of allotropes. Sulphur
combines with
oxygen to give oxides such as SO2 and SO3. SO2 is prepared by the direct union of sulphur with oxygen. SO2 is used in
the manufacture of H2SO4. Sulphur forms a number of oxoacids. Amongst them, the most important is H2SO4. It is
prepared by contact process. It is a dehydrating and oxidising agent. It is used in the manufacture of several
compounds.
Group 17 of the periodic table consists of the following elements F, Cl, Br, I and At.These elements are extremely
reactive and as such they are found in the combined state only. The common oxidation state of these elements is –1.
However, highest oxidation state can be +7. They show regular gradation in physical and chemical properties. They
form oxides, hydrogen halides, interhalogen compounds and oxoacids. Chlorine is conveniently obtained by the
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reaction of HCl with KMnO4. HCl is prepared by heating NaCl with concentrated H2SO4. Halogens combine with one
another to form interhalogen compounds of the type XX1 n (n = 1, 3, 5, 7) where X1 is lighter than X. A number of
oxoacids of halogens are known. In the structures of these oxoacids, halogen is the central atom which is bonded in
each case with one OH bond as X–OH. In some cases X = 0 bonds are also found. Group 18 of the periodic table consists
of noble gases. They have ns2 np6 valence
shell electronic configuration except He which has 1s2. All the gases except Rn occur in atmosphere. Rn is obtained as
the decay product of 226Ra. Due to complete octet of outermost shell, they have less tendency to form compounds.
The best characterised compounds are those of xenon with fluorine and oxygen only under certain conditions. These
gases have several uses. Argon is used to provide inert atmosphere, helium is used in filling balloons for meteorological
observations, neon is used in discharge tubes and fluorescent bulbs.
The d-and f-Block Elements
Iron and steels are the most important construction materials. Their production is based on the reduction of iron
oxides, the removal of impurities and the addition of carbon and alloying metals such as Cr, Mn and Ni. Some
compounds are manufactured for special purposes such as TiO for the pigment industry and MnO2 for use in dry battery
cells. The battery industry also requires Zn and Ni/Cd. The elements of Group 11 are still worthy of being called the
coinage metals, although Ag and Au 233 The d- and f- Block Elements are restricted to collection items and the
contemporary UK ‗copper‘ coins are copper-coated steel. The ‗silver‘ UK coins are a Cu/Ni alloy. Many of the metals
and/or their compounds are essential catalysts in the chemical industry. V2O5 catalyses the oxidation of SO2 in the
manufacture of sulphuric acid. TiCl4 with A1(CH3)3 forms the basis of the Ziegler catalysts used to manufacture
polyethylene (polythene). Iron catalysts are used in the Haber process for the production of ammonia from N2/H2
mixtures. Nickel catalysts enable the hydrogenation of fats to proceed. In the Wacker process the oxidation of ethyne
to ethanal is catalysed by PdCl2. Nickel complexes are useful in the polymerisation of alkynes and other organic
compounds such as benzene. The photographic industry relies on the special light-sensitive properties of AgBr.
The d-block consisting of Groups 3-12 occupies the large middle section of the periodic table. In these elements the
inner d orbitals are progressively filled. The f-block is placed outside at the bottom of the periodic table and in the
elements of this block, 4f and 5f orbitals are progressively filled. Corresponding to the filling of 3d, 4d and 5d orbitals,
three series of transition elements are well recognised. All the transition elements exhibit typical metallic properties
such as –high tensile strength, ductility, malleability, thermal and electrical conductivity and metallic character. Their
melting and boiling points are high which are attributed to the involvement of (n–1) d electrons resulting into strong
interatomic bonding. In many of these properties, the maxima occur at about the middle of each series which indicates
that one unpaired electron per d orbital is particularly a favourable configuration for strong interatomic interaction.
Successive ionisation enthalpies do not increase as steeply as in the main group elements with increasing atomic
number. Hence, the loss of variable number of electrons from (n –1) d orbitals is not energetically unfavourable. The
involvement of (n–1) d electrons in the behaviour of transition elements impart certain distinct characteristics to these
elements. Thus, in addition to variable oxidation states, they exhibit paramagnetic behaviour, catalytic properties and
tendency for the formation of coloured ions, interstitial compounds and complexes. The transition elements vary
widely in their chemical behaviour. Many of them are sufficiently electropositive to dissolve in mineral acids, although
a few are ‗noble‘. Of the first series, with the exception of copper, all the metals are relatively reactive. The
transition metals react with a number of non-metals like oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and halogens to form binary
compounds. The first series transition metal oxides are generally formed from the reaction of metals with oxygen at
high temperatures. These oxides dissolve in acids and bases to form oxometallic salts. Potassium dichromate and
potassium permanganate are common examples. Potassium dichromate is prepared from the chromite ore by fusion
with alkali in presence of air and acidifying the extract. Pyrolusite ore (MnO2) is used for the preparation of potassium
permanganate. Both the dichromate and the permanganate ions are strong oxidising agents. The two series of inner
transition elements, lanthanoids and actinoids constitute the f-block of the periodic table. With the successive filling
of the inner orbitals, 4f, there is a gradual decrease in the atomic and ionic sizes of these metals along the series
(lanthanoid contraction). This has far reaching consequences in the chemistry of the elements succeeding them.
Lanthanum and all the lanthanoids are rather soft white metals. They react easily with water to give solutions giving +3
ions. The principal oxidation state is +3, although +4 and +2 oxidation states are also exhibited by some occasionally.
The chemistry of the actinoids is more complex in view of their ability to exist in different oxidation states.
Furthermore, many of the actinoid elements are radioactive which make the study of these elements rather difficult.
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There are many useful applications of the d- and f-block elements and their compounds, notable among them being in
varieties of steels, catalysts, complexes, organic syntheses, etc.
Coordination Compounds
The coordination compounds are of great importance. These compounds are widely present in the mineral, plant and
animal worlds and are known to play many important functions in the area of analytical chemistry, metallurgy,
biological systems, industry and medicine. These are described below:
• Coordination compounds find use in many qualitative and quantitative chemical analysis. The familiar colour
reactions given by metal ions with a number of ligands (especially chelating ligands), as a result of formation of
coordination entities, form the basis for their detection and estimation by classical and instrumental methods of
analysis. Examples of such reagents include EDTA, DMG (dimethylglyoxime), –nitroso––naphthol, cupron, etc.
• Hardness of water is estimated by simple titration with Na2EDTA. The Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions form stable complexes
with EDTA. The selective estimation of these ions can be done due to difference in the stability constants of calcium
and magnesium complexes.
• Some important extraction processes of metals, like those of silver and gold, make use of complex formation. Gold,
for example, combines with cyanide in the presence of oxygen and water to form the coordination entity [Au(CN)2]– in
aqueous solution. Gold can be separated in metallic form from this solution by the addition of zinc (Unit 6).
• Similarly, purification of metals can be achieved through formation and subsequent decomposition of their
coordination compounds. For example, impure nickel is converted to [Ni(CO)4], which is decomposed to yield pure
nickel.
• Coordination compounds are of great importance in biological systems. The pigment responsible for photosynthesis,
chlorophyll, is a coordination compound of magnesium. Haemoglobin, the red
pigment of blood which acts as oxygen carrier is a coordination compound of iron. Vitamin B12, cyanocobalamine, the
anti–pernicious anaemia factor, is a coordination compound of cobalt. Among the other compounds of biological
importance with coordinated metal ions are the enzymes like, carboxypeptidase A and carbonic anhydrase (catalysts of
biological systems).
• Coordination compounds are used as catalysts for many industrial processes. Examples include rhodium complex,
[(Ph3P)3RhCl], a Wilkinson catalyst, is used for the hydrogenation of alkenes.
• Articles can be electroplated with silver and gold much more smoothly and evenly from solutions of the complexes,
[Ag(CN)2]– and [Au(CN)2]– than from a solution of simple metal ions.
• In black and white photography, the developed film is fixed by washing with hypo solution which dissolves the
undecomposed AgBr to form a complex ion, [Ag(S2O3)2]3–.
• There is growing interest in the use of chelate therapy in medicinal chemistry. An example is the treatment of
problems caused by the presence of metals in toxic proportions in plant/animal systems.
Thus, excess of copper and iron are removed by the chelating ligands D–penicillamine and desferrioxime B via the
formation of coordination compounds. EDTA is used in the treatment of lead poisoning. Some coordination compounds
of platinum effectively inhibit the growth of tumours. Examples are: cis–platin and related compounds.
The chemistry of coordination compounds is an important and challenging area of modern inorganic chemistry. During
the last fifty years, advances in this area, have provided development of new concepts and models of bonding and
molecular structure, novel breakthroughs in chemical industry and vital insights into the functioning of critical
components of biological systems. The first systematic attempt at explaining the formation, reactions, structure and
bonding of a coordination compound was made by A. Werner. His theory postulated the use of two types of linkages
(primary and secondary) by a metal atom/ion in a coordination compound. In the modern language of chemistry these
linkages are recognised as the ionisable (ionic) and non-ionisable (covalent) bonds, respectively. Using the property of
isomerism, Werner predicted the geometrical shapes of a large number of coordination entities. The Valence Bond
Theory (VBT) explains with reasonable success, the formation, magnetic behaviour and geometrical shapes of
coordination compounds. It, however, fails to provide a quantitative interpretation of magnetic behavior and has
nothing to say about the optical properties of these compounds. The Crystal Field Theory (CFT) to coordination
compounds is based on the effect of different crystal fields (provided by the ligands taken as point charges), on the
degeneracy of d orbital energies of the central metal atom/ion. The splitting of the d orbitals provides different
electronic arrangements in strong and weak crystal fields. The treatment provides for quantitative estimations of
orbital separation energies, magnetic moments and spectral and stability parameters. However, the assumption that
ligands consititute point charges creates many theoretical difficulties. The metal–carbon bond in metal carbonyls
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possesses both 
and 
character. This unique synergic bonding provides stability to metal carbonyls. The stability of
coordination compounds is measured in terms of stepwise stability (or formation) constant (K) or overall stability
constant (). The stabilisation of coordination compound due to chelation is called the chelate effect. The stability of
coordination compounds is related to Gibbs energy, enthalpy and entropy terms. Coordination compounds are of great
importance. These compounds provide critical insights into the functioning and structures of vital components of
biological systems. Coordination compounds also find extensive applications in metallurgical processes, analytical and
medicinal chemistry.
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
Polyhalogen Compounds
Carbon compounds containing more than one halogen atom are usually referred to as polyhalogen compounds. Many of
these compounds are useful in industry and agriculture. Some polyhalogen compounds are described in this section.
Dichloromethane (Methylene chloride) : Dichloromethane is widely used as a solvent as a paint remover, as a
propellant in aerosols, and as a process solvent in the manufacture of drugs. It is also used as a metal cleaning and
finishing solvent. Methylene chloride harms the human central nervous system. Exposure to lower levels of methylene
chloride in air can lead to slightly impaired hearing and vision. Higher levels of methylene chloride in air cause
dizziness, nausea, tingling and numbness in the fingers and toes. In
humans, direct skin contact with methylene chloride causes intense burning and mild redness of the skin. Direct
contact with the eyes can burn the cornea.
Trichloromethane(Chloroform): Chemically, chloroform is employed as a solvent for fats, alkaloids, iodine and other
substances. The major use of chloroform today is in the production of the freon refrigerant R-22. It was once used as a
general anaesthetic in surgery but has been replaced by less toxic, safer anaesthetics, such as ether. As might be
expected from its use as an anaesthetic, inhaling chloroform vapours depresses the central nervous system. Breathing
about 900 parts of chloroform per million parts of air (900 parts per million) for a short time can cause dizziness,
fatigue, and headache. Chronic chloroform exposure may cause damage to the liver (where chloroform is metabolised
to phosgene) and to the kidneys, and some people develop sores when the skin is immersed in chloroform. Chloroform
is slowly oxidised by air in the presence of light to an extremely poisonous gas, carbonyl chloride, also known as
phosgene. It is therefore stored in closed dark coloured bottles
completely filled so that air is kept out.
Triiodomethane (Iodoform): It was used earlier as an antiseptic but the antiseptic properties are due to the liberation
of free iodine and not due to iodoform itself. Due to its objectionable smell, it has been replaced by other formulations
containing iodine.
Tetrachloromethane (Carbon tetrachloride): It is produced in large quantities for use in the manufacture of
refrigerants and propellants for aerosol cans. It is also used as feedstock in the synthesis of chlorofluorocarbons and
other chemicals, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and general solvent use. Until the mid 1960s, it was also widely used
as a cleaning fluid, both in industry, as a degreasing agent, and in the home, as a spot remover and as fire
extinguisher. There is some evidence that exposure to carbon tetrachloride causes liver cancer in humans. The most
common effects are dizziness, light headedness, nausea and vomiting, which can cause permanent damage to nerve
cells. In severe cases, these effects can lead rapidly to stupor, coma, unconsciousness or death. Exposure to CCl4 can
make the heart beat irregularly or stop. The chemical may irritate the eyes on contact. When carbon tetrachloride is
released into the air, it rises to the atmosphere and depletes the ozone layer. Depletion of the ozone layer is believed
to increase human exposure to ultraviolet rays, leading to increased skin cancer, eye diseases and disorders, and
possible disruption of the immune system.
Freons: The chlorofluorocarbon compounds of methane and ethane are collectively known as freons. They are
extremely stable, unreactive, non-toxic, non-corrosive and easily liquefiable gases. Freon 12 (CCl2F2) is one of the
most common freons in industrial use. It is manufactured from tetrachloromethane by Swarts reaction. These are
usually produced for aerosol propellants, refrigeration and air conditioning purposes. By 1974, total freon production in
the world was about 2 billion pounds annually. Most freon, even that used in refrigeration, eventually makes its way
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into the atmosphere where it diffuses unchanged into the stratosphere. In stratosphere, freon is able to initiate radical
chain reactions that can upset the natural ozone balance
p,p’-Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane( DDT): DDT, the first chlorinated organic insecticides, was originally prepared
in 1873, but it was not until 1939 that Paul Muller of Geigy Pharmaceuticals in Switzerland discovered the effectiveness
of DDT as an insecticide. Paul Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology in 1948 for this discovery.
The use of DDT increased enormously on a worldwide basis after World War II, primarily because of its effectiveness
against the mosquito that spreads malaria and lice that carry typhus. However, problems related to extensive use of
DDT began to appear in the late 1940s. Many species of insects developed resistance to DDT, and it was also discovered
to have a high toxicity towards fish. The chemical stability of DDT and its fat solubility compounded the problem. DDT
is not metabolised very rapidly by animals; instead, it is deposited and stored in the fatty tissues. If ingestion continues
at a steady rate, DDT builds up within the animal over time. The use of DDT was banned in the United States in 1973,
although it is still in use in some other parts of the world.
Alkyl/ Aryl halides: Alkyl/ Aryl halides may be classified as mono, di, or polyhalogen (tri-, tetra-, etc.) compounds
depending on whether they contain one, two or more halogen atoms in their structures. Since halogen atoms are more
electronegative than carbon, the carbonhalogen bond of alkyl halide is polarised; the carbon atom bears a partial
positive charge, and the halogen atom bears a partial negative charge. Alkyl halides are prepared by the free radical
halogenation of alkanes, addition of halogen acids to alkenes, replacement of –OH group of alcohols with halogens
using phosphorus halides, thionyl chloride or halogen acids. Aryl halides are prepared by electrophilic substitution to
arenes. Fluorides and iodides are best prepared by halogen exchange method. The boiling points of organohalogen
compounds are comparatively higher than the corresponding hydrocarbons because of strong dipole-dipole and van der
Waals forces of attraction. These are slightly soluble in water but completely soluble in organic solvents. The polarity
of carbon-halogen bond of alkyl halides is responsible for their nucleophilic substitution, elimination and their reaction
with metal atoms to form organometallic compounds. Nucleophilic substitution reactions are categorised into SN1 and
SN2 on the basis of their kinetic properties. Chirality has a profound role in understanding the reaction mechanisms of
SN1 and SN2 reactions. SN2 reactions of chiral alkyl halides are characterised by the inversion of configuration while
SN1 reactions are characterised by racemisation. A number of polyhalogen compounds e.g., dichloromethane,
chloroform, iodoform, carbon tetrachloride, freon and DDT have many industrial applications. However, some of these
compounds cannot be easily decomposed and even cause depletion of ozone layer and are proving environmental
hazards.
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
Alcohols and phenols are classified (i) on the basis of the number of hydroxyl groups and (ii) according to the
hybridisation of the carbon atom, sp3 or sp2 to which the –OH group is attached. Ethers are classified on the basis of
groups attached to the oxygen atom. Alcohols may be prepared (1) by hydration of alkenes (i) in presence of an acid
and (ii) by hydroboration-oxidation reaction (2) from carbonyl compounds by (i) catalytic reduction and (ii) the action
of Grignard reagents. Phenols may be prepared by (1) substitution of (i) halogen atom in haloarenes and (ii) sulphonic
acid group in aryl sulphonic acids, by –OH group (2) by hydrolysis of diazonium salts and (3) industrially from cumene.
Alcohols are higher boiling than other classes of compounds, namely hydrocarbons, ethers and haloalkanes of
comparable molecular masses. The ability of alcohols, phenols and ethers to form intermolecular hydrogen bonding
with water makes them soluble in it.
Alcohols and phenols are acidic in nature. Electron withdrawing groups in phenol increase its acidic strength and
electron releasing groups decrease it. Alcohols undergo nucleophilic substitution with hydrogen halides to yield alkyl
halides. Dehydration of alcohols gives alkenes. On oxidation, primary alcohols yield aldehydes with mild oxidising
agents and carboxylic acids with strong oxidising agents while secondary alcohols yield ketones. Tertiary alcohols are
resistant to oxidation. The presence of –OH group in phenols activates the aromatic ring towards electrophilic
substitution and directs the incoming group to ortho and para positions due to resonance effect. Reimer-Tiemann
reaction of phenol yields salicylaldehyde. In presence of sodium hydroxide, phenol generates phenoxide ion which is
even more reactive than phenol. Thus, in alkaline medium, phenol undergoes Kolbe‘s reaction. Ethers may be prepared
by (i) dehydration of alcohols and (ii) Williamson synthesis. The boiling points of ethers resemble those of alkanes while
their solubility is comparable to those of alcohols having same molecular mass. The C–O bond in ethers can be cleaved
by hydrogen halides. In electrophilic substitution, the alkoxy group activates the aromatic ring and directs the
incoming group to ortho and para positions.
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Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are some of the important classes of organic compounds containing carbonyl
group. These are highly polar molecules. Therefore, they boil at higher temperatures than the hydrocarbons and
weakly polar compounds such as ethers of comparable molecular masses. The lower members are more soluble in
water because they form hydrogen bonds with water. The higher members, because of large size of hydrophobic chain
of carbon atoms, are insoluble in water but soluble in common organic solvents. Aldehydes are prepared by
dehydrogenation or controlled oxidation of primary alcohols and controlled or selective reduction of acyl halides.
Aromatic aldehydes may also be prepared by oxidation of (i) methylbenzene with chromyl chloride or CrO3 in the
presence of acetic anhydride, (ii) formylation of arenes with carbon monoxide and hydrochloric acid in the presence of
anhydrous aluminium chloride, and (iii) cuprous chloride or by hydrolysis of benzal chloride. Ketones are prepared by
oxidation of secondary alcohols and hydration of alkynes. Ketones are also prepared by reaction of acyl chloride with
dialkylcadmium. A good method for the preparation of aromatic ketones is the Friedel-Crafts acylation of aromatic
hydrocarbons with acyl chlorides or anhydrides. Both aldehydes and ketones can be prepared by ozonolysis of alkenes.
Aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions onto the carbonyl group with a number of nucleophiles
such as, HCN, NaHSO3, alcohols (or diols), ammonia derivatives, and Grignard reagents. The -hydrogens in aldehydes
and ketones are acidic. Therefore, aldehydes and ketones having at least one -hydrogen, undergo Aldol condensation
in the presence of a base to give 
-hydroxyaldehydes (aldol) and 
-hydroxyketones(ketol), respectively. Aldehydes
having no -hydrogen undergo Cannizzaro reaction in the presence of concentrated alkali. Aldehydes and ketones are
reduced to alcohols with NaBH4, LiAlH4, or by catalytic hydrogenation. The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones
can be reduced to a methylene group by Clemmensen reduction or Wolff-Kishner reduction. Aldehydes are easily
oxidised to carboxylic acids by mild oxidising reagents such as Tollens’ reagent and Fehling’s reagent. These oxidation
reactions are used to distinguish aldehydes from ketones. Carboxylic acids are prepared by the oxidation of primary
alcohols, aldehydes and alkenes by hydrolysis of nitriles, and by treatment of Grignard reagents with carbon dioxide.
Aromatic carboxylic acids are also prepared by side-chain oxidation of alkylbenzenes. Carboxylic acids are considerably
more acidic than alcohols and most of simple phenols. Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols with LiAlH4, or
better with diborane in ether solution and also undergo -halogenation with Cl2 and Br2 in the presence of red
phosphorus (Hell-Volhard Zelinsky reaction). Methanal, ethanal, propanone, benzaldehyde, formic acid, acetic acid
and benzoic acid are highly useful compounds in industry.
Amines
Amines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia obtained by replacement of hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl
groups. Replacement of one hydrogen atom of ammonia gives rise to structure of the type R-NH2, known as primary
amine. Secondary amines are characterised by the structure R2NH or R-NHR′and tertiary amines by R3N, RNR′R′′
or
R2NR′
Secondary and tertiary amines are known as simple amines if the alkyl or aryl groups are the same and mixed
amines if the groups are different. Like ammonia, all the three types of amines have one unshared electron pair on
nitrogen atom due to which they behave as Lewis bases. Amines are usually formed from nitro compounds, halides,
amides, imides, etc. They exhibit hydrogen bonding which influence their physical properties. In alkylamines, a
combination of electron releasing, steric and H-bonding factors influence the stability of the substituted ammonium
cations in protic polar solvents and thus affect the basic nature of amines. Alkyl amines are found to be stronger bases
than ammonia. In aromatic amines, electron releasing and withdrawing groups, respectively increase and decrease
their basic character. Aniline is a weaker base than ammonia. Reactions of amines are governed by availability of the
unshared pair of electrons on nitrogen. Influence of the number of hydrogen atoms at nitrogen atom on the type of
reactions and nature of products is responsible for identification and distinction between primary, secondary and
tertiary amines. p-Toluenesulphonyl chloride is used for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines.
Presence of
amino group in aromatic ring enhances reactivity of the aromatic amines. Reactivity of aromatic amines can be
controlled by acylation process, i.e., by treating with acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride. Tertiary amines like
trimethylamine are used as insect attractants. Aryldiazonium salts, usually obtained from arylamines, undergo
replacement of the diazonium group with a variety of nucleophiles to provide advantageous methods for producing aryl
halides, cyanides, phenols and arenes by reductive removal of the diazo group. Coupling reaction of aryldiazonium salts
with phenols or arylamines give rise to the formation of azo dyes.
Biomolecules
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Carbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or molecules which provide such units on
hydrolysis. They are broadly classified into three groups — monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Glucose, the most important source of energy for mammals, is obtained by the digestion of starch. Monosaccharides
are held together by glycosidic linkages to form disaccharides or polysaccharides. Proteins are the polymers of about
twenty different -amino acids which are linked by peptide bonds. Ten amino acids are called essential amino acids
because they cannot be synthesised by our body, hence must be provided through diet. Proteins perform various
structural and dynamic functions in the organisms. Proteins which contain only -amino acids are called simple
proteins. The secondary or tertiary structure of proteins get disturbed on change of pH or temperature and they are
not able to perform their functions. This is called denaturation of proteins. Enzymes are biocatalysts which speed up
the reactions in biosystems. They are very specific and selective in their action and chemically all enzymes are
proteins. Vitamins are accessory food factors required in the diet. They are classified as fat soluble (A, D, E and K) and
water soluble (
group and C). Deficiency of vitamins leads to many diseases.
Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides which in turn consist of a base, a pentose sugar and phosphate moiety.
Nucleic acids are responsible for the transfer of characters from parents to offsprings. There are two types of nucleic
acids — DNA and RNA. DNA contains a five carbon sugar molecule called 2-deoxyribose whereas RNA contains ribose.
Both DNA and RNA contain adenine, guanine and cytosine. The fourth base is thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA. The
structure of DNA is a double strand whereas RNA is a single strand molecule. DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and
have the coded message for proteins to be synthesized in the cell. There are three types of RNA — mRNA, rRNA and
tRNA which actually carry out the protein synthesis in the cell.
Polymers
Polymers are defined as high molecular mass macromolecules, which consist of repeating structural units derived from
the corresponding monomers. These polymers may be of natural or synthetic origin and are classified in a number of
ways. In the presence of an organic peroxide initiator, the alkenes and their derivatives undergo addition
polymerisation or chain growth polymerisation through a free radical mechanism. Polythene, teflon, orlon, etc. are
formed by addition polymerization of an appropriate alkene or its derivative. Condensation polymerisation reactions
are shown by the interaction of bi – or poly functional monomers containing – NH2, – OH
and – COOH groups. This type of polymerisation proceeds through the elimination of certain simple molecules as H2O,
CH3OH, etc. Formaldehyde reacts with phenol and melamine to form the corresponding condensation polymer
products. The condensation polymerisation progresses through step by step and is also called as step growth
polymerisation. Nylon, bakelite and dacron are some of the important examples of condensation polymers. However, a
mixture of two unsaturated monomers exhibits copolymerisation and forms a co-polymer containing multiple units of
each monomer. Natural rubber is a cis 1, 4-polyisoprene and can be made more tough by the process of vulcanisation
with sulphur. Synthetic rubbers are usually obtained by copolymerization of alkene and 1, 3 butadiene derivatives. In
view of the potential environmental hazards of synthetic polymeric wastes, certain biodegradable polymers such as
PHBV and Nylon-2- Nylon-6 are developed as alternatives.
Chemistry in Everyday Life
Chemistry is essentially the study of materials and the development of new materials for the betterment of humanity.
A drug is a chemical agent, which affects human metabolism and provides cure from ailment. If taken in doses higher
than recommended, these may have poisonous effect. Use of chemicals for therapeutic effect is called chemotherapy.
Drugs usually interact with biological macromolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. These
are called target molecules. Drugs are designed to interact with specific targets so that these have the least chance of
affecting other targets. This minimises the side effects and localises the action of the drug. Drug chemistry centres
around arresting microbes/destroying microbes, preventing the body from various infectious diseases, releasing mental
stress, etc. Thus, drugs like analgesics, antibiotics, antiseptics, disinfectants, antacids and tranquilizers are used for
specific purpose. To check the population explosion, antifertility drugs have also become prominent in our life. Food
additives such as preservatives, sweetening agents, flavours, antioxidants, edible colours and nutritional supplements
are added to the food to make it attractive, palatable and add nutritive value. Preservatives are added to the food to
prevent spoilage due to microbial growth. Artificial sweeteners are used by those who need to check the calorie intake
or are diabetic and want to avoid taking sucrose. These days, detergents are much in vogue and get preference over
soaps because they work even in hard water. Synthetic detergents are classified into three main categories, namely:
anionic, cationic and non-ionic, and each category has its specific uses. Detergents with straight chain of hydrocarbons
are preferred over branched chain as the latter are non-biodegradable and consequently cause environmental
pollution.
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MUSCLE RELAXATION POTENTIATING AGENTS:
Aminoglycosides…………………. “ATP”
Tetracycline………………………. “ABC”
Polypeptide antibiotic
Antiarrhythmic
Beta blocker
Calcium channel blocker
Toxic value for most commonly monitored drugs (Magic
of 2) :
Digitalis (0.5 – 1.5)
=Toxicity (2)
Dilantin/Phenytoin (10 – 20)
=Toxicity (20)
Lithium (0.6 – 1.2)
=Toxicity (2)
Jogger/stimulant drugs (Theophylline) (10 20)=Toxicity
(20)
―Dilwali Dulhenia Le Jayenge=DDLJ”
Drugs Name.
Approved name
Brand name
Chemical and code name…………. “ABC
ORPHAN DRUGS:
Baclofen
Acetyl cysteine…………. “BAD Drug”
Desmopressin
Digoxin Ab Fab
DRUG INTERACTIONS (IA):……………………….. “3P”
1. Pharmacokinetic IA: occurs during drug movements.
2. Pharmacodynamic IA: occurs at the receptor/between
various drug actions.
3. Pharmaceutical IA: occurs during formulation/mixing.
PharmacodynaMics means Mechanism of action.
Targets for drug action are Receptors, Ion channel,
Carrier molecule, Enzyme…… ―RICE”
MECHANISM OF DRUG ACTIONS
Physical action:
It may be:
1. Radioactivity (131I).
2.
3.
4.
Osmotic (mannitol).
Adsorptive (charcoal).
Radioopacity (contrast media such as BaSO4,
urogram)……… “ROAR”
Competitive inhibition
in Vmax.
NOncompetitive inhibition
Vmax decreases
= Km increases, no change
= NO change in Km,
UNcompetitive inhibition









= Km & Vmax decrease
(Under Normal)
RECEPTORS:
Receptor with intrinsic ion channel
Enzymatic receptor
Coupled with G-protein
Expression through gene regulation
Proteins usually
Transduction into response on substance combination
On the membrane/inside cytoplasm or nucleus
Radiological studies for their identification
Specifically bind with ligand
First 4 are types of receptors.
G-protein-linked second messengers:
Except D1, all receptors of type ONe causes
cONtractility.
Classification of ADR:…………………….. “ABCDE”
1. Type A (80%)/ Augmented: Occurs in every case, is
predictable and dose-related, e.g. BP.
2. Type B (20%)/ Bizarre: Occurs in some people and is not
dose- related, it is unpredictable and is due to
hereditary. It has most drug fatalities, e.g. allergy.
Types A and B are main types of ADR.
3. Type C/ Continuous: Is due to long-term use.
4. Type D/ Delayed, e.g. carcinogenesis.
5. Type E/ (Ending of use) rxn, e.g. rebound adrenocortical
insufficiency.
Amide linked LA :
“AmiDe LA has "Double i" in name”
1.




Long-acting :
Etidocaine,
Bupivacaine,
Ropivacaine,
Dibucaine (Longest-acting LA)
2. Intermediate-acting :
 Lidocaine,
 Mepivacaine,
 Prilocaine
Cardioselective(1):
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Biso-prolol,
Celi-prolol,
Meto-prolol,
Atenolol,
Acebutolol,
Betaxolol,
Esmolol…………….. “A to M = B CAME”
blockers with :
Shortest t½ — Esmolol (10 min)
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Longest t½ — Nadolol (14-24 hrs)
Highest bioavailability
Pindolol (90%)
Lowest bioavailability
Alprenolol (10%)
Maximum LA property
Propranolol.
—
—
—
ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS: “BOAT in Pond”
1.
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2.
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
Butyrophenones
Droperidol.
Haloperidol.
Penfluridol.
Trifluperidol…………..“DTPH = Dil To Pagal Hai”
Others
Molindone,
Reserpine,
Pimozide,
Sulpiride,
Loxapine…………. “MRP — Six Lacs”
3.



Atypical
Clozapine,
Olanzapine,
REsperidone………………..“CORE”
3.



Thioxanthenes
Chlorprothixene,
Flupenthixol,
Thiothixene……………….. “CFT = Complement Fixation
Test”
5. Phenothiazines
Aliphatic side chain:
 Chlorpromazine,
 Triflupromazine……………. “CAT”




PiperiDine side chain:
ThioriDazine.
PiPERAZINE side chain:
TrifluoPERAZINE,
ThioproPERAZINE and
Fluphenazine.
“Fertilization of Two ova in Two different cycles
(superfeTation)”
ANTIVIRAL DRUGS
1. Antiherpes virus (CMV, HSV) :










Ganciclovir
Idoxuridine
Foscarnet
Trifluridine
Famciclovir>>>>>>>>>>>>> ―GIFT For Antiherpes
Virus‖
Acyclovir
Vidarabine
New antiherpes agents —
Penciclovir,
Valacyclovir>>>>>>>>>>> ―PCV”
Cidofavir.
2. Anti-Retrovirus
A.
Protease inhibitors :

Ritonavir (PI)

Nelfinavir (PI)
 Atazanavir (PI)
 Fosamprenavir (PI)
 Amprenavir (PI)
 Indinavir (PI)
 Lopinavir (PI)
 Saquinavir (PI)>>>>>>>>>>>>>>“RNA FAILS (to be
formed)”
B.
Reverse
transcriptase
infection)/RTI
(a) Nucleoside RTI:
 Lamivudine (NRTI)
 Emtricitabine (NRTI)
 Tenofovir (Nucleotide RTI)
 Abacavir (NRTI)
 Didanosine (NRTI)
 Zalcitabine (NRTI)
 Zidovudine (NRTI)
 Stavudine (NRTI)




inhibitor
(b) Nonnucleoside RTI:
Efavirenz (NNRTI)
Nevirapine (NNRTI)
Delavirdine (NNRTI)>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>“LET
ADZZS(AIDS) END”
(c) FUsion Inhibitor:
EnFUvirtide
3. Anti-influenza virus :
 Amantadine
 Rimantadine
(HIV
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4. Nonselective :
 Interferon 
 Ribavirin and
 Lamivudine.
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Stage of EXCITEMENT
EXcitation and well being
Concentration and confidenc decreased; lack of
self-control.
Inhibition is low.
Time for reaction(Reaction Time) impaired;
prolonged intercourse without ejaculation.
Motor coordination, cognition function and
sensory function are decreased.
Emotion, action, speech, are less restrained.
Nystagmus(alcohol gaze nystagmus means jerky
movement in gaze direction)
Time and space perception is altered.
Stage of incoordination
Loss of inhibition and blurring of consonant
STAGE OF COMA
Sensory and motor cells deeply affected.
Temperature is subnormal.
Asphyxia leads to death.
Gut is disturbed.
Eye: Miosis is changed into mydriasis(Mc Evans
Sign)
Oxidation and excretion of alcohol leads to low
level in coma.
>Five hours of coma means worst prognosis.
Recovery leads to irritation, depression and
headache(hangover)
Consciousness is lost during urination(micturition
syncope)
Overactivity of muscles causes muscle paralysis.
Munich Beer Heart (cardiac depression,
hypertorphy)
After irreversible damage to vital centre, death
occurs.
(A) Acute
alcoholic
intoxication:
Causes
hypoglycaemia hence glucose is given.
Treatment Of Acute
Case:………………….ABCDEFGH
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Alkaline solution to wash bowel.
Breathing supported by oxygen.
Caffeine and strychnine for nerve stimulation.
Coramine 5 ml.
Drip(fructose+insulin)-most patients are recovered.
Electrolyte balance, ECG monitoring, 100 mg
thiamine.
Fluid-1 L NS with 10% glucose.
Gastric lavage by NaHCO3 2gm/250 ml water.
Haemodialysis.
(B) Chronic alcoholism: Develops tolerance and
dependence (physical and psychic), nutritional
deficiencies (due to malabsorption and neglected
food), neuropathy (polyneuropathy, pellegra, seizure,
tremors,
Korsakoff's
Psychosis,
Wernick’s
encephalopathy), cirrhosis, HTN, myopathy (skeletal
and cardiac), CHF, arrhythmia, immunity,
withdrawal syndrome (anxiety, sweating, confusion,
hallucination, delirium), convulsion and collapse.
Peripheral neuropathy (commonest).
Treatment of chronic cases:………………..ABCD
Acamprosate 2 mg/day or naltrexone 100 mg/day.
BZD: 1 mg lorazepam; vitamin B1 100 mg.
Clonidine 100 mg IV/hour; CPZ 50 mg QID;
chlormethiazole.
Conditioned reflex treatment: Alcohol+drug
increases ADR leading to abstinancy.
Disulfiram 250 mg/day then 100 mg/day.
Delirium Tremens
Delirium TREMENS is due to temporary
excess/sudden withdrawal. It typically begins 3-4
days after last drink.
Clinical features of Delirium TREMENS
Disorientation to time, place and persons.
Tremors
Restlessness.
Enhanced HR, BP and temperature.
Memory loss.
Excess fear.
No control on violence.
Suicidal tendency; visual and auditory
hallucination(death in 5-15 %) .
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DISULFIRAM
Mech:
Inhibits
aldehyde
(acetaldehyde)
dehydrogenase irreversibly, enhances acetaldehyde
conc. in the body, causes aldehyde syndrome which
reinforces not to drink. It also inhibits alcohol
dehydrogenase, DA hydroxylase, CYP 450
isoenzymes, and prolongs t½ of many drugs.
ADR of DISULFIRAM:
Dangerous due to CVS collapse.
Increased pulse and hyperventilation.
Sweating.
Upset(abdominal).
Loss of vision.
Flushing; Fainting.
Increased throbbing headache.
Rashes.
Anxiety.
Metallic taste and mailase.
Hence, the patients dislike drinking due to the
ADR of increased acetaldehyde.
Signs and symptoms of “ANGEL DUST”:
Analgesia like opioid, amphetamine like at high
doses
Numbness, Nystagmus and feeling of dissociation
Generalized seizures, sweating, salivation,
dystonia.
Euphoria, miosis, visual hallucination
Low sugar level
Distorted perception and body image, Diaphoresis
Urine(feature of ARF)
Similar to ketamine, catatonic syndrome(violent,
bizarre, nudism)
Treatment of angel dust:…………..“ABCD”
Acidify urine, NH4Cl 3 mEq/kg
Breathing stabilization by oxygen
C vitamin 2 mg IV
Diazepam, Diaphenhydramine
LSD (LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE)
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Signs and symptoms of
LSD:...................................“HALLUCINOGENS”
HTN,Hyperthermia.
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Acute mania, Arrhythmia.
LSD effect, re-experienced without
exposure(flashbacks).
Limb aplasia,anophthalmia,cerebral malformation
in pregnancy.
Under UV light, it shows blue fluorescence.
Changed mood and perception(colour heard and
music palpated).
Increased temperature(cotton fever)and bad
trip(most common).
No abstinence syndrome but psychic dependence
present.
Orally taken usually,myositis ossificans due to
repeated puncture
Erection of hair;Eye-mydriasis
Nausea
Syndrome(body packer and body stuffer
syndrome); Slow passage of time; Salivation
Signs and symptoms of “CANNABIS INDICA”
CNS-higher centre depression with loss of
perception of time and space
Anaesthetic effects
Numness and tingling
Nasea and dizziness
Aphrodisiac,talkativeness and rarely Running
Amok
Breathing paralysis causes death
Inceased appetite with intake of food with great
relish but weight loss occurs
Signs and symptoms similar to alcohol(excitement
to necrosis)
Impotence(decreased sperm count and DHT),
Irresistable desire to destroy life and property
Nude beautiful women dancing before abuser is
perception
Dilated pupil
Insomnia,hashish insanity, mood deterioration
Confusion
Anorexia
Treatment of Cannabis indica
toxicity:…………………“ABCDEFGH”
Airway maintenance by intubation
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Breathing maintenance by oxygen
Circulation maintenance by RL/NS/D5W IV
Drugs-Diazepam 10 mg IV; naloxone 2 mg;
thiamine 100 mg IV;strychnine hypodermic
injection.
ECG monitoring.
Fluid with 100 ml of 50% glucose.
Give strong tea and coffee orally.
Haloperidol for psychosis.
Stage of excitement of COCAINE
Cortex and medulla stimulation, Convulsion, Cord
degeneration
Ocular-mydriasis
Cyanosis; Colour of skin-pallor
Absence of fatigue and depression
Increased heart rate, respiratory rate, temperature,
physical activity and energy and hypotension
Numbness of extremities, nose and throat; Nausea
Excited, restless and talkative
Stage of depression of “WHITE LADY”
Within an hour
Heart failure, respiratory depression and vascular
collapse.
Irritability
Tactile hallucination(cocaine bugs), Tachycardia
and Tachypnoea
Eye-mydriasis
Loss of interest in family, food and sex
Abnormal behaviour(paranoid, mania and
depression)
Dysphoria(depression and insomnia)
Young of upper class more effected due to high
cost.
Treatment of cocaine
poisoning:…………………….“ABCDEFGHI”
Airway maintenance by intubation
Breathing maintenance by oxygen
Circulation maintenance by NS/RL
Drugs-Diazepam/chloroform for convulsion;
barbiturate for stimulation; naloxone 2 mg IV;
thiamine 100 mg IV; ice bath for hyperthermia.
Ensure ligature above the part if injected
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1.
2.
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2.
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For chronic case-amphetamine,lithium and
bromocriptine.
Gastric lavage by warm water containing
charcoal,KMnO4 and tannic acid. Wash out nose
and throat with water.
Haloperidol for psychosis.
Inhalational amylnitrate is antidote.
CIGARETTES
Cigarettes give nicotine (active substance) which
causes :
CNS stimulation (arousal, relaxation and mild
euphoria).
Stimulation of sympathetic nervous system
vasoconstriction BP.
Tars and CO inhaled enhance COPD, cancer and
heart disease. Physical and psychological
dependence occurs. Abstinence leads to anxiety,
insomnia and appetite loss.
Approaches to abstaining from cigarettes:
Bupropion (TCA).
Behavioural modification.
Nicotine available in gum, patch and inhaler.
Treatment of acute poisoning:
Airway, breathing and circulation maintenance.
Wash With Warm Water (4W) containing charcoal,
tannin and KI.
Urine acidification, BZD. Gastric lavage by KMnO4.
Mecamylamine (specific antagonist). NaSO4, atropine
and hexamethonium (50 mg s.c.) along with
symptomatic treatment. Clonidine 30 mg/day (weans
away from addiction), buspirone, 5-HT uptake
inhibitor, doxepin, Vit. C.
The smoker PUTS down 4 diseases (these favour
non-smokers):
Pre-eclampsia,
Ulcerative colitis,
Tremor agitans (parkinsonism),
Sarcoidosis.
“Cigarette is a roll of tobacco with a flame at one
end and a fool at the other end”
BARBITURATES (ACIDIC DRUG)
“Barbiturates facilitate GABA action by
increased DURATION of Cl – channel opening.
barbiDURATe =  DURATion”.
Signs and symptoms of “BARBITURATES”
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BP is decreased due to medullary and myocardial
depression.
Arrhythmia causes death. Peripheral blood pooling
occurs.
Respiratory, CVS and CNS depression. Renal
BZD
depression due to hypotension.
BZD and alcohol are cumulative and
Intensify toxicity.
Tone of muscle is lost.
Unsteady gait,Unconsciousness, Urine and stool
incontinence.
Rapid toxicity due to unstable angina(a few second
to minute).
Ataxia, Absent reflex(planter and flexor), Babinskis
sign positive.
Temperature is decreased.
Eye-miosis thereafter mydriasis.
Somnolence; Skin cold, camy and
cyanotic.Barbiturate blister.
Treatment of barbiturate
poisoning:…………………… “ABCDEFGH”
Airway
Breathing and
Circulation stabilization by oxygen, NS, RL and
Scandinavian method(antishock measure) by NA 2
mg/DA.
Do not revive CNS/respiratory depression with
analeptics(amphetamine 20 mg IV, cardiazol 5 mg
IV, amiphenazole 15 mg IV, picrotoxin,
nikethamide) due to increased oxygen demand,
increased temperature and increased
seizures.Drugs: vasodepressor (DA) and forced
alkaline diuresis with Mannitol and NaHCO3 .
Exteremly hard concretion in stomach(stomach
wash upto 8 hours must be done).
Forced alkaline diuresis in case of LA by
mannitol(most useful)200 ml of 25% then 500 ml of
5 % in next 3 hours then 5% dextrose in 1 day for
10-20 L urine excretion must be done.
Gastirc lavage with activated charcoal(1 mg/kg),
KMnO4,tannic acid, MgSO4 for purgation. Gradual
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withdrawal in chronic use with symptomatic
treatment due to physical and psychological
dependence. No specific antidote.
Hemodialysis and haemoperfusion.
Mechanism of BZD:
They act as GABA agonist. Overall action of all
BZD is the same.
―BZD Facilitates GABA action by Frequency of Cl- channel
opening.”
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Signs And Symptoms Of BZD Toxicity
1.Acute:……………. “DIAZEPAM”
Diplopia,Dysarthria
Increased reaction time
Ataxia
diZziness
Epigastric pain
Paradoxical CNS stimulation
Abuse liability due to dependence
Memory loss
2. Chronic:Anxiety, intolerance, tremor, muscle
spasm
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Treatment:………………….. “ABCDEF”
Airway,
Breathing and
Circulation maintenance by oxygen, intubation etc.
Diazepam 5 mg IV for withdrawal reaction then
tapered off.
Electrolyte balance by NS/RL
Flumazenil 5 mg IV at the rate of 0.1 mg/minute
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Diazepam
is
DOC
:………………………………“The SPASM”
Delirium Tremens
Status epilepticus (I.V.)
Postoperative delirium
Alcohol withdrawal syndrome.
Febrile Seizures.
Preanaesthetic Medication.
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in
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Alprazolam is BZD of choice in :…………………………..
“APE”
 Agoraphobia (fear of being alone or in open space).
 Panic disorder
 Elderly individual
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Uses of DIAZEPAM:
Delirium tremens (in alcohol withdrawal),
Insomnia and neurosis,
Anxiety,
before cardiac catheteriZation, sedation
surgery,
Epilepsy,
Preanaesthetic medication, I.V. anaesthesia,
As Adjuvant with Antiemetics,
Muscle relaxation.
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PARALDEHYDE
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before
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Therapeutic effects of DIAZEPAM:
Drowsiness,
Increased reaction time,
Ataxia, diZziness (hangover),
Epigastric distress,
Paradoxical CNS stimulation,
Abuse liability (due to dependence),
Memory loss (=amnesia).
It is called "Knockout drops" due to its rapid action
for the purpose of rape/robbery.
Mickey Finn = Alcohol + chloral hydrate.
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Signs and symptoms of “CHLORAL” hydrate
Convulion,mental retardation
Habitual use-tolerance and physical dependence
Like barbiturates, it manifests
Ocular-pinpoint pupil before death
Retrosternal burning sensation,urticaria,scarlet
rash
Albuminuria
Loss of life due to paralysis of respiratory centre.
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Treatment of chloralhydrate:………ABCDEF
Airway intubation
Breathing maintenance by oxygen
Cardiac stimulation
It is potent hypnotic with sharp and short lasting actions.
Uses are:
Delirium
To calm down Agitated patients
Tetanus
Eclampsia…………….. ―DATES”
Convulsion of Status epilepticus.
Drugs with increased absorption with food are:
Diazepam,
Thiazides,
Propranolol,
Halofantrine,
Lithium and
Griseofulvin……………………… ―DTPH & Love
Guru‖
SEIZURES
They are paroxysmal event due to uncontrolled
excessive hypersynchronous discharges from an
aggregate CNS neurones.
CHLORALHYDRATE (PRODRUG)
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Drugs-flumazenil 0.1 mg(maximum 3 mg)
,diazepam.
Electrolytes(glucose,NS/RL IV)
Forced alkaline diuresis
Major types :
1.
Focal/partial (local brain part) :
a. Simple (SPS) cortical lobe epilepsy : Lasts 1 min.,
involves a group of ms., no loss of consciousness.
b. Complex
(CPS)/psychomotor/temporal
lobe
epilepsy : Lasts 1-2 min., Bizarre behaviour (staring,
roaming). It is associated with attention in
consciousness coupled with automation (chewing,
aimless walking, etc.).
2.
Generalised (large part of the body):………… “I AM
FAST”
Infantile spasm : Intermittent ms. spasm with mental
retardation.
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Atonic seizures (Akinetic epilepsy) : Unconsciousness
without relaxation of all muscles due to excessive
inhibitory discharge.
Myoclonic : Momentary ms. contraction.
Febrile seizures (6 months to 6 yrs) : Due to >101.8° F
temp.
Absence/Petitmal
:
Brief
impairment
of
consciousness, involves mainly children, lasts ½ min.,
EEG  3 cps (spike and wave pattern).
Status epilepticus : Continuous clinical menifestations
of epileptic disease without intermission.
Tonic-clonic
/grandmal
/major
epilepsy
:
commonest, lasts 1-2 min.
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Oedema (peripheral),
Appetite increased,
Tremor,
Enzyme inducer (liver).
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Drugs causing fatty liver are :………………….
“SMART”
Sod. valporate,
Mtx,
Amiodarone,
aspaRaginase,
Tetracycline
PHENYTOIN/DIPHENYL HYDANTOIN
Mechanism of phenytoin: use dependent blockade of Na+channel.
Mechanism of action of antiepileptics:
 Inhibition of GABA—Transaminase by vigabatrin and
valproic acid. VIGABATRIN = GABA TRansaminase
INhibition (irreversible).
 GABA release in brain by GABApentin (not act as
GABAA R agonist).
 Facilitation of GABA mediated Cl- channel opening by
BZD, barbiturates, valproate, vigabatrin, gabapentin.
 Induction of T type Ca++ current by valproate,
trimethadione and ethosuximide.
 Prolongation of Na+ channel inactivation by phenytoin,
valproate, carbamazepine and lamotrigine.
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ADR of PHENYTOIN:
P – 450 interaction,
Hirsutism,
Enlarged gum,
Nystagmus,
Yellow-brown skin,
Teratogenic,
Osteomalacia,
Interference with B12 metabolism leading to anemia,
Neuropathy (vertigo, ataxia, headache).
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VALPROIC ACID
ADR of “VALPROATE” :
Vomiting,
Alopecia,
Liver toxicity,
Pancytopenia/pancreatitis,
Retention of fat (weight gain),
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CHLORPROMAZINE (CPZ) (AS PROTOTYPE)
Chlorpromazine
is
the
prototype
―ANTIPSYCHOTIC”.
Its actions are:
Antipsychotic effect in psychotic patients (therapeutic
effect).
Neuroleptic
syndrome
in
normal
persons
(unpleasant).
Temperature control is disturbed.
Increased chances of epileptic fits due to decreased
seizure threshold.
Prolactin release increases – glactorrhoea and
gynecomastia.
Side effects – Extrapyramidal, e.g. Parkinsonism,
dystonias, akathisia, dyskinesia.
Yellowness, i.e. cholestatic jaundice.
Cholinergic antagonism leading to dry mouth, etc.
Hypotension.
Obesity.
Tolerance to some effects like sedation.
Inhibition of gonadotropin secretion and D2 R mainly.
Certain spastic conditions are relieved.
ADR of neuroleptics:
A. Hypersensitivity rxn (not dose related) :
 Skin
rashes,
urticaria,
contact
dermatitis,
photosensitivity = 5%.
 Cholestatic jaundice = 4%.
 Agranulocytosis (common with clozapine) = 0.8%.
B. Dose related :…………………………….. “ACE
Blockade‖
 Anticholinergic (dry mouth, constipation, urinary
hesitency, blurred vision).
 CNS (confusion, drowsiness, tolerance and appetite).
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Endocrine (amenorrhoea, infertility, gynaecomastia
due to protactin and gonadotropin) .
Extrapyramidal disturbances (least with clozapine,
risperidone, thioridazine, and more with potent
drugs).
Blockade of alpha rceptors (postural hypotension,
palpitation, inhibition of ejaculation).
Blue pigmentation of exposed skin and retinal
degeneration.
Extrapyramidal ADR:
4 hours
4 days
4 weeks
4 months
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Time of Evolution of ADR
Acute dystonia
Akinesia
Akathisia
Tardive dyskinesia
Extrapyramidal ADR
Syndrome (Malignant neuroleptic syndrome)
Muscular dystonia
Akathisia ……………………… “SMART Person‖
Rabbit tremor
Tardive dyskinesia
Parkinsonism
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Neuroleptics are for rapid control of mania and for shortterm basis to control organic brain syndrome. Max.
therapeutic effect in chronic schizophrenia occurs in 2-4
months therapy.
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TCA: IMIPRAMINE (PROTOTYPE)
Imipramine forms desipramine (Active metabolite).
Amitriptyline forms nortriptyline (Active metabolite).
ADR of SSRI:
Serotonin syndrome (causes HARM = Hyperthermia,
Autonomic instability, Rigidity, Myoclonus),
Stimulates CNS,
Reproductive dysfunction in male,
Insomnia.
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ADR of TCAs:
Thrombocytopenia,
Cardiac (MI, stroke), coma, convulsion,
Anticholinergic,
Seizures.
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Signs and symptoms of “ANTIDEPRESSANTS”
toxicity
Agitation
NA blockade causes hypertension
Toxic to heart by unknown mechanism
Increased heart rate
Dilated pupil
Extension of planter reflex
Pulmonary system depression
Retention of urine due to anticholinergic side
effects
Eye-blurred vision
Seizure(myoclonic jerk)
Suppression of BP
Acidosis(metabolic)
NA and 5-HT inhibition causes mood elevation
Tremor
Serotonin syndrome causes HARMHyperthermia,Autonomic
instability,Rigidity,Myoclonus
Treatment of antidepressants:……………..
“ABCD”
Adequate oxygen,Activated
charcoal,Antidote(physiostigmine 2 mg IV for 5
minutes), watch out SLUD(Salivation, Lacrimation,
Urination, Defecation),Central effects are present.
Bicarbonate(NaHCO3) 50 mEq
IV.Lidocaine/phenytoin may be used
Correction of hypotension and acidosis
Diazepam for convulsion
IA :
Phenytoin, Phenylbutazone, CPZ and Aspirin
displace TCA from protein binding sites and cause
toxicity.
Where there is sins (PAPZ), there is toxicity (to TCA).
Limitation of TCA:
Limited efficacy,
Low therapeutic margin……………………. “3L CAN”
Lag time of 2-4 wk.before response,
ADR (Cardiovascular, Anticholinergic and Neurological).
VENLAFAXINE :
It is a novel antidepressant. Sedation absent.
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Mech:
5 - HT and NA reuptake inhibitor but does not
interact
with
cholinergic,
adrenergic
and
histaminergic R. It enhances BP.
ADR:
Raised BP,
Anxiety,
Impotence, inhibitor of CYP 450,
Sweating,
Enhanced nasal secretion (nausea),
Dizziness…………………………. ―RAISED BP”
AMINEPTINE
Antidepressant action is due to increased
serotonin uptake (similar to tianeptine).
ADR:
Postural hypotension,
Anticholinergic ADR,
Conductive disturbance of the diseased heart,
Tachycardia……………………………………….
―PACT‖
Li2CO3/MOOD STABILISER/ANTIMANIC DRUG
ADR of “LITHIUM‖
Leukocyte Increased,
Tremor,
Hypothyroidism,
Increased Urine,
Moms alerted due to teratogenicity.
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MORPHINE
“Morphine is for for More Pain”
Opium poppy:
10% opium
 Morphine
1% opium  Codeine.
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They are phenanthrene derivative of P.
somniferum. Pure active morphine was isolated from
opium by Serturner. Morphine is called God's Own
Medicine by Sir William Osler. Morphine and
pethidine are anodyne hypnotics.
Actions of receptors(spinal and supraspinal):
Mu:
Hormone change.
Analgesia.
Respiratory depression.
DA release.
ACh release.
Reinforcement euphoria.
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Motility of gut is enhanced.
Cough and appetite suppression………. HARD
ARMS
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Kappa:
Decreased dysphoria, GI motility, appetite and
respiration; analgesia, psychosis, sedation, diuresis.
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Sigma:
Hormone change, DA release and decreased
appetite.
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Delta:
Cardiac stimulation.
Hallucination.
Dysphoria……………..CHD
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Mechanism of action of opioid :
It causes hyperpolarisation of nerve cell, inhibition
of nerve firing and presynaptic inhibition of
transmitter release.
Effects of ―MORPHINES”
Miosis,
Orthostatic hypotension,
Respiratory depression,
Pain suppression,
Histamine release and Hormonal alteration,
Increased ICP,
Nausea,
Euphoria,
Sedation.
ADR :
1. Sedation, lethargy, idiosyncrasy and allergy. Allergy
and idiosyncrasy (local rxn due to histamine release,
swelling of lips, urticaria).
2. Apnoea in newborn due to drug intake by mother
during pregnancy (more attainment of drug by foetus
in brain). Naloxone 10 g/kg injected in cord is DOC.
3. Acute morphine poisoning : Lethal dose — 250 mg.
Manifestations - coma, cyanosis, flaccidity, BP,
pinpoint pupil, death due to respiratory failure.
Excitement stupor coma.
Treatment
:……………………………………..
“ABCDEFG”
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BE ST SEL L INGB OOK S: AWE SO ME RE VIEW SE RIES O F JAMIA URDU
H INDPUB L ISH E D B Y JUH PRESSO F FAL AH -E -H IND L IB RARY. ISB N006527278
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Airway, Breathing and Circulation
maintenance.Amphenazole 30 mg IV.Coma
cocktail(100 ml of 50 % glucose and 100 mg thiamine)
Drugs (vosoconstrictor) and 0.6 mg/i.v. naloxone
(DOC).Methadone(long action).Nalmefene 1 mg/kg
IV.Physiostigmine 0.04 mg/kg IV. Ephedrine.
Caffeine. Amphetamine.
ECG monitoring and Fluid balance.
Gastric lavage with KMnO4 , NaSO4 and charcoal.
Chronic poisoning of OPIUM:
Opium addicts tolerate upto 6 gm/day.
Pleasurable feeling of relief and well being then
depression.
Irritation; Insomnia; Impotance; Intellectual
deterioration.
Ultimate result to foetus is life threatening.
Miosis; Mental fatigue; Moral deterioration;
Memory loss.
4. Tolerance and dependence (psychological and
physical)
present.
Tolerance
is
partly
pharmacokinetic (rate of metabolism) but mainly
pharmacodynamic (cellular tolerance). Crosstolerance present.
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Effects of morphine for which high degree of tolerance
develops are :
Sedation,
Mental clouding,
Euphoria and dysphoria,
Analgesia and antidiuresis,
Respiratory depression………………. ―SMEAR”
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Effect of morphine for which minimal or no tolerance
develops are :
Constipation,
Antagonistic action,
convuLsion and
Miosis………………………………. ―CALM”
METHADONE
1 mg of oral methadone = 4 mg of morphine = 2 mg
of heroin = 20 mg of pethidine.
U
:…………………………………………….
“MADS”
1. Maintenance therapy in opioid addicts : methadone
in sufficient dose given orally to produce high degree
of tolerance so that subjects give up the habit in the
absence of pleasurable effects of I.V. doses of heroin
and morphine.
2. Analgesia in labour and biliary colic.
3. Detoxification of morphine addicts  methadone
(DOC).
Nonaddicting drug used in opioid withdrawal
syndrome  clonidine.
4. Substitution therapy in opioid dependence.
1 mg oral methadone subsituated for
 2 mg Heroin…………..―HMP—2, 4, 20‖
 4 mg Morphine.
 20 mg Pethidine.
Uses of morphine:
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Cardiac Asthma (Acute LVF)
Balanced anaesthesia and neurolept analgesia
Cough
Diarrhoea
Analgesic
Preanaesthetic Medication
Pulmonary edema
Epidural anaesthesia………………………………. “ABC
DAMPEN”
Neurogenic shock
NALOXONE
It is a competitive antagonist on all types of
opioid R. and is a N-alylnor-oxymorphone.
NArcotic ANtagonists are NAloxone and NAltrexone.
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ADR of “ASPIRIN” :
Asthma,
Salicylism,
Premature
closure
of
PDA/Platelet
disaggregation/Phosphorylation
–
oxidation
uncoupling,
Intestinal bleeding due to peptic ulcer,
Reye’s syndrome,
Idiosyncracy,
Noise (tinnitus).
Order of toxicity:
Tinnitus  uncoupling of oxidative
phosphorylation ( CO2 respiration)  (medullary
stimulation  HCO3- loss and respiratory alkalosis)
37 | P a g e
BE ST SEL L INGB OOK S: AWE SO ME RE VIEW SE RIES O F JAMIA URDU
H INDPUB L ISH E D B Y JUH PRESSO F FAL AH -E -H IND L IB RARY. ISB N006527278
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 acidosis (HCO3- loss, fluid and electrolyte loss,
respiratory depression).
Manifestations:
Nausea and vomiting
Acidotic Breathing
Coma and Convulsion
Dehydration and Delirium
Electrolyte imbalance
Death due to respiratory Failure + cardiovascular
collapse
Giddiness
Hallucination and Hyperpyrexia
Restlessness ………………………….. ―ABCDEFGH”
Treatment:
1. Airway Breathing and Circulation maintenance
2. Forced alkaline Diuresis and Hemodialysis to remove
absorbed drug.
3. Electrolyte balance by I.V. Fluid with Na+, K+, HCO3and Glucose and External cooling (Most important).
4. Gastric lavage to remove unabsorbed drug.
5. Blood transfusion&Vitamin K….. “ABCDEFGH”