Università degli Studi di Cagliari
Facoltà di Farmacia
Corso di Laurea in Tossicologia
Lingua inglese
Anno accademico 2011/2012, secondo semestre
Quinta lezione
Dott. Rino Bosso
[email protected]
AVVISI
Si avvisano gli studenti iscritti al I anno del CdL
Tossicologia che la lezione di lingua inglese
prevista per giovedì 22 marzo 2012 non avrà
luogo e sarà recuperata nel mese di maggio,
secondo il regolare calendario delle lezioni.
Grammar: Voice
Voice is a grammatical category which defines the relationship between a
verb and its subject. In active clauses, the subject is the agent responsible for
performing the action. In passive clauses, the subject is the affected entity,
and the agent may (1) or may not (2) be specified:
Active:
Researchers carefully design clinical trials to answer certain research
questions.
Passive:
1. Clinical trials are carefully designed by researchers to answer certain
research questions.
2. Clinical trials are carefully designed to answer certain research questions.
Baker, M., In other words, a coursebook on translation, Routledge, 1992.
Grammar:
1. Passives;
2. Adverbs;
3. Modals.
Passives in scientific writing
More than a century ago, scientists typically wrote in an
active style that included the first-person pronouns I and
we. Beginning in about the 1920s, however, these
pronouns became less common as scientists adopted a
passive writing style.
Considered to be objective, impersonal, and well suited
to science writing, the passive voice became the standard
style for medical and scientific journal publications for
decades.
From: http://www.biomedicaleditor.com/active-voice.html
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Not all verbs can have passive forms. Passive structures are impossible with
intransitive verbs like die or arrive, which cannot have objects, because there
is nothing to become the subject of a passive sentence:
John died because of an allergic reaction to penicillin.
John was died by an allergic reaction to penicillin.
Some transitive verbs, too, are seldom used in the passive. Most of these are
stative verbs (verbs which refer to states, not actions):
I have a terrible headache.
A terrible headache is had by me.
Passive verb forms
We normally make passive forms of a
verb by using tenses of the auxiliary
verb be followed by the past participle
of the verb.
Passive verb forms:
Present tenses
Simple Present
Active:
Passive
The company ships the computers
to many foreign countries.
Computers are shipped to many
foreign countries
Present Progressive
Active:
Passive:
The chef is preparing the food.
The food is being prepared.
Passive verb forms:
Past tenses
Simple Past
Active:
Passive
The delivery man delivered the
package yesterday.
The package was delivered
yesterday.
Past Progressive
Active:
Passive:
The nurse was taking the patient’s
observations.
The patient’s observations were
being taken.
Passive verb forms:
Perfect forms
Present perfect
Active:
Passive
Someone has made the arrangements
for us.
The arrangements have been made for
us.
Past perfect
Active:
Passive:
They had given us visas for three
months.
We had been given visas for three
months.
Future perfect
Active:
Passive:
I will have done everything by Tuesday. Everything will have been done by
I promise!
Tuesday.
English for Pharmacy
Clinical Trials, page 1 (1)
Have a look at the text «CLINICAL TRIALS:
TESTING MEDICAL PRODUCTS IN PEOPLE».
List all the passive forms that appear in the text.
English for Pharmacy
Clinical Trials, page 1 (2)
1. …they should be approved…;
2. …(potential treatments) must be studied…;
3. …they can be tried…;
4. …(treatments) are then moved…;
5. …it is not known…;
6. …(clinical trials) are required…;
7. Every clinical trial is carefully designed…;
8. …what study procedures will be done…;
9. Products are often tested…;
10. Those found eligible…are given specific instructions,
and then monitored and carefully assessed… .
Passive sentences – Simple Present
Exercise (1)
1. the documents / print
2. the window / open
3. the shoes / buy
4. the car / wash
5. the litter / throw away
6. the letter / send
7. the book / read / not
8. the songs / sing / not
9. the food / eat / not
10. the shop / close / not
Passive sentences – Simple Present
Exercise (2)
1. The documents are printed.
2. The window is opened.
3. The shoes are bought.
4. The car is washed.
5. The litter is thrown away.
6. The letter is sent.
7. The book is not read.
8. The songs are not sung.
9. The food is not eaten.
10. The shop is not closed.
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/passive/exercises
Passive sentences – Present Progressive
Exercise (1)
1. Sheila is drinking a cup of tea.
2. My father is washing the car.
3. Farmer Joe is milking the cows.
4. She is taking a picture of him.
5. I am writing a poem.
6. We are not playing football.
7. He is not wearing a tie.
8. Is she preparing the party?
9. Are they talking about the meeting?
10. Is she watering the flowers?
Passive sentences – Present Progressive
Exercise (2)
1. A cup of tea is being drunk by Sheila.
2. The car is being washed by my father.
3. The cows are being milked by farmer Joe.
4. A picture of him is being taken by her.
5. A poem is being written by me.
6. Football is not being played by us.
7. A tie is not being worn by him.
8. Is the party being prepared by her?
9. Is the meeting being talked about by them?
10. Are the flowers being watered by her?
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/passive/exercises?present-progressive
More exercises?
If you want to do some more exercises and practice
the use of passive forms, click on the link below:
http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/grammarexercises/passives
…and also on the link below:
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cramup/grammar/passive
Adverbs of time –
actions completed in the past
Some adverbs tell us when something happened.
These include: afterwards, later, now, soon, yesterday etc.:
Do you know any songs by John Lennon?
Yesterday all my troubles seemed so far away.
-
In this sentence yesterday shows us when the singer’s troubles seemed so far
away…in the past!
-
As the word “yesterday” appears in the sentence, the Simple Past form of the
verb “to seem” is used.
-
Expressions with words which indicate that the action was completed in the
past, such as ago (eg. “I went to Germany by plane two years ago ”) and last
(eg. “we had a party last week”) are normally used with a past tense.
Adverbs of time –
the Present Perfect and the Past Perfect
Some words express the idea of a past action whose results are still evident in the present:
Mary: Why were you all wet yesterday when I met you?
Paul: Because I had just had a shower.
Some other words are used to emphasize the idea of duration:
I haven’t seen my brother since Christmas.
And there are words which are used to express what is part of our life experience:
Have you ever been to the USA?
Finally, there are words which are used to emphasize the idea of achievement:
Mary: Have you already had breakfast?
Paul: No, I haven’t had breakfast yet.
Exercises (1)
1. Two days ago, a murder (happen) in Market
Street at about seven pm;
2. I have been waiting …
(since/already/ever/just) 4 o’clock;
3. Have you …(since/already/ever/just) been to
London?
Exercises (2)
1. Two days ago, a murder happened in Market
Street at about seven pm;
2. I have been waiting since 4 o’clock;
3. Have you ever been to London?
Modal verbs
We use modal verbs to show if we believe
something is certain, probable or possible (or not).
We also use modals to do things like talking about
ability, asking for permission, making requests and
offers, and so on.
The modal verbs are can, could, may, might, must,
need, ought, shall, should, will and would.
The modals are used to show that we believe
something is certain, probable or possible.
Possibility
We use the modals could, might and may to show that something is possible in the
future, but not certain:
• They might come later. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come later.)
They may come by car. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come by car.)
If we don’t hurry we could be late. (= Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)
We use could have, might have and may have to show that something was
possible now or at some time in the past:
• It’s ten o’clock. They might have arrived now.
They could have arrived hours ago.
We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible:
• It can be very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter)
You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark)
We use the modal could as the past tense of can:
• It could be very cold in winter. (= Sometimes it was very cold in winter.)
You could lose your way in the dark. (= People often lost their way in the dark)
Impossibility
We use the negative can’t or cannot to show that
something is impossible:
• That can’t be true.
You cannot be serious.
We use couldn’t/could not to talk about the past:
• We knew it could not be true.
He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.
Probability
We use the modal must to show we are sure something to be true and we have
reasons for our belief:
• It’s getting dark. It must be quite late.
You haven’t eaten all day. You must be hungry.
We use must have for the past:
• They hadn’t eaten all day. They must have been hungry.
You look happy. You must have heard the good news.
We use the modal should to suggest that something is true or will be true in the
future, and to show you have reasons for your suggestion:
• Ask Miranda. She should know.
It's nearly six o'clock. They should arrive soon.
We use should have to talk about the past:
• It's nearly eleven o'clock. They should have arrived by now.
Should and ought
Should and ought are very similar and can often
replace each other:
They ought to be more sensitive, shouldn’t they?
They are both used to talk about obligation and
duty, to give advice, and to say what we think is
right for people to do or have done. Should is much
more frequent than ought.
Modal verbs and their substitutes
Modal Verb
Substitute
Example
must
to have to
You must study. = You have to study.
must not
not to be allowed to
You must not swim. = You are not
allowed to swim.
can
to be able to
I can swim. = I am able to swim.
may
to be allowed to
I may swim. = I am allowed to swim.
need
to have to
I need to swim. = I have to swim.
need not
not to have to
I need not swim. = I don't have to swim.
shall / should/
ought to
to be supposed to / to
be expected to / to be
to
I shall / should / ought to swim. = I am
supposed to swim. / I am expected to
swim. / I am to swim.
Exercises on modals and their substitutes (1)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
We ought to win the race.
I can swim.
You must meet my best friend.
He should be in bed by now.
I must get up early.
They may stay up late.
She needs to see the doctor.
You must not sleep at work.
Should I go to the cinema with them?
Exercises on modals and their substitutes (2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
We are supposed to win the race.
I am able to swim.
You have to meet my best friend.
He is supposed to be in bed by now.
I have to get up early.
They are allowed to stay up late.
She has to see the doctor.
You are not allowed to sleep at work.
Am I supposed to go to the cinema with them?
More exercises on modals?
If you want to do learn more about modals, have a look here:
http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/may-mightmay-have-and-might-have
(and also have a look at the other webpages about modals which are accessible from the
menu on the right)
…and if you wanna (informal way of saying “want to”) do some more exercises and practice
the use of passive forms, click on the links below:
http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/grammar-exercises/modals-1
http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/grammar-exercises/modals-%E2%80%93deduction-present
http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/grammar-exercises/modals-%E2%80%93deduction-past