Corinne BRUSQUE (editor)
n-Vehicle Information Systems (IVIS)
provide drivers with various functions
and services, both not related to driving or related to the trip management.
Authors reviewed existing knowledge
on IVIS effects on driver behaviour and
road safety. A focus is made on three
driver populations: novice, elderly and
professional drivers which present a
specific issue for IVIS use. Finally, the
literature review is discussed to highlight missing knowledge.
This work has been carried out in the
framework of the COST Action 352.
Synthèse n° 54
Janvier 2007
THE INFLUENCE OF
IN-VEHICLE INFORMATION
SYSTEMS ON DRIVER
BEHAVIOUR AND ROAD
SAFETY
Synthesis of existing knowledge
Cost 352
15,24 €
ISSN 0769-0274
ISBN 973-2-85782-650-7
N°
54
T HÈSE
SYN
Synthèse INRETS n° 54
Corinne BRUSQUE PhD, head of
INRETS-LESCOT.
THE INFLUENCE OF IN-VEHICLE INFORMATION SYSTEMS ON DRIVER BEHAVIOUR AND ROAD SAFETY
I
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Corinne BRUSQUE (editor)
The Influence of In-Vehicle
Information Systems on driver
behaviour and road safety
Synthesis of existing knowledge
Cost 352
INRETS Synthesis N°54
January 2007
Editor:
Corinne BRUSQUE, INRETS-LESCOT
[email protected]
Authors:
Corinne Brusque, Marie Pierre Bruyas, José Carvalhais, Mauro Cozzolino,
Christhard Gelau, Clemens Kaufmann, Iva Macku, Marta Pereira, Vlasta
Rehnová, Ralf Risser, Karel Schmeidler, Anabela Simoes, Zuzana Simonova,
Christine Turetscheck, Truls Vaa, Jiří Vašek, Veronika Zehnalová.
Warning:
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Publication data form
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Projet N°
INRETS synthesis N° 54
LESCOT
Title
The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
Subtitle
Language
Synthesis of existing knowledge
English
Author(s)
Affiliation
Corinne Brusque, Marie Pierre Bruyas, José Carvalhais,
Mauro Cozzolino, Christhard Gelau, Clemens Kaufmann, Iva
Macku, Marta Pereira, Vlasta Rehnová, Ralf Risser, Karel
Schmeidler, Anabela Simoes, Zuzana Simonova, Christine
Turetscheck, Truls Vaa, Jiří Vašek, Veronika Zehnalová.
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Notes
Summary
The development of communication and information technologies in the field of road transport
provides drivers with various functions and services. The information delivered by the In-Vehicle
Information Systems (IVIS) may not be related to driving (e.g. conversing by phone, consulting
e-mails, listening to the radio…) or related to the trip management (e.g. traffic or weather information, navigation map, route guidance…).
The aim of this document is to review existing knowledge on the impact of IVIS on driver behaviour and road safety. A focus has been made on three driver populations, the novice drivers, the
elderly drivers and the professional drivers which present a specific issue for IVIS use. Finally, the
literature review is discussed to highlight missing knowledge.
Key Words
In-Vehicle Information Systems, driver, behaviour
Nb of pages
Price
Bibliography
112
15,24 €
yes
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
3
Fiche bibliographique
UR (1er auteur)
Projet N°
Synthèse INRETS N° 54
LESCOT
Titre
L’impact des systèmes d’information sur les comportements de conduite et la sécurité routière
Sous-titre
Langue
Synthèse bibliographique
anglais
Auteur(s)
Rattachement ext.
Corinne Brusque, Marie Pierre Bruyas, José Carvalhais,
Mauro Cozzolino, Christhard Gelau, Clemens Kaufmann, Iva
Macku, Marta Pereira, Vlasta Rehnová, Ralf Risser, Karel
Schmeidler, Anabela Simoes, Zuzana Simonova, Christine
Turetscheck, Truls Vaa, Jiří Vašek, Veronika Zehnalová.
N° contrat, conv.
Nom adresse financeur, co-éditeur
COST office http://www.cost.esf.org/
Date de publication
HUMANIST NoE http:///www.noehumanist.org
Janvier 2007
Remarques
Résumé
Le développement des technologies de l’information et de la communication dans le domaine
des transports offre aux conducteurs la possibilité d’accéder à des fonctions et services variés.
L’information délivrée, par les systèmes d’information embarqués, peut ne pas avoir de lien direct
avec la tâche de conduite (comme les conversations téléphoniques, la consultation d’emails,
l’écoute de la radio) ou être liée à la gestion du déplacement en cours (comme l’accès à des
informations trafic, météo, de navigation ou de guidage).
L’objet de ce rapport est de synthétiser les connaissances actuelles sur l’impact des systèmes
d’information sur les comportements de conduite et la sécurité routière. Une attention particulière
a été portée à trois populations de conducteurs: les conducteurs novices, les conducteurs âgés
et les conducteurs professionnels qui présentent des enjeux spécifiques en matière d’usage des
systèmes d’information. Enfin la revue de la littérature est discutée afin d’identifier les manques.
Mots clés
Systèmes d’information, comportement, conducteur
4
Nb de pages
Prix
Bibliographie
112
15,24 €
oui
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Table of contents
Acknowlegments
7
Introduction
9
Chapter 1: Non related driving tasks with integrated
or nomadic systems
1. Phone call
1.1. The impact of mobile phone use on the driver’s behaviour
1.2. The comparison of the distractive effects of a phone call with other
vocal interactions while driving
1.3. The links between mobile phone use and the risk to be involved in
an accident
1.4. The use of mobile phone during driving and the characteristics of
the user population
1.5. The comparison of the distractive effects of a phone call according
to the driver/user characteristics
2. Consulting other information and communication services not related to
the driving task
13
13
13
15
16
18
19
23
Chapter 2: Embedded tasks with integratedor nomadic systems
1. Consulting traffic and weather information
1.1. The effects of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driving behaviour
1.2. Traffic information systems
1.3. Weather information systems and systems that provide information
about the potential effects of weather conditions
2. Consulting guidance and navigation information
34
37
Chapter 3: Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
1. Novice drivers and IVIS
1.1. The characteristics of novice drivers
1.2. The interaction with In-Vehicle Information Systems
2. Elderly drivers and IVIS
2.1. Background
2.2. Compensation strategies
2.3. Elderly drivers and ITS
2.4. Further research needs
3. Professional drivers and IVIS
3.1. Background
3.2. Accident statistics
45
45
45
51
57
57
57
60
71
72
72
72
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
25
25
25
29
5
The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
3.3. The risky effects of telematics use
3.4. The legislation frames of ITS use
3.5. Further research needs
73
74
79
Discussions and conclusions
81
References
85
Authors addresses
6
109
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Acknowlegments
This literature review has been drafted in the framework of the COST Action
352: “Influence of in-vehicle information systems on road safety requirements” by
the members of the Work Package I in charge of the inventory of existing knowledge. This document will also be part of the final report of the Action.
This literature review has received the support of the Network of Excellence
HUMANIST through the involvement of Iva Macku, Marta Pereira and Christine
Turetscheck, whose PhD position is supported by HUMANIST.
The authors thank for their support:
– Michael Bernhard, Chair of the Action
– The members of the COST Transport and Urban Development Domain
(TUD)
– The Network of Excellence HUMANIST
– Their two referees: Professor Donnacha O’Cinneide (University College
Cork) and (Christhard Gelau (BASTt)
– Marie-José Mingotaud (INRETS)
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
7
The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
The logos of institutions supporting the draft of this report:
8
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Introduction
Corinne BRUSQUE (INRETS, France)
The development of communication and information technologies and their
deployment in the field of road transport provide drivers with new possibilities
of functions and services. Two main categories of on-board systems are usually
distinguished according to their impact on driving task: the In-Vehicle Information
Systems (IVIS) and the Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS).
– IVIS provide drivers with information or communication while the vehicle
is in motion. The delivered information may not be related to driving (e.g.
conversing by phone, consulting e-mails, listening to the radio…) or related
to the trip management (e.g. traffic or weather information, navigation map,
route guidance…).
– ADAS are designed to support the driving task on vehicle manœuvring by
informing, warning and actively assisting drivers on the basis of vehicle surroundings analysis and with the requirement of immediate driver actions
(e;g. intelligent speed adaptation, lateral and longitudinal control, blind spot
warning, night vision…).
The aim of COST Action 352 is to investigate the influence of In-Vehicle
Information Systems on road safety. Work Package 1 of the project reviews previous and current research on this topic. Of course, the challenge for road safety will
not be the same whether the information delivered by IVIS will be driving-related
or not driving-related.
In the first case, we will investigate the distractive impact of this additional
task on the principal task which is the driving task: the access to this information
produces a specific workload for drivers, that adds further to the workload due
to the driving task. Consequently, this workload raising increases the probability
of reaching limiting values in terms of workload capacity. In some cases, drivers
can even decide to favour the communication task to the detriment of the driving
task. The drivers’capacity to manage both activities in parallel will depend on the
characteristics of the information task, on the requirement of the driving task and
also on the driver’s characteristics.
In the latter case, we will have to balance the risk and the benefits of these
systems on mobility and safety. Indeed, various functions are proposed to the
drivers with the objective to facilitate their driving task and to improve the safety
of their travels. For example, the access to navigation information reduces the
demand of driver’s attentional resources required for way finding. The provision
of traffic or weather information facilitates anticipation processes for avoidance
of critical situations. But these system benefits could be overcompensated by a
poorly designed interface, introducing distraction or inappropriate driver behav-
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
9
The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
iour. Strong efforts have been made on the European level to disseminate the
best practices for the design of these systems and for their installation in the
vehicle through the edition of European Statement of Principles on the design of
Human Machine Interaction1.
Distraction is a key issue for the researches investigating the impact of IVIS
on road safety. Within this document, we will use the comprehensive definition of
distraction proposed by Pettitt at al. (2005):
Distraction occurs when a driver is delayed in the recognition of the necessary
information to safely maintain the lateral and longitudinal control of the vehicle (the
driving task), due to some event activity, object or person, within or outside the
vehicle that compels or tends to induce the driver’s shifting attention away from
fundamental driving tasks by compromising the driver’s auditory, biomechanical,
cognitive or visual faculties, or combinations thereof.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration estimates that at least 25%
of police-reported crashes involve some form of driver inattention. Driver distraction is one form of inattention and is a factor in over half of these crashes. By
analysing the overall 1995-1999 CDS data, that includes about 32 000 detailed
police reported crashes involving at least one passenger vehicle, Stutts et al.
(2001) found that 8.3% of the drivers were distracted at the moment of the crash.
Stevens and Minton (2001) analyzed fatal accident reports in England and Wales
over the period 1985-1995 and they found that in-vehicle distractions are reported
as a contributory factor in about 2% of fatal accidents. Manipulating and using
IVIS are one part of these distractive activities (Stutts et al., 2005).
The same function could be provided by different kinds of systems as OEM2
installed systems, aftermarket systems and nomadic devices and the same device
can offer several functions with various interaction types. Then, the classification
of the In-Vehicle Information Systems made in this document takes into account
the offered functions rather than the devices.
Four main functions have been identified:
– Non related driving tasks with integrated or nomadic systems
° Phone call
°
Consulting other information and communication services
– Embedded tasks with integrated or nomadic systems
° Consulting traffic and weather information
°
Consulting guidance and navigation information
The existing knowledge on the impact of IVIS on driver behaviour and road
safety is presented below according to these four functions. Then, a focus has
1 Recommendation on safe and efficient in-vehicle information and communication systems:
a European Statement of Principles on human machine interface” (OJ L19, 25.1.2000, p. 64).
Recommendations from the eSafety HMI Working Group - Final Report – 2005.
2 Original Equipment Manufacturer.
10
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Introduction
been made on three driver populations, the novice drivers, the elderly drivers and
the professional drivers which present a specific issue for IVIS use. Finally, the
literature review is discussed to highlight missing knowledge for these different
functions and to identify the main questions for further research in relation to Work
Package III of COST Action 352.
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
11
Chapter 1
Non related driving tasks with
integrated or nomadic systems
1. Phone call
Corinne BRUSQUE (INRETS, France)
Marie-Pierre BRUYAS (INRETS, France)
Zuzana SIMONOVA (ASL CE1, Italy)
Mauro COZZOLINO (University of Salerno, Italy)
1.1. The impact of mobile phone use on the driver’s behaviour
Since the years 1990, numerous researches have been carried out, using various experimental contexts (driving simulators, test tracks or real traffic conditions)
to evaluate the impact of mobile phone use on the driver’s behaviour. All of them
concluded that phoning at the wheel has a negative impact on driving, whatever
the type of phone used (hand-held or hands-free).
Four different variables are generally used to analyse the impact of phoning on
the driver’s behaviour:
– Response to stimuli by the means of response times and detection errors
– Vehicle control (lane position, headway distance, speed variations)
– Visual behaviour
– Workload
The analysis of the response time variations is one of the most common ways
to evaluate the driving performance impairment. This variable includes different
parameters, such as braking reaction time, choice reaction time or simple reaction
time, and can be measured in response to various signals (road sign, pedestrian
incursion, warning signal…). Even if all the authors conclude that phoning while
driving increases the response times, it remains difficult to compare the values
obtained through the different researches, due to the variability of the methodology used to define and to measure response times (Alm and Nilsson, 1995;
Pachiaudi et al., 1996; Lamble et al., 1999; Consiglio et al., 2003; Hancock et al.,
2003; Patten et al., 2004; Törnros and Bolling, 2005; Bruyas et al., 2006). In parallel, an increase of missing events and/or detection errors is generally revealed.
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
13
The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
Concerning the impact of phone calls on the vehicle control, the results are
divergent. Some authors showed the setting up of compensatory processes,
while others did not. For Hancock et al. (2003), drivers compensate their slower
responses by stronger braking. On the opposite, Treffner and Barrett (2004)
showed that the braking is postponed while conversing and the degree of braking
reduced, while the braking style is altered. For Alm and Nilsson (1995), the drivers
don’t compensate their higher reaction times by increasing their headways. The
same kinds of divergences are observed concerning the impact of conversing on
driving speed. Some studies showed a reduction of the driving speed, which could
be more or less important (Alm and Nilsson, 1990; Brookhuis et al. 1991; Fairlough
et al., 1991; Haigney, 2000). Others, such as Törnros and Bolling (2005) noted
this phenomenon but for hand-held phone only and during the dialling time. There
is no consensus about lateral control. Haigney et al. (2000) showed impaired lateral control but for hand-held telephone only and not for hands-free. Burns et al.
(2002) and Alm and Nilsson (1995) did not find any effect of phone use on lane
keeping performances. For Törnros and Bolling (2005), lateral position deviation
increased only while dialling.
A lot of studies also have been conducted to evaluate the effect of a phone
conversation during driving on the mental workload. Mental workload expresses
the cumulative effects of two or more tasks performed at the same time, which
may result in an overloading of the driver’s cognitive capacities. Workload is
generally measured by subjective scales or by physiological data recordings
(heartbeat rate variability). All authors found an increase of the mental workload,
whatever the type of phone used (hand-held or hands-free; Fairlough et al., 1991;
Alm and Nilsson, 1995; Pachiaudi et al., 1996; Haigney, 2000; Matthews et al.,
2003; Bruyas et al., 2006).
The few studies which investigated the impact of phoning on driver visual
behaviour, showed that drivers make fewer saccades, spend more time looking
centrally and spend less time checking the dashboard and mirrors (Pachiaudi et
al., 1996; Harbluk et al., 2002; Nunes and Recarte, 2002). Recarte and Nunes
(2000) found that performing a dual task reduces the size of the inspected spatial
region by drivers. Finally, Atlchley and Dressel (2004) showed that the addition of
a conversational task leads to large reductions in the functional field of view, which
decrease the ability to localize peripheral information.
Strayer et al. (2003) showed that conversing on a mobile phone alters the way
in which drivers react to stimuli in the driving environment. Even when the drivers
gaze at these objects, they fail to see them. For these authors a phone call could
induce a form of “inattention blindness”. The authors also revealed that phone
calls impair both explicit recognition memory and implicit perceptual memory.
Richard et al. (2002) and McCarley et al. (2004) showed that a concurrent auditory task impairs the capacity to detect changes in visual scenes.
The research results concerning fixation durations differ. McCarley et al. (2004)
found that conversations produce a decrease in oculomotor fixation durations.
Conversely, Recarte and Nunes (2000) showed that performing a dual task modi-
14
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Non related driving tasks with integrated or nomadic systems
fies the driver’s fixation durations: if they are longer for a spatial imagery task, conversely no modification is observed for a verbal task. McPhee et al. (2004) found
that older adults exhibited longer fixations in the divided-attention condition.
Situation awareness, defined by Endsley (1994) as “a person’s perception of
the elements of the environment within a volume of time and space, the comprehension of their meaning and the projection of their status in the near future”, has
also been studied. The authors showed that the driver’s situation awareness is
altered by conversing (Parkes and Hoojimeifer, 2000; Bailly et al., 2003; Gugertly
et al., 2004; Drews et al., 2004).
In summary, phoning while driving increases the drivers’response times and
mental workload and alters their visual scanning and their situation awareness.
Divergent results don’t allow us to conclude that drivers compensate their performance impairment by increasing safety margins.
1.2. The comparison of the distractive effects of a phone call
with other vocal interactions while driving
First, comparisons have been made between the use of hands-free and
hand-held phone (Strayer and Johnston, 2001; Consiglio et al., 2003; Patten et
al., 2004; Törnros and Bolling, 2005). It seems there is no significant difference
between both phone modes, except on the driving speed, which decreases in
case of hand-held phone (Patten et al., 2004; Törnros and Bolling, 2005). In both
cases, the conversation increases the mental workload but drivers tend to underestimate the risk associated with phoning when using a hands-free device (Lesch
and Hancock, 2003; Törnros and Bolling, 2005). This risk underestimate could
explain why drivers don’t increase their safety margins in the case of hands-free
devices.
The disturbing effects of listening to a radio broadcast or listening to a book
tape also have been compared with telephoning (Strayer and Johnston, 2001;
Consiglio et al., 2003; Bruyas et al., 2006). The results show that radio listening
does not lead to significant distractive effects.
Diverging results were obtained in comparison between conversing with a
passenger and conversing by phone. For Fairclough et al. (1991), conversing by
phone, resulting in an increase of the heartbeat rate, would be more dangerous
than conversing with a passenger. Consiglio et al. (2003) found a small, but nonsignificant, increase in the response times between a conversation with a passenger and by phone. They underline, however, that it would perhaps not be the
same, in real road driving, when the driver can adapt his or her flow according to
the situations, which could be easier with a passenger than by phone. The work
by Drews et al. (2004) confirmed this assumption and showed that a conversation with a passenger differs from a phone conversation because the surrounding
traffic becomes a topic of the conversation, helping both interlocutors to share the
same situation awareness and mitigating the negative effects of conversing on the
driving task. For Bruyas et al. (2006), conversing by phone significantly increases
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
15
The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
the response time in comparison with a passenger conversation. Inversely, Nunes
and Recarte (2002) did not observe any difference according to whether the conversation is carried out by phone or with a passenger, except with regard to the
subjective evaluation of the mental effort.
A stronger degradation of the communication itself has also been observed in
the case of a communication by phone as compared to a communication with a
passenger (Luke, 2004; Crundall et al., 2005).
Finally, the conversation contents are considered as being important factors
of disturbance variations (Tokunaga et al., 2000; Strayer and Johnston, 2001;
Patten et al., 2004; Rakauskas et al., 2004). For example, the authors have distinguished different auditory concurrent tasks according to the involved cognitive
processes: shadowing task and word generation task, verbal/ semantic comparison task and spatial / imagery comparison task and they have showed different
levels of impairment.
The interactivity of the exchange, the fact of having a problem to solve and the
fact of involving oneself in a natural conversation are also factors to be taken into
account (Bruyas et al., 2006).
1.3. The links between mobile phone use and the risk to be
involved in an accident
Numerous experimental studies showed the impairment of driving performance during phone calls, but few epidemiological studies have been conducted to
evaluate if the phone use while driving increases the risk of having an accident.
Four kinds of methodological approaches have been followed by researchers.
– In the framework of retrospective cohort studies, the first approach consists in comparing two populations of drivers, one population of mobile
phone users and one population of mobile phone non users, analysing if
the fact of being a phone user increases the risk of collision involvement
(Laberge-Nadeau et al., 2001; Laberge-Nadeau et al., 2003; Wilson et
al. 2003).
– The second one consists in comparing a population of drivers involved in
crashes (case) to a population of drivers who is not (control), and in evaluating if the mobile phone users are over-represented among the road accident
victims (Violanti and Marshal, 1996).
– The third one consists in analysing a population of mobile phone users
involved in a collision and in studying the link between phone activity and
collision involvement, following a case-crossover study, in which each subject served as his or her own control (Redelmeier et al., 1997; LabergeNadeau et al., 2001; McEvoy, 2005).
– The last approach consists in analysing a population of road accident victims and in evaluating if the part of mobile phone users is different according
to the type of crashes (Violanti, 1998; Sagberg, 2001).
16
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Non related driving tasks with integrated or nomadic systems
These researches not only differ from the methodological approaches viewpoint, but also in terms of the size of the population sample, which has been
taken into account (from hundreds of people to tens of thousands of people) and
in terms of the type of collision studied (fatal crashes, crashes resulting only in
substantial material damage, fault crashes).
The main results of these researches could be summarized as follows:
The mobile phone users had a 38% higher risk of collision involvement than
the non-users. When taking into account additional confounding variables such
as kilometres driven and driving habits, the adjusted relative risk of having at least
one accident in a given year decreases to 1.11 for men3 and to 1.22 for women,
between mobile phone users and non-users (Laberge-Nadeau et al., 2003). For
Wilson et al. (2003) the drivers being observed when using a mobile phone have
a 16% higher risk of being involved in an at-fault crash than the "non users",
these differences being not significant for males (1.10) and significant for women4
(1.31).
Laberge-Nadeau et al. (2003) pointed out a dose-response relationship
between mobile phone use frequency and crash risks. The heavy users of mobile
phones have a twice as high adjusted relative risk at least as compared with the
minimal users, the latter showing similar collision rates to the non-users’collision
rates. The same observation has been made by Violanti and Marshal (1996). In
their study, using a mobile phone during more than 50 min per month was associated with a 5.59 times higher collision risk than not using a mobile phone at all.
By comparing the phone activity of the drivers few minutes before the accident
with that of the previous day5, Redelmeier et al. (1997) found that the mobile
phone activity when driving quadrupled (4.3) the relative risk of collision. LabergeNadeau et al. (2001) applied the case crossover design used by Redelmeier to
the Quebec data. They showed that mobile phone use on the day of the collision
was 55% higher than the average daily use and she estimated a relative risk of
5.13. McEvoy et al. (2005) found similar results: the driver’s use of a mobile phone
up to 10 minutes before a crash was associated with a fourfold (4.1) increased
likelihood of crashing.
By analysing accident reports, Violanti (1998) showed a significantly associated increased risk of a fatal collision with the use or presence of a phone at
the time of the accident: the risk is of 9.29 for phone use and of 2.11 for phone
presence6. In the Norwegian study by Sagberg (2001), mobile telephoning during
3 There is a volunteer bias for male respondents, not found for women, so the adjusted risk of 1,11 for
men might be underestimated.
4 It is possible that the negative influence of cell phone use on female crashes is more easily detectable
because female crashes are less influenced by alcohol and aggressiveness than are male crashes.
5 The estimation of the collision time could be not fully exact and the calls made after the collision
could have been confused with those preceding the collision.
6 A limitation of the study is the size of the sample. The sample includes 1 548 driver fatalities. 65 of
which had a phone present in the vehicle. Among these, only 5 were reported using the phone at the
time of the collision.
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
the accident was reported by 0.66% of guilty drivers and 0.30% of innocent drivers. Mobile phones were estimated to be used in 0.86% of the accidents, which
is 72% higher than the expected proportion estimated on the basis of ''induced
exposure’’.
In addition, Sagberg (2001), found that rear-end collision is the most frequent
type of accident which happens while telephoning; and Wilson et al. (2003) showed
that the mobile phone users had a higher proportion of rear-end collisions.
Finally, the violation pattern of mobile phone users suggests that they are,
in general, riskier drivers. These differences are likely to reflect lifestyle, attitudes and personality factors. It is essential to control these factors in assessing the direct risk which can be allocated to mobile telephone use (Wilson et
al. 2003).
1.4. The use of mobile phone during driving and the
characteristics of the user population
A last set of researches focused on the drivers’practices in terms of mobile
phone use at the wheel, through roadside traffic observation and surveys among
drivers.
The USA and the UK benefited from their regular survey on occupant safety
belt use, to estimate the proportion of vehicles whose driver is telephoning (Utter,
2001; Horberry, et al. 2001; TRL, 2002; Eby and Vivoda, 2003; Mccartt et al.,
2003; Glassbrenner, 2005a; Glassbrenner, 2005b). These studies showed that
this proportion, which was estimated from 1% to 6% (according to the country and
the data collection year), varies according to the period of observation (weekdays
or weekend, rush hours or off-peak hours), the type of area (rural, suburban,
urban...) and the type of vehicle (passenger cars, vans and SUV’s, pickups).
The surveys by questionnaire constitute the most appropriate investigation
method to identify the characteristics of phone users while driving, although they
could have the drawback of reporting biases. Various surveys on the international
level showed that drivers who phone while driving are young (less than 35 years)
and rather men (Lamble et al., 2002; Gallup, 2003; Sullman and Bass, 2004;
Pöysti et al., 2004). They also highlighted the variety of mobile phone uses at the
wheel: between occasional uses, more or less frequent uses and finally intensive
uses as in the case of heavy vehicle drivers (Troglauer et al., 2005).
Phoning while driving has also been analysed in terms of driver profile and
in terms of attitudes with respect to such a practice. Thus, the regular users of
mobile phone at the wheel are characterized by a higher annual mileage, more
recent and powerful models of vehicle (Sullman and Bass, 2004), a use of mobile
phone for professional reasons (Brusque and Alauzet, 2006), riskier driving skills
(Pöysti et al., 2004; SARTRE 3, 2004), a poorer perception of the risk while phoning (Gallup, 2003; Wogalter and Mayhorn, 2005) and more negative opinions
towards a potential restriction of this use (Lamble et al., 2002). On the other hand,
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Sullman and Lamble showed that the heaviest users of mobile phone at the wheel,
who have made the effort to equip their car with a hands-free device in order to
phone in safety conditions, are in favour of banning hand-held phones while driving (Sullman and Bass, 2004; Lamble et al., 2002).
The over-representation of young men among the driver users of mobile
phones raises some questions. Is this phenomenon related to a more significant
risk taking attitude at the wheel? Is it related to a more significant use of mobile
phone? Does it act as a phenomenon of generation? Will this intensive use continue with ageing? If it is the case, will an explosion of mobile phone use at the
wheel happen? (Lamble et al., 2002; Brusque and Alauzet, 2006).
Lastly, the boom of mobile phone use at the wheel has not currently taken
place. The large majority of drivers using a mobile phone have not simply transferred their practices of mobile phone from daily life to their car. Indeed, most
drivers are able to limit and to control their use of the phone at the wheel (Pöysti
et al., 2004; Brusque and Alauzet, 2006).
1.5. The comparison of the distractive effects of a phone call
according to the driver/user characteristics
The unanswered research questions put forward in the previous chapter mostly
refer to drivers’behaviour choices regarding the mobile phone use while driving.
Such choices are affected by different personal variables like age, gender, experience, as well as personal motives, attitudes and features.
In this section, the influence of various drivers’features will be discussed examining available behavioural and epidemiological research, with the aim of evaluating the impact of the existing knowledge on future research.
Nonetheless, phoning at the wheel can sometimes be seen as a significant
factor of attention impairment due to the physical, cognitive and visual distraction,
little is known yet about the effect of age on the performance, due to the limited
number of studies that had taken into consideration the age variable. This is one
of the research gaps, which emerged from a recent meta analysis carried out for
CAA Foundation for Traffic Safety by Caird G.K., Scialfa C.T., Ho G., and Smiley A.
(Caird et al. 2004). Few performance studies included age as a variable satisfying
the analysis requirement (Alm and Nilsson, 1995; McCarley et al., 2001; McPhee
et al., 2004; Patten et al., 2004; Nilsson and Alm, 1991; Strayer and Drews, 2003;
Tokunaga et al., 2000). These studies disclosed no significant interaction of age
and performance related to the phone use. The reaction time was the only performance feature which presented a more significant age disparity. Although the
older drivers may be slower in responding to critical events, these age differences
were not reinforced by phone conversations. Moreover, the authors observed the
lack of participating drivers above 75 years old in the experiments, who, most
likely, would have had more performance decrements, especially in these time
limited situations (Caird et al. 2004).
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
When considering the age-related performance studies evaluating vehicle control and speed by age, the analysis showed a slight tendency among older drivers
to drive slower, increasing headway distances when they are on the phone, which
may amplify the time at their disposal for decision making while driving, influencing the exposure to the risky situation (Caird et al. 2004).
It is presumable that both performance aspects (speed, vehicle control) will
be appreciably influenced by driving style and not only by driving skills. In fact
driving is seen as composed of two separated components, cognitive/motor skills
and motives. Drivers’maximum capabilities do not necessarily predict accident
involvement, because it is the motivational factor which determines how drivers
use their skills (Lajunen and Summala, 1995). It means that drivers with excellent
performance in terms of reaction time or vehicle control can be still risky drivers
due to their dangerous driving style reflected by adopting shorter headway distance, excessive speed or preferring involvement in dual tasks when driving.
Personal features and motives were only rarely considered as a variable in
behavioural experiments on mobile phones use whilst driving, though there is an
interesting result indicating that the drivers who rate their vehicle-handling skills
as high, also drive faster in driving tests; on the contrary those considering themselves as safety oriented, tend to adopt lower speeds (Lajunen et al., 1997).
The distinction between drivers’orientation on skills (fluent car control) and on
safety (accident avoidance) may have a huge importance in understanding the
effect of mobile phone use on safety as revealed in a recent survey conducted by
Poysti, Rajalin and Summala disclosing that drivers who perceived themselves as
skilled tend to use their phones more often and are more frequently involved in
hazardous situations, while the drivers directed towards safety use their phones
less, experiencing lower levels of hazard (Poysti et al., 2005). Thus both aspects
influence drivers’behaviour in different way: the drivers with high self confidence
in their own driving skills also tend to drive more, are more likely to multitask and
generally have higher involvement in risky situations. This orientation is also positively correlated with driving aggression, sensation seeking and with the sense of
coherence. On the other hand, safe orientation reflects positive safety attitudes
and is negatively correlated with hazards (Poysti et al., 2005). These results are in
line with the previous findings, suggesting that phone using drivers are in general
riskier drivers (Wilson et al., 2003; Eby and Vivoda, 2003). It is likely that safety
oriented drivers will be more cautious even when using phones at the wheel, compensating with a variance of different behaviour to maintain their risk exposure at
a lower level (Poysti et al., 2005; Hahn and Prieger, 2005).
Recognizing that the driver’s characteristics influence distraction effects due
to concurrent mobile phone use, Lesh and Hancock examined the extent to which
different driver groups are aware of their associated decrements. To assess the
relationship between the driver’s perception and the driver’s performance, a questionnaire was used for evaluating drivers’confidence in dealing with distraction due
to mobile phone use. The ratings were compared with actual driving performance
during simulated mobile phone use. High confidence among males predicted a
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better driving performance (break response time, stopping time and distance, stop
light compliance), while for older females this relationship did not hold: with the
increase of self confidence, the performance of older women decreased, meaning
that they were not aware about their decreased performance while using mobile
phones. However due to the relatively small sample size (N=36), the study should
be considered as exploratory only (Lesh and Hancock, 2004).
The driving performance when on the phone also seems to be affected by
practice and driving experience. Some authors have suggested that most drivers
can learn to handle their phones while driving (Shinar et al., 2004). In Shinar’s
study the learning effect occurred for both the driving task and the distraction task
and an improvement was observed, as the workload decreased. The older drivers
performed in general worse than both groups of young drivers, and the experienced young drivers performed better than novice young drivers. The latter are
considered to have the highest crash risk due to high attention demand, when on
the phone while driving, together with those drivers who are unfamiliar with mobile
phone use (Chen et al., 2000). It is worth noticing that novice drivers develop early
the sense of subjective control as their driving experience and exposure to traffic
increase, while their sense of subjective risk decreases (Naatanen and Summala,
1976). Such an evolution is linked with the tendency to over-rate their own driving
skills once they have obtained their driving license, especially during the first year
(Spolander, 1983 in Lajunen et al., 1997), which could also coincide with a more
frequent use of the mobile phone at the wheel.
In fact crash risk also relies on how often they drive and how often they use
their phone while driving (Summala, 1996). Both exposure aspects are influenced by age as demonstrated by many epidemiological studies, revealing that
older drivers are less likely to use their phone while driving (Utter et al., 2001;
Horberry, et al. 2001; Stutts et al., 2002; Lamble et al., 2002; Laberge-Nadeau
et al., 2003; Taylor et al., 2003; Glassbrenner, 2004). They also generally tend
to avoid impairment conditions, driving less than younger drivers (Brainn, 1980;
Hakamies-Blomquist, 1994; Summala and Mikkola, 1994). These behavioural patterns of elderly drivers can compensate for cognitive and motor decrements that
increase their risk of crash considered on a per kilometre basis; in fact the quantitative analysis in epidemiological studies, examining the relationship between
age and the effect of mobile phone use (Laberge-Nadeau et al., 2003; Lam, 2002;
Redelmeier and Tibshirani, 1997) disclosed a consistent, albeit small, trend for the
older groups to have the lower risk (Caird et al. 2004). On the contrary, younger
drivers, already at higher risk of accidents, are more exposed to both driving mileage and frequency of phone use, which make their risk of phone related crashes
consecutively higher (Lamble et al., 2002; Caird et al. 2004; Sullman and Baas,
2004; Poysti et al. 2005).
Regarding the effect of age and exposure aspects, both the authors of the meta
analysis and other authors demonstrate that most of the epidemiological studies
had not controlled different variables sufficiently, which can confound research
results (Caird et al. 2004, Hahn and Dudley, 2004). For example, the aforemen-
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
tioned Laberge-Nadeau’s and Lam’s study (Laberge-Nadeau et al., 2003; Lam,
2002) did not control their age groups for differing exposure to mobile phone use.
Thus it was suggested to examine the frequency of mobile phone use by age,
driving exposure, eventually by the type of driving exposure (on highway, in stop
and go traffic, etc), which is in line with Summala’s theoretical article on accident
risk and driver behaviour (Summala, 1996).
We can conclude that mobile phone usage is a potent distractor especially for
some groups of drivers. However the degree of risk from that use also depends
on drivers’characteristics, features and attitudes, influencing the level of hazard
undertaken by them as well as their exposure to mobile phone use and to driving.
There is an increasing conviction among researchers that the above mentioned
aspects should be taken into account to better understand their effects on mobile
phone use while driving.
The most important research gaps in crash studies are insufficient control for
exposure to driving and the frequency of mobile phone use by age and gender,
which can confound research findings.
Behavioural studies should examine the effects of practice and skills on the
required attention division, taking into consideration different age groups and gender. The possibility to discriminate a priori between careful and risky drivers when
evaluating some behavioural patterns (vehicle control, speed) should be considered both in laboratory and real traffic experiments, to compare the effect of different driving styles and safety orientation on driving while using mobile phones.
It is necessary to pay attention to the drivers’aspects and to refer to the driver
behavioural theories and concepts, in order to formulate new hypotheses, developing more appropriate research methodologies.
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2. Consulting other information and communication
services not related to the driving task
Corinne BRUSQUE (INRETS, France)
Marie-Pierre BRUYAS (INRETS, France)
Although researchers and policy makers are focused on mobile phone communications and their impact on driving behaviour, other information and communication systems are available for drivers. They can also receive, read, key and
send SMS through their mobile phone or check their calls on their answerphone.
Moreover, the development of wireless Internet and in-car laptops provides further opportunities for drivers to have access to information through the concept
of mobile office. Such new developments will allow drivers to check and to send
electronic mails “on the move”.
These new means of communications raise several questions according to the
particular features of the communication and the characteristics of the message
system interface:
– Indeed talking by phone or talking with a passenger is different from
exchanging messages. Contrary to speech communications, the driver doesn’t
interact directly with his or her interlocutor in the latter case. While exchanging a
message, the driver interacts with a computer through a menu to read/listen and
to answer messages. Lee et al. (2001) assumed that the driver may more easily
pace the exchange or interrupt it. Indeed, there is no social imperative to continue
the conversation with a computer, as in the case of a phone call.
– The message exchange can be performed through a visual/manual interface
or through a voice-based interface. According to the modalities of the interaction,
different levels of the driver behaviour could be impaired. Specific difficulties in the
use of a voice-based interface could also occur and add a cognitive load to the
communication task according to the performance of the speech-recognition and
text-to-speech technologies. For example, interpreting a poor quality synthetic
voice, producing a recognizable speech by the system in a noisy environment,
spelling a word for a character-based speech-recognition system or navigating in
a complex menu system could be very demanding in terms of cognitive resources.
Finally, a distinction could be drawn between driver-controlling systems and externally controlled systems, because of the advantages associated with giving more
control to the driver over the pace of the communication.
Only a few researchers have investigated the different issues raised by
exchanging messages while driving.
Hosking et al. (2005) showed that retrieving and, even more, sending text messages impair young novice driver performances. Such a dual task reduces their
ability to maintain lateral position, to detect hazards and to detect and to respond
appropriately to traffic signs. In case of text messaging, drivers spend up to 400%
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
more time with their eyes off the road. On the other hand, they increase their following distance but they don’t reduce their speed.
By comparing the impairment of the driving performance associated with a
dual task performed either with a visual/manual interface or with a voice-based
interface, Ranney et al. (2005) revealed that drivers seem to compensate for
the workload increase by increasing their following distance. They also showed
that performing such a dual task impacts the vehicle control, the target detection
and the car-following performance. However, the voice-based interface slightly
improves both former performances but not the latter one. Thus, the authors
have demonstrated that if the voice-based interface reduces the peripheral (visual and manual) impairment, it doesn’t reduce the attentional one. Other authors
(Jamson et al., 2004) have shown that drivers adopt longer headways during
email exchanges but this increase of safety margins could not offset the poor
anticipation in braking, resulting in shorter times to collision. The use of a voicebased interface also results in an increase of the reaction time (Lee et al., 2001).
For these authors, the imposed cognitive demand by a voice-based interface is
added to the imposed demand by the road environment.
Moreover, the characteristics of the voice-based interface have an impact on
the workload which is induced by performing email exchanges and on the accuracy of the exchange. Listening to a synthetic speech requires more mental effort
than listening to a recorded voice. Drivers are less accurate when responding to
a message presented in a synthetic speech as compared with a human voice
recorded message (Harbluk and Lalande, 2005). Event detection performance
is also poorer when drivers listen to synthesized speech. The complexity of the
menu increases the driver’s workload and it decreases the drivers’understanding
of the email contents (Lee et al., 2001). With a system-controlled interface, drivers are quicker but less accurate in making responses to emails (Jamson et al.,
2004). In parallel, the driver-controlled interface results in a cognitive cost associated with the decision making process for scheduling email acceptance.
If the impact of message exchanges on driver behaviour has been revealed
whatever the modalities of the systems interface, on the other hand the driving
impairment produced by message exchanges has not been compared with the
driving impairment produced by phone calls. The difference between a speech
communication and a message exchange still remains to be investigated.
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INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Chapter 2
Embedded tasks with integrated
or nomadic systems
1. Consulting traffic and weather information
Clemens KAUFMANN(FACTUM, Austria)
Ralf RISSER (FACTUM, Austria)
Truls VAA (TØI, Norway)
1.1. The effects of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driving
behaviour
During the last 15-20 years there were many changes in the automotive industry, hand in hand with technological development. Many systems were elaborated
to make driving a car easier for the driver. The implementation of new systems,
however, holds chances and risk. The effects often are not foreseen and can only
be predicted in rather general ways. IVIS systems, for instance, definitely have an
effect on the driving behaviour and strategies. The question now is what kind of
effects do IVIS systems (e.g. route guiding systems, traffic information systems)
have on the driving behaviour and how can the positive effects of the different
systems be optimised. Behaviour adaptation is one phenomenon in this context
that will be discussed in the following in more detail.
1.1.1. Behaviour adaptation
IVIS equipment gives more information about the environment. Therefore
it has an influence on the interaction of the driver with other system elements
(like the car itself, infrastructure and other road users). So changes in behaviour
and interaction can be expected. As stated above behaviour adaptation is one
phenomenon that has to be dealt with when implementing new equipment. An
OECD expert group defined behaviour adaptation as “those types of behaviour
that may occur following the introduction of changes to the road-vehicle-user system, and that were not intended by the initiators of the change“ (OECD, 1990).
Information systems have an influence on different areas of the transport system
(see fig. 1) and vice versa. The driver is stimulated by the input from the traffic
system, reflected, among others, by new pieces of equipment. He or she reacts
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
to this stimulation in a way that is more or less safe. This depends very much on
how the driver sees the new piece of equipment: What opportunities does it offer
to satisfy needs and interests? If the aspects which undermine safety influence
car-drivers’behaviour more than the aspects which improve safety, then this will
enhance the behaviour that deteriorates safety. This will have a decisive influence
on the traffic system, depending on the penetration rate of a system (Risser 2004,
Risser et al. 2005)
Figure 1: The traffic system
Individual
Communication
between road users
Society/ Structures
Transport mode,
vehicle, technology,
psychology, sociology
Infrastructure
It is very often a problem to inform people well and adequately about what
they should do and how they should do it. This is important in connection with the
introduction of a new telematic system (including IVIS equipment). Three aspects
are frequently mentioned in this respect:
1.1.2. The ambiguity of signals
Chaloupka et al. (1998) stated that "there not many simple signals in traffic
which leads to an explicit and simple reaction". So in traffic one sometimes comes
across situations where it is not definitively clear what a special signal stands for
(e.g. the use of the indicator). Often there is time enough to react adequately to a
signal in spite of misinterpretation at first, following a trial and error process. But
if speeds gets higher, and if the signals that the drivers have to react to increase
in number – which IVIS could lead to -, then the time to react and to correct one’s
reactions decreases. The clearness of signals becomes utterly important then.
Any trial-and-error process could be fatal under such circumstances.
One has to make sure that there will be no optical and acoustical signals which
could be interpreted ambiguously (see also Anderson J.K., 2001). A good example
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of an ambiguous warning signal is the flashing of headlights by other car drivers:
one can usually "translate" the meaning, but it takes some time to relate this to
the circumstances. Many signals are irrelevant, which leads to the question: what
happens if there are too many (irrelevant) pieces of information and warnings?
Somehow one has to prepare the consumer to accept this inevitable problem and
to deal with it safely.
1.1.3. Instruction problems
Risser and Petica (1998) stated that "In road traffic one of the basic difficulties
is to tell road users exactly (enough) how they should behave in some situations.
That leaves a very broad sector of road user behaviour to individual and arbitrary
decision making. The producers/implementers of new equipment therefore should
focus on thorough and understandable instructions for use: one has to start from
the assumption that many road users really do want to behave reasonably. But in
order to be able to do this, they need thorough instructions."
1.1.4 Communication and imitation
Communication is quite closely connected to imitation. Imitating others is based
on observing them, usually in the frame of communication processes between
persons (in Herkner W., 1975; Bandura A., 1971). Road users do not seem to be
conscious of these communication modes. It seems as if sending signals, being
observed, being reacted to, and being imitated usually happen "analogously", i.e.
not as cognitive, "digitised", processes. (Watzlawik et al. 1974)
At the same time, social learning and, consequently, socialisation in road traffic very much depend on the characteristics of interpersonal communication,
representing or reflecting the social climate in traffic. Considering others, showing respect for others’needs and interests, etc., are a function of communication
between road users, and thus of the social climate in traffic, while at the same
time contributing to it. The role of verbal communication is thereby rather subordinate. Non-verbal signals prevail. That makes messages unclear and ambiguous
in many cases (see above). These different aspects of communication have to be
considered in connection with the introduction of new equipment, as every new
piece of equipment in the car that takes up the drivers’attention has the potential
to disturb interpersonal communication (Varhelyi et al. 2002).
Other interesting and important aspects reflecting behaviour adaptation in connection with telematic systems are:
1.1.5 The delegation of responsibility
Carsten (1993) describes “delegation of responsibility” as follows: “Studies had
shown that in situations people consider uncontrollable, they want to know who is
‘responsible’for certain events. If other, generally more powerful, people assume
responsibility, it is not unusual to delegate responsibility to them. This delegation
of responsibility can lead to behaviour which is potentially more risky, e.g. in emergency situations where those at risk should make their own decisions”.
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If, e.g., potentially powerful and reliable persons (who even could be represented by "intelligent" equipment) take the responsibility on them, it is not unusual
to delegate responsibility to them (or to the equipment). Thus, it could happen
that one relies fully on, e.g., an automatic warning function. In emergency cases,
e.g., when persons suddenly have to decide themselves, considerable risk due to
reduced vigilance could result.
The necessity of quickly switching to "manual" decision-taking in order to compensate for the malfunction causes immense problems. In addition, as intelligent
warning functions are partly planned to make traffic more "efficient", one result will
undoubtedly be an increase in the speed of many processes.
This means that "manual" take-over in case of malfunction will occur under
circumstances that will be more difficult than when "manual" handling was done
before the introduction of the new system. The effect of automatic warning functions is equated by many experts to the "delegation of responsibility". If the equipment does the difficult work of risk screening for us, we no longer have to think
about the problems we may cause with our vehicle. But nobody will ever be able
to develop a warning function which can anticipate all possible situations and
outcomes. (Just imagine for instance an urban intersection crowded with pedestrians, cyclists and cars where margins always are very small). This, together with
the tendency mentioned above of relying on technical equipment generally and on
warning functions in particular, may lead to hazards.
Moreover, if equipment does the difficult work of risk screening for car drivers,
they may also forget about things that they have to care for themselves in spite
of the equipment. E.g., they could forget that they still have to think about comfort
problems they might cause for others (like noise, obstacles, etc.). Thus, in connection with the introduction of new equipment one has to ask if it might enforce
delegation-of-responsibility processes.
Ways of explaining such problems to an owner of, let us say, a collision avoidance function, have to be found so that he does not develop an egocentric safety
feeling - "everything is seen to" - whilst excluding other road users and their problems more and more from his overall safety assessment. Feeling safe in one’s car
could lead to
– high speeds
– lack of anticipation for other road users’needs and actions
– short headways
– small lateral distances
– late braking when approaching hazards and congestion
– sloppy lane keeping, etc.
One task of car producers, supplier industry, authorities, and, of course, safety
experts must be to help car drivers to correctly estimate the potential of all warning systems. For example, proper information about the possible malfunctions of
equipment and the implications has to be provided. And it has to be made very
clear what the equipment is not able to do (see also Risser and Petica, 1998).
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1.1.6. The communication between road users
The next topic to be discussed is interpersonal communication. Without it,
no type of individual-based traffic system would be possible. Every person constantly communicates with other people, either verbally, by mimetism, by gestures, or "analogously" by one’s behaviour (e.g., swerves, changes in speed, etc.).
But equipment in the car has the tendency to reduce the communication with
other road users and make the driver more "autonomous" (radio, telephone etc.)
(Chaloupka et al., 1998). Additional to this the role of verbal communication in
road traffic is rather subordinate, and there is lack of social control. This enhances
unwanted types of communication like exhibitionism, the demonstration of superiority and power, and the like.
– Small details like badges on the rear of the car symbolise the attitudes of the
driver. This is nothing more than a special kind of communication. Badges,
design details such as spoilers and special tyres, etc., influence communication among road users in a peculiar way.
– The equipment and details of design and construction, which support
friendly, considerate or co-operative communication clearly are lacking.
Maybe telematic systems could fill the gap, e.g., by improving the conditions
for good interpersonal communication? This would improve traffic climate
and, thereby, traffic safety.
– We also need to consider the introduction duration of new equipment. Will
the availability of the new equipment offer "privileges" relative to those who
are not equipped, and could this affect interpersonal communication? How
about the imitation effects, we were talking about earlier?
It is important to be aware of all kinds of aspects, effects and changes because
they have an influence on the driver, on the traffic and on traffic safety.
1.2. Traffic information systems
Telematic systems often are seen as possible solutions to problems like traffic
jams, accidents, noise, environmental pollution etc. The expectation is that they
provide better preconditions for traffic-, information- and fleet management and
networking between road users.
The offer of traffic information (like weather, navigation etc.) should be adapted
to the needs of the users as regards both the contents and the technical usability.
Only then the possible barriers for use could be eliminated. Thus it is important to
find out the user needs systematically. In other words a precondition for a broader
acceptance of telematic-systems (and also IVIS systems) is the usability of the
system, from the users’viewpoint. Therefore, the users’needs should be included
in the planning and development phase.
There are hardly any studies about the real use of traffic information systems
and about the demand for them – demand questions would be resolved by market
mechanisms. But it is of great importance that research and development also
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
should focus on the acceptance and on the possible influences of IVIS and other
telematics equipment on road user behaviour.
1.2.1. Three studies
In the following, some results of three different studies that deal with IVIS and
traffic information systems, users’needs and users’potentials are presented. The
three studies are:
– "Traffic telematic systems and their acceptance analyses: state of the art
– shortcomings- potentials" (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt,
DLR, Institut für Verkehrsforschung): This was an acceptance study with
the help of expert workshops, and telephone interviews. People were
asked about user needs and affinities within the fields of traffic information
systems, mobility and technology. The central items of the study were the
perception of the usability of traffic information systems and the potential
of behaviour changes through traffic information systems. (Sample size
2.200)
– “The market and potential analyses of new integrated mobility services
in Germany" (Prognos on behalf of the Federal Ministry of education and
research): customers potentials for different integrated mobility services and
their requirements. (Interviews with experts and citizens from three cities in
Germany were carried out: total sample size 827)
– "BayernInfo" (Technical University Munich on behalf of the Bavarian
Government): Evaluation of the project "BayernInfo" which has the goal
to improve the distribution of traffic information through various channels
(Interviews, total sample size 866)
1.2.2. The knowledge and use of traffic information systems
Franken and Luley the authors of the DLR study stated that traffic information systems basically intend to provide help through adequate traffic information according to the traffic situation and to the personal individual preferences to
travel from point A to point B on the optimal route. But it does not help that such
systems are known, they also have to be used. One result of this acceptance
study (see fig. 2) is that there is a strong discrepancy between knowledge about
traffic information systems and their actual use, especially for Internet and mobile
phones. The discrepancy is not that high as far as radio is concerned (90% knowledge, and nearly two thirds use it 1 to 3 times a week).
1.2.3. What is needed
In the Prognos study, in which the potential of different integrated mobility services were analysed, several important aspects of inter-modal navigation systems
and traffic-information systems are mentioned:
– The accurate and easily understandable description of routes, so that a person can reach a destination quickly and the system has a good functionality
and convenient handling
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– Moreover it is important that relevant and updated information about the
current traffic situation (traffic jams, road conditions, road works) is provided
as well as
– The relevant and updated information about the available parking facilities.
The information that is considered as significant according to the BayernInfo
study is: the information about route planning, traffic jams and road conditions.
1.2.4. The aim of the trip
According to the DLR study, traffic information is used especially for holiday
journeys (57%) and for business trips (45%). Traffic information is not used as
much for commuting, shopping, etc. (only between 12% and 24%; see fig. 3). So
to sum up: traffic information is much more used for the trips where the route is
not well known.
BayernInfo arrived at similar results; traffic information is used to a high degree
for holiday trips (80%) and for business trips (50%).
Figure 2: the knowledge and use of traffic information systems
100
90,6
percentage
known
55,6
49,3
used 1 - 3
times a week
35,5
7,9
1,8
0
Radio
Internet
Mobile phone
1.2.5. Pre-trip versus on-trip information
Information can be collected before a trip (pre-trip) and during the trip
(on-trip).
The result of the BayernInfo project is that information before the journey is preferred from the interviewees’point of view. On-trip service has a smaller value.
For holiday trips, according to DLR, traffic information is collected before the
journey (63%). For commuting, 55% of the interviewees collect information during
the trip.
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
Figure 3: The aim of the trip and the traffic information use
business trips
trips for shopping
45,2
12,6 9,4
16,5
18,7
12,9
25,7
13
11,2
33,5
(nearly) every trip
commuting
24,4
11
9,8 12,7
42,1
frequently
casually
leisure time trips
14,7
10,9
21,5
24,3
rarely
28,5
never
journeys/ holiday
trips
57,6
0%
20%
11,5 9,6 11,6 9,5
40%
60%
80%
100%
But it is stated that the estimated frequency of use in the future gives a different picture. In the interviewees’opinion the use will become more frequent for
the car services where information is provided about parking space, navigation,
and information about advantageous routes, especially for the people who drive
a lot.
1.2.6. The effects on traffic behaviour
In the DLR study, 45% of the interviewees stated that traffic information systems
support them personally in their daily lives. This is seen as a basic precondition to
change the driver’s behaviour. To underline this, the study mentions for example
that 87% interviewees would change their route according to recommendations
in order to avoid a heavy traffic jam. In the future, the provided traffic information
through the Internet and via mobile phones is seen as a way to influence traffic
behaviour and the choice of transport mode too.
The authors of the BayernInfo study came to the result that most behaviour
changes could be achieved with respect to route choice and departure time, especially for private trips.
1.2.7. The types of users
The authors of the DLR study also made a cluster analysis including the answer
data to questions concerning "attitudes towards traffic information systems" and
"technology". Three cluster types were established:
Type A: negative and sceptical about the effects of traffic information, generally, new technology
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Type B: (biggest group) mostly inflexible car-drivers who are “carefully openminded” towards technology and traffic information systems
Type C: the people who are flexible in their choice of transport mode, openminded towards improved traffic information systems; they assess new technology more positively than the other groups.
The three clusters were put in a cross-tab with social demographic items to
find out the characteristics of the three types: Type C which is the group with the
highest potential of using a traffic information system were described as young,
higher educated and using the internet more often. In contrast to that, the group
with the most negative attitudes is older, has a lower income and is less frequently
employed.
Table 1: Comparison between clusters
Variable/Cluster
Frequency of
Internet-use
Age
Income
Employment rate
Graduation
Gender
A:
negative/sceptical
B:
indifferent
C:
Flexible/open-minded
Low
Higher
Very high
Older
Low
Low
Low
More females
Middle-aged
Medium
Very high
Middle
More males
Young
High
High
Very high
Indifferent
The Prognos study that analysed customer potentials described the group
with the highest affinity to Intelligent Traffic Systems as follows: young, male,
employed, higher income, possibility to use a car, driving a lot and very frequently
on business trips.
1.2.8. Summary
IVIS-systems including traffic information systems definitely have an effect on
the driving behaviour and driving strategies. Behaviour adaptation is one phenomenon that has to be considered and thoroughly evaluated in this context. The
delegation of responsibility, the changes in communication patterns, workload
increase due to the ambiguity of signals, and instruction problems are only some
aspects that are linked to behaviour adaptation. Psychological and socio-scientific
research in this field, however, still plays a subordinate role.
There were, for instance, hardly any studies about the real use of traffic information systems and about the demand for them. A few points can be stated with
respect to traffic information systems:
– Traffic information should be adapted to the needs of the users with regard
to both the contents and the technical usability
– Traffic information has to be continuously updated, relevant, accurate and
easily understandable
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
– Traffic information is used especially for holiday journeys and for business
trips (not well-known environment) before and during the trip
– The target group who is more likely to use traffic information is: young, male,
employed, higher income, access to car, driving frequently and frequently
on business trips
More research and development should be carried out, focusing on the acceptance and the potential influences of IVIS and other telematic equipment on road
user behaviour.
1.3. Weather information systems and systems that provide
information about the potential effects of weather conditions
1.3.1. Different systems
Information about weather/road conditions and warnings/information are
essential to improve traffic safety and road availability, reducing environmental
effects and optimising maintenance cost. In the following, different weather information systems are described:
– Radio Data System (RDS): The most common procedure to distribute
weather situations is with the help of car radios. Advanced car radios are
using Radio Data System (RDS) which breaks through any program, even if
the radio is switched off or in a CD-mode, with real-time weather/road condition warnings/information. According to the results from a study about the
acceptance of different information systems by Franken and Luley (2004),
car radio is the most used system by car drivers to receive information about
the current traffic situation. So this is also valid for information about the
weather/road condition warnings/information. The only "problem" is that
this information has to be accurate and true, otherwise the users will stop
trusting the system and the acceptance will decrease. This could have the
consequence that the drivers would not change their behaviour in spite of
having received information about slippery conditions on the section ahead
because of disbelieving the information.
– Road Weather Information Systems (RWIS): Such systems are/were
developed during the last years. Some examples are the Austrian MOWIS
system (www.mowis.com), the Baltic Road Weather Information System
(Finncontact 2003) or similar systems in Poland, Sweden (products.saab.
se), Canada (TAC news 2003) and USA (Aurora program, www.aurora-program.org). Data about weather conditions, road and air temperature, wind
speed and direction, dew point and humidity are collected through various
channels like fixed weather sensors, floating car data, satellites or prediction
models. These data are analysed and the final prediction or the actual data
about the weather at a some point or region could be distributed to different user groups like maintenance managers, commercial traffic and private
car users. As mentioned, the weather information could be of the kind of
weather prediction (important for route planning, mode choice and mainte-
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nance managers), actual weather conditions and warning of fog, black ice,
storm or aquaplaning (important for car users who are on this specific road
section). This information could be distributed via (mobile) internet (also in
connection with navigation systems), mobile phone (e.g. short message
system), radio or text-TV providers.
– Temperature: A display on the dashboard showing the outside temperature,
would be a crude indicator of outside driving conditions, but it also involves
a need for understanding and investigating how drivers use/interpret information on temperature in terms of more cautious or reckless driving.
– Friction: There was an international project (APOLLO - Intelligent Tyre for
Accident-free Traffic, lead by the VTT), where tyre prototypes were developed to collect information on road friction conditions using integrated sensors in the tyres. The advantage of such a system is that it leads to an
immediate, direct observation of the road condition and could provide the
driver with this information. An in-car display shows the outside friction conditions to the driver and could warn him of adverse friction conditions in realtime, i.e., right before entering those adverse conditions. Thus, the system
warns the driver more quickly than the driver is able to observe him/herself.
The APOLLO project ended in 2005 and the work is now going on through
the project named FRICTION in which all of the vehicle based relevant sensors are used to measure friction in real time. One alternative could be to
“observe” or to “see” the surface of the road just ahead of the car, for example black-ice conditions, say 50 meters ahead of the car, and then to warn
the driver of upcoming slippery road surfaces. The behavioural adaptations
to these systems remain, however, unknown. Risk compensation effects
may, in principle, take place.
– Dynamic road surface condition information: With analogy to dynamic route
guidance systems, which in fact is a car-to-car communication, using a telecommunication system (satellite, mobile telephone, Radio Data System,
etc), cars would observe and measure road surface and/or weather conditions and transmit such data to the following vehicles. Limiting the range of
transmitted data, i.e., limiting the data to the road section one is driving on,
and also limiting the distance between data-collection and data-receiving
vehicles, should in principle be technologically feasible. Choice options also
should be available for drivers according to their needs. Naturally, such systems presuppose that there are vehicles on the given section of road, which
have the ability to collect information of the kind. Further, “the first car” on
the road will of course not receive any information in advance.
– Dynamic navigation systems: It is unclear whether dynamic navigation systems have an option to block a given route if you know that there are adverse
weather conditions on the given route, i.e. to force the system to choose an
alternative if it comes up with a suggestion that you will have difficulties in
terms of black ice, snow, fog, etc. This option would then consist in on-trip
information and pre-trip information.
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
1.3.2. Summary
One of the main goals of these systems is to improve traffic safety with the help
of exact, real-time weather data, especially in the case of fog or black ice or with
the help of pre-trip information. The advantages for road users are:
– better travel planning (best choice of mode or public transport use), departure time, vehicle type and equipment (e.g. tire chains)
– the reduction of travel time through better information about rain, etc. so that
the route can be optimised beforehand
– more appropriate driving behaviour (e.g., decreased speed, increased following distance)
– air pollution reduction (because of different mode choice, e.g. public transport instead of the car)
– fewer traffic jams
For the maintenance managers, the advantages are:
– better resource planning especially during winter time
– shorter times needed to react to critical situations (black ice, etc.) thanks to
better information
– less salt needed, because of better information and then reduced ecological
impact
– and information for infrastructure-based IT that could lead to a better traffic flow.
According to the requirements for the good practice of such a system, the following is stated: "The key requirement is to provide road information in near realtime." (Boselly et al., 1993). Especially when the road users have to be warned
about fog or black ice, real-time information through mobile phones or radio is
needed. It does not help if the warning is given half an hour after the critical conditions have started to lead to accidents. It is also important that the information
about the section with the critical conditions is as exact as possible. If the information is of the form "There is a possibility of black ice tomorrow in this or that
region" it is hardly of any use and will not lead to a change in driving behaviour.
Exact real-time information is behaviour relevant and leads to a quick change of
behaviour, like a decrease of speed, with good probability. But not only the driving
behaviour could be changed with the help of those systems. Also travel planning
and mode choice (public transport) could be influenced if you have weather information or information about road conditions before a trip. Consequently, on-trip
information is as significant as pre-trip information. Both have the potential to lead
to a behaviour change and to more traffic safety.
Finally, the systems that give information about the effects that may result from
some weather related conditions like skidding have the potential to help the drivers in managing the difficult situations that are related to weather conditions.
As a conclusion it has to be said, that there are hardly any studies about the
effects of weather information systems on driver behaviour, mode choice, travel
planning, etc. More research and development should be carried out, focusing on
the possible influences on road user behaviour of weather information systems.
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2. Consulting guidance and navigation information
Marta PEREIRA (UTL, Portugal)
José CARVALHAIS (UTL, Portugal)
2.1. Introduction
The development of new technologies and their introduction in everyday life
have occurred in many areas of our society, and the benefits and positive contribution to the citizens is getting more evident. The transportation division is not
an exception and it has been changing a lot since the implementation of several
technologies and the introduction of new equipment. An example of this evolution
is the in-vehicle navigation and guidance systems which can help drivers to arrive
at their destinations easily.
Driving in an unfamiliar area is a complex task due to the fact that, besides
demanding the individual’s attention towards the driving task, it forces him to perform some orientation task to achieve his goal (Summala, 2000). In the situations
where it is not possible to plan, select, and receive significant guidance information, the driver can be stressed, frustrated and his difficulty to arrive at the destination can induce him to adopt dangerous behaviour (Ross and Burnett, 2001).
Alm (1993) states that navigation is a way to resolve a spatial problem that
starts with the need to travel from one point to another. To achieve it, the driver
has to complete three different stages. The first one occurs before the trip and at
that moment he needs the information to help him identify the present location and
the target. After obtaining this information, he moves forward to the next phase
(during the trip) when he will need useful information to choose a route and to be
able to travel through it. The last stage represents the period after the trip when
the driver needs other kinds of information like, for example, parking options.
With the progress of new technologies, many navigation and route guidance
systems have been developed with the major goal of helping drivers to drive to
a destination in the most efficient way without being lost. Some authors consider
that these systems, providing information at strategic decision points, offer some
advantages by allowing a more efficient use of the road network, a reduction of the
traffic on some routes, a decrease in the trip duration and also a decrease of the
number of unnecessary excursions. Furthermore, with the use of such in-vehicle
equipment, drivers can feel more confident and safe, receiving alert instructions to
avoid dangerous situations (Brooks et al., 1999; Burnett, 2000).
Besides all of the potential benefits from navigation and guidance systems,
many investigators have pointed out their potential distracting effect and their
hypothetical relation to the risk of crash. Nevertheless, the statistics of accidents
related to the interaction of Intelligent Transportation Systems do not exist in
United States or Europe. Until now, Japan has been the only country to have collected such data for mobile phones and navigation systems (Green, 2000; Green,
2004). The Japanese National Police Agency Traffic Planning Department has
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
gathered data for several years and these statistics have identified phone and
navigation systems as being the cause or the contributing factor for crashes. This
connection is apparently made by the reports provided by the involved drivers in
those crashes (Green, 2004). According to this information, in 1997, navigation
system related crashes led to 117 injuries and 1 death. In 1998, they caused 131
injuries and 2 deaths and, in 1999, there were 205 injuries and 2 deaths linked
with the interaction with navigation systems. In order to contextualize this number,
it is important to consider that the penetration of navigation systems in Japan’s
market is very high, different from any other country, and there has been a steady
increase in the acquisition of this product. The cumulative numbers of navigation systems respectively were 2.4 million, 3.5 million and 4.7 million in the end of
1997, 1998, 1999 (Green, 2000).
To reduce these potential negative consequences, it is of major importance to
design these systems properly. They should neither induce drivers to have risky
behaviours nor create dangerous situations for all the road users (ESoP, 2005). To
notice the real influence of these systems and also the relevance and efficiency of
the presented information, several investigations have been made. Their conclusions, besides identifying their real importance for drivers, also helped to create
some guidelines for the development of these devices.
2.2. Comparing paper maps with guidance systems
To see if the new electronic systems are a real advantage as compared with the
older guidance methods, some authors studied the influence of both types of equipment. Wochinger and Boehm-Davis (1997) evaluated the performance of twenty
eight drivers and observed better results, in terms of guidance errors and reaction
times, when drivers used a “turn-by-turn” system rather than a paper map. Based
on these results, it was suggested that the usability of the electronic systems, especially of “turn-by-turn” systems, is much better than the one of paper maps, because
they present the relevant information only in a simple way (Wochinger and BoehmDavis, 1997; Dingus et al., In Young, Regan, Hammer, 2003; Burnett and Joyner,
1997). When drivers use a paper map to help them to drive to a specific place,
besides the higher number of navigation errors, they usually drive slower, evaluate
their mental workload as higher (Snirivasan and Jovanis, 1997) and state much
more problems to reach the target, like for example the incapacity to collect all the
relevant information from the road environment (Burnett, 1998). This situation can
also lead to longer trip durations as stated in Burnett and Joyner’s study (1997).
Thus, based on the investigation made so far, the interaction with a guidance
system is more adequate than the use of a paper map, and it can efficiently guide
the driver in an unfamiliar area (Daimon and Kawashima, 1996; Burnett and
Joyner, 1997; Snirivasan and Jovanis, 1997; Wochinger and Boehm-Davis, 1997;
Burnett, 1998; Dingus et al. In Young et al., 2003).
Although, in spite of the potential advantages of technology, it is crucial to
specify some characteristics for guidance systems, in order to avoid making the
driver’s performance more difficult.
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2.3. Navigation and guidance systems
One of the most familiar studies was conducted by Dingus, McGehee, Hulse,
Jahns and Manakkal in 1995 (In Young et al., 2003). Four navigation systems with
different features were analysed. Two were of “turn-by-turn” type and both others
were map-based systems. One of each group had an audio output to send the
messages to the drivers and the other didn’t. In order to have a comparison term,
the authors designed two control conditions: guidance help through cards with
written instructions and also a conventional paper map. The results obtained from
this study made in a simulator demonstrated that the electronic map without the
audio output and the paper map induced a higher interference in the driving task.
In these conditions there was an increase in the visual demand towards the guidance system and the lateral deviation of the car had higher values. The subjective
perception of the mental workload also was bigger for those specific situations. In
an overall conclusion, the authors consider the “turn-by-turn” system with audio
output as the best navigation aid because the distraction effect is lower in a simulated driving situation (Dingus et al. In Young, Regan, Hammer, 2003).
Brooks, Nowakowski and Green (1999) also compared two types of navigation
systems (a “turn-by-turn” and an electronic map) in an on-road experiment. On
these experiments, both systems were used simultaneously, both mounted on the
dashboard, one on the right and the other on the left side of the wheel. The results
obtained from the sixteen drivers revealed that the “turn-by-turn” system induced
3.75-fold more glances than the map-based system. Knowing that the drivers preferred the “turn-by-turn” display, it was concluded that this equipment gave more
useful information to help drivers to reach their goal.
Due to the evidence revealed in several studies it can be stated that electronic
map-based systems can increase the risk of non-detecting dangerous situations
(Summala, 2000). Thus, turn-by-turn systems can lead to less navigational errors
and are also the favourites among drivers (Burnett and Joyner, 1997; Brooks et
al., 1999; Schraggen In Burnett, 2000; Walker et al. In Burnett, 2000; Farber and
Popp In Burnett, 2000).
In spite of these results Lee, Forlizzi and Hudson (2005), believe that maps
are very important and useful for space orientation. These types of instruments
are an advantage to identify the position of an element relative to the other elements in the area. Since understanding and memorizing the provided information
by a map is a demanding task, involving plenty of cognitive processes, some
authors argue that the design of the map is of major importance (Thorndyke and
Goldin In Höök, 1998; Thorndyke and Stasz In Höök, 1998, Lee et al., 2005).
With the development of a new electronic map concept (MOVE - Maps Optimized
for Vehicular Environments), they demonstrated that these types of systems can
give appropriate information, at the right moment, through the constant updating
of the data. The reality, presented in a bi-dimensional manner, can be accessible through abstraction processes, where the information is adequately selected,
simplified, and organized in a way that eases the driver’s interpretation (Lee et
al., 2005). These abstraction processes are capable of distorting the reality and if
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
this abstraction is done in an adequate way, maps can easily be compatible with
the mental map of its users. The abstracted and simplified representation of the
information in a map can help drivers to guide themselves through space (Daimon
et al., 1997) because the use of perceptive resources is reduced and the number
of glances towards the guidance equipment is lower (Lee et al., 2005).
2.4. Destination entry tasks
To start an interaction with a navigation system, the first task that the driver has
to do is to enter a destination. This is a very important moment because this is one
of the tasks that takes the most time and forces the drivers to focus their attention
away from the road environment. Despite the fact that some navigation systems
do not allow drivers to enter a destination while driving, many other systems permit
this type of interaction at any moment (Young et al., 2003; Llaneras and Singer,
2003). A lot of methods can be used to enter a destination in a navigation system:
it can be entered manually through a joystick, keyboard, touch screen, other kind
of remote control and also through voice recognition equipment.
In the manual interaction situation, the driver can type all of the information
input such as the street name and the number of the building; he can select the
destination from a pre-introduced list; or enter the name of a familiar public place
like for example a church or another historical monument (Farber et al. in Young
et al., 2003; Llaneras and Singer, 2003).
The manual methods that allow typing the complete name of the destination
and selecting a place from a pre-formed list are the most frequently used, and
Nowakowski et al., (2000) consider that they have an important effect on driver
performance. Compared with the voice recognition systems, the manual processes take more time to complete (Nowakowski et al., 2000; Tsimhoni et al., 2002),
and are more demanding in terms of cognitive and physical resources (Hway-liem
in Young et al., 2003). Some investigations also highlight that these manual tasks
induce worse driver performances related with the lateral control of the vehicle,
meaning that more lateral deviations occur while introducing a destination manually (Gärtner et al., 2001; Tsimhoni et al., 2002).
The relation between the time to complete the tasks and the lateral control of the
vehicle was studied by Nowakowski et al., (2000), and their results revealed that
for higher task durations there can be more lane deviations. The other observed
effects were an increase of the headway distance (Tsimhoni et al., 2002) and
the reduction of speed during the execution of the secondary task, leading some
authors to consider that drivers are submitted to a higher workload during the
manual destination entry tasks (Gärtner et al., 2001).
A survey that included 130 users of navigation systems revealed that only
10% introduced destinations using a voice recognition system, a method considered by Hway-liem (in Young et al., 2003) and Gärtner et al., (2001) as being
the most effective and safe. The investigations that evaluate the interaction with
vocal communication navigation systems, showed a faster completion of the task
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(Tsimhoni et al., 2002) and a better lateral control of the vehicle (Gärtner et al.,
2001; Tsimhoni et al., 2002). Due to the fact that less visual resources are used
by the drivers on these situations there are fewer glances toward the display, a
higher percentage of time looking at the road ahead and also a more favourable
subjective evaluation by the drivers because they consider that they are less distracted from their main task - driving (Gärtner et al., 2001).
2.5. Voice versus visual messages
The relevance of vocal versus visual information can be considered for entering a destination but also for selecting the correct course during diving. Many
authors observed the performance of the drivers who were using different kinds
of equipment leading to some similar conclusions as those found for entering
destination tasks.
In 1985, Streeter and Vitello (In Höök, 1998) conducted a study to compare the
use of a map with orally given instruction. The results indicated that the drivers
who used the voice instructions arrived at their destination faster, travelled less
miles, and had 70% less navigation errors then the drivers who used the map. The
authors suggested that the orally presented messages are more appropriate to
help in the guidance task (Streeter and Vitello In Höök, 1998; Burnett and Joyner
In Jackson, 1996).
Five years later, Parkes (In Höök, 1998) argued that using only voice instructions could be a disadvantage and be more demanding than using other types of
messages, such as arrow shaped symbols for example, to indicate the correct
course. He stated that voice messages have disadvantages because they do not
last through time and are only present to drivers for a short period. Drivers easily
can forget the instruction or even not be able to listen to it if there is too much noise
(Parkes In Höök, 1998). To support his statements Parkes conducted a study with
Coleman, in 1990 (Parkes and Coleman In Höök, 1998), with the intention of
comparing the driver performance in three different situations: a condition where
symbols were presented, indicating a direction; one with written instructions; and
another with auditory instructions only. The results of this simulator study showed
that drivers took less time to perform the tasks in auditory conditions, which they
liked better than the other conditions. Although, due to the fact that in the auditory
condition navigation errors had not the lowest values, the authors suggested that
voice messages can be the best way to give instructions to drivers, though visual
information should be presented too for a better guidance (Parkes and Coleman
In Höök, 1998).
The idea that combining both types of information is the most effective way
to send a message was also supported by Alm, Nilsson, Jarmark, Savelid and
Hennings in 1991 (In Höök,1998).
Another investigation, conducted later on, studied and compared the effects
of the interaction with visual displays and auditory messages on the driver’s performance. The results indicated that auditory messages induced a better driving
performance due to the lower visual resources required by the system (Burnett
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
and Joyner, 1997; Burnett, 2000), provoked less navigation errors (Snirivasan
and Jovanis, 1997; Burnett and Joyner, 1997), less time to understand the display
instructions (Tijerína et al., 2000; Zaidel and Noy, 1997), weaker scores for lateral
deviation (Tijerína et al., 2000), and a lower evaluation of the perceived workload
(Burnett and Joyner, 1997; Zaidel and Noy, 1997; Snirivasan and Jovanis, 1997).
The higher travelling speed while interacting with auditory systems is another
variable that leads some authors to suggest that audio messages reduce the
drivers’cognitive demands in this double task situation (Snirivasan and Jovanis,
1997). A guidance system that allows audio communication can lead to better
performances and be a good alternative to present help instructions to drivers
(Tijerína et al., 2000; Zaidel and Noy, 1997).
Another reported advantage of auditory interaction is associated with the destination entry task. Several studies supported that auditory inputs contribute to better performance when entering the destination in these types of equipment (Zaidel
and Noy, 1997; Tijerina et al., 2000; Tsimhoni et al., 2002).
In spite of the fact that auditory instructions are the best way to send out
instructions to drivers, some investigators pointed out that these outputs have to
respect some requirements. Labiale in 1989 (In Höök, 1998), studied the effects
of auditory messages on driver performance and stated that if the messages are
not adequate or are presented at an inappropriate moment it can increase the
driver’s mental workload (Labiale In Höök, 1998; Wiese and Lee, 2004), and can
decrease the driver’s performance (Jackson, 1998).
Another important aspect is related with the repetition of the voice messages.
Replicating the messages more than once at the appropriate moments has proved
to improve the efficiency of the information detection (Labiale In Höök, 1998). The
sounds sent by the system should not cover the important auditory information
coming from the road environment (ESoP, 2005). Drivers also should have some
control over that information like for example the volume control, being able to turn
it off or on whenever necessary (ESoP, 2005).
2.6. Display position
The position of the navigation and guidance display is also a variable that
deserves to be studied because it has a big influence on the way drivers apprehend the information given by the system.
Gish and Staplin (In Hooey and Gore, 1998) made a literature review on the
studies that focused on the most adequate displays to send information to drivers.
These authors found out that the called “Head-up-Displays” had the potential to
improve the performance of drivers while accomplishing a secondary task, and
also to increase the safety.
The Head-up-displays (HUD) usually exhibits the images in the upper part of
the dashboard of the car, in the driver’s field of vision (Hooey and Gore, 1998).
Their main advantage is that they minimize the required eye accommodation when
42
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Embedded tasks with integrated or nomadic systems
drivers change their focus to observe images on “head-down-displays” (Watanabe
et al., 1999). When using a HUD, drivers don’t have to move their heads to see the
messages and as a consequence, it increases the time that drivers spend looking
at the road ahead (Gish and Staplin In Hooey and Gore, 1998).
Hooey and Gore, in 1998, conducted an investigation to find out if the presentation of messages in HUD had a worse influence than those showed by “headdown-display” (HDD). In both systems “turn-by-turn” messages were displayed
at specific moments. Through the evaluation of the vehicle speed, lane position,
steering wheel angle and number of collisions (simulated, due to the fact that it
was a simulated study) the authors suggested that interacting with a HUD does
not induce higher distraction than using a HDD. While interacting with a guidance
system, these displays should be used in order to enhance the security of drivers
while receiving important messages (Hooey and Gore, 1998). These results are
in agreement with those observed by Kaptein in 1994. He verified in his study
that participants had higher difficulties in maintaining the recommended speed
when they were interacting with “head-down-displays”. HUD also was the favourite equipment among the drivers that participated in this simulated study (Kaptein
In Hooey and Gore, 1998).
Although many authors consider that the presence of in-vehicle messages can
be dangerous and provoke driver distraction, Watanabe, Yoo, Tsimhori and Green
(1999) also consider that HUDs are the best solution. In their simulated study they
discovered that the reaction time to critical events was not significantly affected
by the use of a “Head-Up-Displays” (Watanabe et al., 1999). The displayed messages in the centre of the drivers’field of vision, or in a near position, can be the
best place to detect a message and some drivers like it better (Watanable et
al., 1999; Tsimhoni et al., 2001). This message location can induce better driver
performance while carrying out a secondary task (Burnett and Joyner In Burnett,
2000; Tsimhoni et al., 2001; Horrey et al., 2003; ESoP, 2005).
The advantages provided by this type of system can be a benefit for every
driver, especially the older ones. The positive effects are an effective help for older
drivers using navigation and guidance systems (Gish and Staplin In Hooey and
Gore, 1998; Watanabe et al., 1999).
2.7. Different environments
Using guidance systems in different road environments can induce different
situations and different driver behaviour due to the fact that the need of information is not equal under every circumstance. To prove this statement, a study
conducted by Brooks, Nowakowski and Green (1999) showed that drivers made
a smaller number of glances towards the display on a highway than on an urban
road. Thus, these authors suggested that presenting information can be done differently, depending on the type of road. On the roads where the subjects can drive
faster, like carriageways or motorways, the information can be more formal, referring to the names of the places, the numbers of roads and intersections. In urban
environments, where there are more surrounding elements, the subjects have to
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
drive slower; informal information is more adequate, based on the characteristics
of the local environment. Some examples are the use of landmarks, the representation of the road configuration and the names of the streets (Burnett, 1998).
Another difference that can influence driver behaviour and should be taken
into account before designing a system is that, in an urban residential area, the
peripheral stimuli detection rate is lower when driving and interacting with a guidance system (Jahn et al., 2005). In cities, drivers glanced more frequently at the
system (Brooks et al., 1999) and on roads with higher curvature angle, entering
a destination in the system takes longer (Tsimhoni et al., 2002) and it is more difficult to maintain the lateral control of the vehicle (Nowakowski et al., 2000).
2.8. Familiar and unfamiliar environments
Navigation and guidance systems, usually used in situations where the driver
is not familiar with the area, can also be used by the drivers who have become
familiar with the roads and need to know some alternative and effective courses.
Akamatsu et al. (1997) studied the performance of two groups of drivers: familiar
and non familiar with the city area. They observed that the visual resources used
by the subjects of both groups were similar, the biggest found difference being
related with the type of information that they were looking for. Familiar drivers
more frequently used the names of the places and had the tendency to trust more
in the information given by the system. The unfamiliar drivers did not trust the
system’s information so much and relied more on landmarks (Akamatsu et al.,
1997).
Another distinct behaviour between both groups was observed by Zaidel and
Noy (1997). They stated that familiar drivers had higher speeds during the completion of the course and also less navigation errors, compared with the drivers
that did not know the area (Zaidel and Noy, 1997).
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INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Chapter 3
Differentiation according
to the driver characteristics
1. Novice drivers and IVIS
Marta PEREIRA (UTL, Portugal)
Christine TURETSCHECK (FACTUM, Austria)
1.1. The characteristics of novice drivers
Novice drivers are a large and robust cluster with special characteristics, different from other age-group of drivers. Some consider them as a road safety
problem world-wide, a fact that can be justified with the statistics of accidents
that show, in a general way, that young drivers are the group with higher crash
rates (Drummond, 1989; Williams, 2003; McCartt et al., 2003; Clarke et al., 2005;
NHTSA in Simons-Morton et al., 2005). For this age group the risk to get involved
in an accident is three times higher than for the whole population (KfV, 2004). In
U.S.A., Canada, Australia and also in European countries, road accidents are
the main cause of death among young drivers (Cavallo and Triggs., 1996; Clarke
et al., 2005; Peden et al., 2000; Gregersen and Falkmer, 2003). The over representation of novice drivers in accidents among several countries was shown by
Drummond (1989).
Table 2: Relative driver casualty over representation rates per 100,000
population for drivers aged 18- 20 years by country, 1982
Country
Austria
Belgium
Netherlands
Norway
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
West Germany
United Kingdom
United States
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Over representation Rate
3.40
1.65
2.04
4.56
1.35
3.39
3.20
3.62
2.32
1.98
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
Young novice drivers frequently are involved in several types of accident, being
over represented in the number of accidents. Some authors consider that a correlation can be seen between some types of accidents and this group of drivers. One
example of that is the “loss-of-control accidents”, considered as more related with
novice drivers due to their over-representation in these specific situations (Laapotti
and Keskinen, 1998). The related incidents with reversing, parking and negotiating bends are also highlighted in Kuiken and Rothengatter’s study (in Macdonald,
1994) as the more frequently reported accidents among the group with less driving
experience. Left-turn crashes also have been found to be over represented among
young drivers (Kirk and Stamatiadis, 2000). Statistics from the Federal Statistical
Office in Germany (2005) point out the main causes of accidents: poorly adapted
speed (27%), right of way giving errors (12%), distance keeping errors (12%) and
turning problems (11%). The Department for Transport of the United Kingdom
(2000, 2005) also analysed the accident rates of novice and more mature drivers.
The results showed that young drivers have more accidents in the evening and
early in the morning and significantly more accidents during weekends than during
weekdays. Novice drivers had about twice as many accidents because of bend
negotiating errors and were also more involved in overtaking accidents.
In spite of the high relation with some types of accident, the crash-risk exposure of novice drivers is not the same during the first years of driving. Indeed,
some references indicate that novice drivers are less exposed to crash risks during the learning period. The supervision of an experienced driver and the avoidance of risky situations are the factors that can contribute for the very low crash
rates during this first stage. Although, when comparing with the period immediately
after, when drivers just received their licence, higher crash rates can be observed
(Mayhew et al., 2003). The risk of a first crash during the first month of licensure
can be substantially higher than during the next months of licensure (McCartt et
al., 2003). An investigation conducted in Canada, province of Nova Scotia, also
showed that crash rates among novice drivers are highest during the first months
after the licensure, but drop considerably over the first two years of driving. In
a broader way, some authors confirm this finding and suggest that a decline in
accident rates can be observed after the first phase of licensure (Sagberg, 2005;
Mayhew et al., 2003; McCartt et al., 2003; Drummond, 1989), suggesting that the
risk of accident involvement steadily decreases as driving experience increases.
This fact supports the assumption of the higher accident involvement of young
drivers because of their novice status.
Similar results arise from a British study by Maycock et al. in 1991, which
stated that driving experience primarily influences accident risk. Especially during the first three years of driving “the risk due to youth” seems to have a minimal
bearing only on the accident liability as shown in the table below.
The reason for the high rate of accidents among the group of novice drivers is
an issue that has been discussed for some time. However, in spite of the investigation, a common and consensual cause has not yet been. Some authors highlight several causes that can justify the statistics of accidents and assume that the
novice drivers’needs and motives can lead them to exhibit a strong readiness to
take risks.
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Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
Figure 4: The risk of casualty accident involvement during the period of
the driving licence issue (Drummond, 1989)
Casuality accident invovement per million
kilometers travelled
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
< 1 year
1 < 2 years
2 < 3 years
3 < 5 years
5 - 8 years
> 8 years
Experince
Table 3: The effects of age and experience on accident liability for young
and inexperienced drivers (Willmes-Lenz, 2002).
Percentage reduction in accident liability
Experience Alone
Age and
Experience
Age Alone
During year 1
30%
Between 17 and 18
6%
34%
2
17%
18 and 19
6%
22%
3
11%
19 and 20
5%
15%
4
7%
20 and 21
4%
12%
5
5%
21 and 22
4%
9%
6
4%
22 and 23
4%
8%
7
3%
23 and 24
4%
7%
8
3%
24 and 25
3%
6%
Also due to the fact that they drive further and make a great portion of their
trips under conditions with higher potential risky factors, the probability of being
involved in dangerous situations can be higher (Macdonald, 1994). According to
Mienert (2002) there are two reasons why young novice drivers have such a high
accident risk. Firstly because of “the risk of being a novice driver” and secondly
because of “the risk of being young” This author describes the difference as follows: “the main discrepancy is the degree of becoming involved in risky situations
or taking risk consciously”.
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
One example is the tendency that young drivers drive more at night, being
exposed to extra risk at these moments (Williams, 2003; Gregersen and Falkmer,
2003). Falling asleep while driving is of great concern. Young adults crash more
than older drivers, and a great percentage of their crashes are related with sleepiness (Lyznick et al. in Smith et al., 2005). Moreover, young drivers are more likely
to be involved in a fall-asleep crash than their older counterparts (Maycock, 1997),
the effects of those crashes being more severe than during the day (Smith et al.,
2005). The crashes related with sleepiness have been frequently studied among
truck drivers, although Lyznick et al. (1998 in Smith et al., 2005) suggested that
truck drivers are less involved in sleep-related crashes than younger drivers who,
in his opinion, have a strong risk of being involved in this type of crash.
In addition, risky behaviour can be expressed in other ways. Observation
investigation found that the behaviour of novice drivers is frequently characterised
by higher speeds and closer following distances than among older drivers (Boyce
and Geller, 2002; Gregersen and Falkmer, 2003). Teenagers drive faster than
the general traffic, and male teenagers drive slightly faster than female teenagers (Simons-Morton et al., 2005). In 1982, Brown (in Clarke et al., 2005) studied
this question of speed among young drivers and found that they did not attribute
much importance to the risk of speeding. One of the reasons for that is their overconfidence for controlling the vehicle and for recovering from a difficult situation.
They have the tendency to expose themselves to higher risk because they overestimate their ability to recover from error (Gregersen and Falkmer, 2003; Brown
in Clarke et al., 2005).
A wrong evaluation of risky traffic situations also can be made by novice drivers. In a more systematic way, these low risk ratings can result from three different
circumstances: not noticing a particular dangerous situation; giving a low rating
to the potential danger; giving a high rating to their own coping abilities (Brown
and Groeger in Macdonald, 1994). In 1981, Quimby and Watts (in Macdonald,
1994) discovered that, through the presentation of some road situations on the
screen, young drivers took longer to respond to traffic hazard events. It was suggested that this result was due to the lower ability of novice drivers to recognize
the situations that were presented as potentially dangerous. Another evidence is
the research in 1990 (Saad et al. in Macdonald, 1994) that highlights the different representation of unsafe situations by novice drivers. The participants had to
drive, approaching an intersection with some degree of obstruction on visibility.
Although they had priority in that specific situation, it was observed that experienced participants slowed down significantly more than the inexperienced ones.
Older drivers made an anticipatory and preventive adjustment in case another car
would appear at the intersection, not considering that the risk was zero. However,
novice participants “seem to have a greater sense of their priority”. Due to these
facts, it can be suggested that young drivers are more likely to have a collision
with other road users (Saad et al. in Macdonald, 1994).
Although Clarke et al. (2005) consider that the risk of accident of young drivers more frequently results from “risk taking” than from “skill deficit”, many other
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INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
authors consider that the novice drivers’ability to face some specific situations is
of crucial importance. A study conducted by McKnight and McKnight (2003), that
examined the narrative descriptions in reported accidents from drivers under 20
years-old, showed that the majority of non-fatal accidents resulted from a failure to
employ routine safe operations and a failure to recognize the danger. In this analysis, only a small proportion of the accidents was due to deliberate risk behaviour
(McKnight and McKnight, 2003).
Whelan et al. (2004) showed in a literature review that some skills (informationprocessing skills, self-calibration, hazard and risk perception, and situation awareness) of novice drivers are related to their crash involvement. The authors had a
deeper look on hazard perception during distraction. “Novice and experienced
drivers differ in their accuracy and reaction time to detect hazards”. Additionally,
“a less well developed hazard perception has been found to correlate to accident
involvement” (Whelan, et al., 2004). In detail, it was found that novice drivers concentrated more on hazards on the lanes where cars are moving, disregarding hazards on their own lane, which could be a reason for the involvement in rear-end
collisions. Concerning situation awareness, Whelan et al. (2004) summarised,
that “drivers’memory for their own location, their road environment and particularly
the location of other traffic is disrupted by concurrent distraction, and is also influenced by the complexity of the road layout“. Regarding this, experienced drivers
are more accurate than novice ones.
The smaller experience of novice drivers forces them to devote larger amounts
of attentional resources to their actions, their decisions and to monitoring their
own vehicles. They are also more likely to suffer from overload, since their attentional capacities can be insufficient to fulfil the demands of the driving situation
(Macdonald, 1994). Based on a literature review of some significant documents,
Macdonald (1994) stated that low levels of driving skills may be characterized
by: low ability in acquiring and integrating information; inaccurate expectancies
and without much detail; low level of attentional capacity to process information;
reduced skill in attention-switching; and poor vehicle control skills.
The poorer experience is also related to different patterns of attention allocation. This fact can be considered as a lower degree in the automation of the
different components of the driving task and therefore a minor amount of available attentional resources. The novice driver’s repertoire of automated routines
is smaller and they have a big dependency on the conscious control of their driving behaviour. This explains the smaller spare attentional capacity for some critical situations, like emergencies (Heinrich in Macdonald, 1994). During the period
when their control of the vehicle is not automated, their learning ability and availability to perform other tasks also can be compromised. Mcknight, in 1985, found
that while experienced drivers were easily able to learn and demonstrate some
efficient driving techniques, the groups of inexperienced drivers with the same
training were unable to do so. The author considered that this result was due to
the lack of spare attentional capacity to deal with a new situation (in Macdonald,
1994).
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
Another aspect that can contribute to explaining the differences in crash risk
between novice and experienced drivers is the ability to anticipate traffic situations.
This ability, also called hazard perception, can be measured in many ways, and
some authors have been using the hazard perception-reaction time to analyse the
reactions of young drivers. Sagberg and Bjornskau (2005) mentioned some findings
that had been reported from previous studies. These reports revealed that young
drivers have longer hazard perception latencies than middle age drivers and this
hazard perception latency is inversely correlated with the total driving experience.
Another aspect to consider is that this latency time can be negatively influenced
by an additional load, imposed by a dual task perception, although it is a feature
that can be improved through training (Sagberg and Bjornskau, 2005). In spite of
these previous results from other studies, Sagberg and Bjornskau (2005) did not
found a strong relationship between hazard perception time and driving experience
but observed a slight tendency only. Thus, the authors suggested that hazard perception skills may be one of the several factors, which in combination, constitute
driving expertise and contribute to the decrease of crash risk. It was also stated
that during driving practice, hazard perception and car handling skills are related
aspects. With the increase in automation of car-handling skills, the total attention
required for driving is reduced. Due to this, drivers have more available mental
capacities to process the information in different traffic situations. When drivers
have less experience, their hazard perception skills may be impaired because of
the attentional resources that are allocated to the handling of the car and this can
contribute to increase the crash risk (Sagberg and Bjornskau, 2005).
Less driving experience was also associated with visual information searching strategies. Generally, inexperienced drivers have less effective approaches to
searching visual information and also have less ability to integrate the perceived
information (Macdonald, 1994). Comparatively, inexperienced drivers tend have
closer ocular fixation on the vehicle, longer fixation times and also less peripheral
vision use (Miltenburg and Kuiken in Macdonald, 1994). Drivers with more experience have a higher number of fixations than novice drivers have on irrelevant
cues. This fact can be interpreted has a consequence of a reduced mental workload (Gregersen and Falkmer, 2003).
Some authors pointed out that this visual scanning pattern of the young drivers is a consequence of their undeveloped cognitive schemata (Brown et al. in
Macdonald, 1994). This cognitive representation, that increases and improves with
experience, is very important because it is a determinant of the driver’s expectancies, of the perceived significance of the situations and also of attention allocation.
With better cognitive schemata and consequently with more accurate expectancies, the driver has a better notion of when and what to look at. In addition to the
natural improvement of the given significance to different events, the experienced
driver has a more effective pattern of attention allocation (Macdonald, 1994).
In a more synthetic way, the young drivers’behaviour was described by Lerner
(2001). Young drivers:
– tend to display a more vehicle-centred visual search behaviour than upsearching (Visual Search).
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INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
– have not acquired the automatisms that are gained with experience in some
driving tasks, allowing rapid switching between driving tasks under stressful
conditions (Automatism).
– in general, detect traffic hazards less reliably and more slowly than experienced drivers (Hazard Detection).
– tend to perceive traffic hazards as less risky (Risk perception).
– are more easily distracted by non-driving related events, such as conversations with other passengers in the car, handling car radio, etc. (Attention
Allocation).
– tend to overestimate their ability to control a vehicle under emergency conditions (Self-Assessment).
– may not understand the meaning of traffic control devices in the same way
as experienced drivers do, and seem to use the devices in a less optimal
way (the understanding of Traffic Control Devices).
– are less skilled to carry out emergency manœuvres and are over confident
in their error correction capability, which may lead to loss of control (Vehicle
Control).
– in general, show less ability to anticipate emerging traffic hazards
(Anticipation).
The presence of passengers inside the vehicle is another important variable
when studying novice driver behaviour. Some researchers suggest that young drivers can be more likely to crash if passengers are present (Aldridge et al. in Williams,
2003; Chen et al. in Williams, 2003; Williams, 2003). A teenager driver with passengers is considered a very high-risk situation, especially if the passenger is a teenager
too or if there are more than one passenger in the vehicle. Teenagers’behaviour is
more risky, with higher speeds, especially in the presence of a teenager counterpart. In these situations, young drivers also tend to allow shorter headways
(Simons-Morton et al., 2005). This different behaviour is confirmed by William’s
study (2003), where the increase of crash risk is associated with teenage drivers
only, with an exponential increase with one, two, three or more persons in the car.
For adult drivers, the presence of passengers is associated with a slight decrease
of risk. Suggestions indicate that this is an issue that needs in depth study. Williams
(2003) states that passengers can have the potential to avoid crashes but they also
can distract drivers and this can be a special problem for novice drivers.
Most results show that young drivers are a very specific group of road users
who are most liable for mistakes because of their lack of experience. Therefore
investigators must have a closer but also a critical look at how in-vehicle information systems can support young drivers in their driving task.
1.2. The interaction with In-Vehicle Information Systems
Intelligent transportation systems are able to resolve several surface transportation problems through safety increase, travel efficiency improvement and also
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
51
The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
through growth in economical and environmental benefits. In-vehicle information
and communication systems can be used to improve the safety of the drivers of
all ages; however, because of the different characteristics of novice drivers, the
impact of this type of technology on this group of drivers must be studied in detail.
There are different technologies, focusing on providing the required information
to the driver, to help him communicating and resolving some problems. At the
moment there are several IVIS systems on the market that can help to solve some
of the problems that are typical of novice drivers, such as: speeding and driving
with short following distances (Gregersen and Falkmer, 2003). So far however,
“no in-vehicle ITS technology has been specifically designed to enhance young
drivers’safety” (Young, 2004).
Concerning the use of an IVIS, it should be underlined that there is a difference between experienced drivers and novice drivers. The different characteristics among both types of drivers induce a different use of the equipment and
therefore different consequences on their behaviour.
Lansdown (2002) noticed some age differences in the achievement of a secondary task. Through the analyses of verbal reports, the impact of additional
activities on the driver’s attention allocation was studied. For in-vehicle tasks, the
results suggest that, though there is no significant difference in the verbal reports,
it was observed that novice participants found those activities more demanding
than experts. They took significantly longer time and more frequent glances in
order to complete the additional task. Consequently the authors suggested that
the relative lack of experience of novice drivers on the mechanical control components of the vehicle, may require them to concentrate more on the lateral and
longitudinal features of vehicle control (Lansdown, 2002).
However, this difficulty in executing a secondary task can vanish gradually
with the acquisition of abilities and the automation of some processes. Lansdown
(2002) highlighted the process of acquiring expertise referred by Anderson in
1993 (in Lansdown, 2002). Acquiring a skill is a process that goes from the use of
declarative knowledge to the use of procedures that quickly and automatically can
be accessed in special situations. It can be seen as a progression that begins with
the consciousness of all the actions for controlling the vehicle, a characteristic that
can be observed among novice drivers. For them, the most important task, where
they focus all their attention is the driving task, leaving reduced resources to carry
out secondary tasks (Lansdown, 2002).
Considering a classification system that was used in the EU-project AIDE,
three types of equipment can be distinguished: navigation systems, travel- and
traffic-information-services, and infotainment-services.
1.2.1. Navigation Systems
The navigation system group can be divided into three parts. Integrated navigation systems which signal to the driver for example that the speed limit is reached
or that a lower speed limit is coming closer or that a collision risk exists. Routeguidance-systems help the driver to find the best route for any wanted location.
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INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
They provide information and instructions about the best route. Route-navigationsystems only show the current position and the desired destination but the driver
has to decide himself which route he wants to take.
Effects: Pauzié (2002) mentions the usefulness and efficiency of different guidance and navigation systems for drivers of any age in a study about the safety features of in-vehicle communication systems. One difference between the drivers of
different age seems to be that the older ones use visual and auditory messages
for carrying out their actions and younger ones only base their action on auditory
information. Concerning the complexity of a situation, younger drivers showed a
better driving performance in more difficult situations. In a study about the influence of individual differences on driver distraction, Tijerina et al. (2000) could
show that task time is highly correlated with glance frequency to the device and
both are moderately correlated with the number of lane changing manœuvres,
whatever the age of the participants. Earlier studies have shown especially that
route guidance systems may lead to shorter distances to the car ahead, to more
distraction from actual traffic participation, and to heterogeneous compliance that
could cause problematic interactions (relevant Eu-projects: QUARTET project
STORM; HOPES). Age and experience differences have not been considered,
yet, in connection with these aspects.
1.2.2. Travel and traffic information services
These systems are primarily available through broadcasting services or
through mobile services. Users can get information about traffic jams or road
blocks because of different events, the weather, the availability of parking lots
but also about alternative routes that may be more attractive, e.g., because of
the landscape. There are also emergency call services that automatically send
information to different rescue services.
1.2.3. Infotainment-services
The hands-free handling of equipment like mobile phone, radio, CD-player or
navigation system ought to reduce the distraction of the driver during the driving
task.
Effects: In a simulator study about the effects of SMS-retrieving/sending on
novice driver performance, Hosking et al. (in press) found a reduced ability of novice drivers to maintain their lateral position on the road. Also the ability to detect
and to respond appropriately to traffic signs was reduced while text messaging.
Additionally, the 18 to 21 years old adolescents had their eyes off the road for a
rather huge amount of time (up to four times longer). Also the novice drivers had
a tendency not to increase the distance to the car ahead, and not to reduce their
speed. Hosking et al. (in press) underlined that their results concerning speed
behaviour are quite contrary to the predominant findings in literature, where several on-road and simulator studies have shown that drivers tend to reduce their
mean speed while dialling or talking on a mobile phone (Alm and Nilsson, 1990;
Haigney et al., 2000; Burns et al., 2002; Rakauskas et al., 2004; Horberry et al.,
2006).
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
“In a recent study, Ford put teens and adults in the VIRTTEX simulator to
measure the effect of age on cell phone distraction. Without any distractions, both
teens and adults had a three percent miss rate in identifying potentially dangerous
events, such as a car quickly changing lanes in front of them. However, when the
same test was run again, with additional participants using a cell phone, the adult
miss rate rose to 13 percent, while teen distraction levels rose to more than 50
percent.” (Tijerina et al., 2000).
Figure 5: the detection rate difference between adults and teens
1.2.4. Acceptance
Despite some negative consequences that IVIS can bring, their advantages
are well known and some consider that with an adequate design novice drivers
can benefit from them. For Young et al. (2004), an adequate system design is not
enough. Their acceptability, economical convenience, and their ensured correct
use also should be considered. Without these features, even the best technology
can have a limited impact on safety outcomes. For getting the full safety potential
of ITS technologies “it is essential that young drivers’acceptability of these devices
is established and any barriers preventing the purchase or use of the devices by
them are identified” (Young et al., 2004). A study conducted with drivers aged
from 17 to 25 years-old allowed the testing of some ITS systems. In spite of being
ADAS and not IVIS systems, its results can be interesting to further investigation.
The purpose of this study was to examine the acceptability to young drivers of
several technologies that can enhance their safety. The results showed that the
Alcohol interlock and the seat belt reminder were the most acceptable systems by
those groups of drivers. However, ISA (alerting and limiting) and Lane Departure
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Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
Warning were the systems that had lower levels of acceptability. In general, these
authors suggest that designers should be aware that young drivers are reluctant
to use the technologies which can be potentially dangerous or which they could
rely on too much. These drivers also dislike the systems that are not useful to
them, cannot be turned off or overridden, are not easily circumvented, restrict the
privacy, which are expensive to install or maintain, and also the systems which
restrict the drivers’control over the vehicle (Young et al., 2004).
Concerning the acceptability of Intelligent Transportation Systems, previous
articles to that of Young et al. (2004) reveal some interesting conclusions, although
their results do not specify the novice drivers preferences.
In 1995, Cairney (in Regan et al., 2002) conducted a study to obtain the
consumers’viewpoint on some in-vehicle ITS products. The participants’age
ranged from 18 to 60 years-old and it was possible to collect the opinions of
a focus group about Route Guidance Systems; Vehicle Monitoring Systems;
Emergency Notification Systems; Congestion Avoidance Systems; and Adaptive
Cruise Control. The results revealed that most participants felt that, personally, they had no need for a Route Guidance System although they recognized
its value in unfamiliar environments, in rented cars and when a driver is lost.
According to them Emergency Notification Systems also offered a significant
help potential. The participants were sceptical about the efficiency of Congestion
Avoidance Systems and felt that the Adaptive Cruise Control was the least useful
of the five presented systems. When asked to rank the systems according to their
preferences, their sequence was the following: Vehicle Monitor System; Route
Guidance; Emergency Notification; Congestion Avoidance Systems; Adaptive
Cruise Control (Cairney, 1995).
Gray did a similar investigation (in Regan et al., 2002) as a result of research
conducted by the National Roads and Motorists Association of Australia. In order
to find out people’s attitudes and opinions about some ITS systems, drivers were
asked to express their judgment about: Intelligent Speed Adaptation (alerting and
limiting); Front Collision Warning; and Route Guidance Systems. Most respondents considered that all of the technologies were effective, the Route Navigation
being the most effective one. Thirty to sixty percent of them considered that they
would be distracted by this ITS technology, especially with the Route Navigation
and the ISA systems. Comparing these results, it appeared that the system with
less acceptability was the Speed Limiting System, while the ISA alerting systems
was seen as a possible help for drivers to avoid speeding. These last results are
consistent with the ones highlighted by Varhelyi (2002) where it was seen that the
Alert Warning System (to allow drivers to know that he/she is exceeding the speed
limit) had a higher degree of acceptance than the ISA limiting system (which adaptively limits the speed of the car to the allowed limit).
As opposed to Cairney’s study (in Regan et al., 2002), Gray (2001) found age
differences among the responses of the participants. Younger drivers reported
more frequently that they were distracted by the use of this technology, suggesting that young drivers are aware of the negative effect that distraction has on their
driving (Gray in Regan et al., 2002).
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Regan et al. (2002) also conducted a focus group study to examine the acceptability of several in-vehicle ITS technologies among 18 to 39 years old Victorian
drivers. These authors found that Alcohol Interlock and Electronic Licence had low
acceptability while the ISA alerting systems had a relatively high level of acceptability. In some way this contrasts with the above mentioned studies because the ISA
system, together with the Fatigue Monitoring System, was the most acceptable.
Some may think that technology is much more acceptable by young subjects
and that they are also more ready to use it. An example of that is some evidence
which point out a higher use rate of mobile phones by young drivers as compared
with their older counterparts (Pöysti et al., 2005). However, their degree of acceptance is not equal for every technology in every situation. Additionally, much more
research is needed for analysing the effects of IVIS on young drivers but also
on the acceptance of such systems, since there is not much literature about this
issue.
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Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
2. Elderly drivers and IVIS
Anabela SIMOES (ISEC, Portugal)
2.1. Background
In most OECD member countries, the elderly population represents the most
growing segment of the overall population. In most of those countries, it is expected
that by the year 2030 one person out of four will be 65 years old and over (OECD,
2001). This is due to the maturation of the “baby boom” generation, combined with
a greater longevity and the decline of birth rates. In addition, the percentage of
elderly drivers is increasing, further to the significant increase of the total number
of licensed drivers.
As one grows older, many structural and functional changes occur, leading to
declines in the ability to perform common daily tasks and a continuous need for
medication. However, in a healthy ageing process, age-related decrements don’t
have significant direct effects on task performance if previous experience can
be used, as older people develop some strategies to compensate their declines.
Therefore, older drivers require a more stable and user-friendly road environment,
which is not the case, since the road system is much more complex today than
three or four decades ago, when drivers who are over 65 years old obtained their
driving licenses.
The main findings concerning age-related declines and their effects on the
driving task are the following (Holland, 2001):
– The declines of visual, cognitive and motor abilities
– Difficulties in discriminating relevant information and more needed time to
process it
– The size of useful field of view (UFOV) declines with increasing age
– UFOV could be temporarily reduced with increasing mental workload
– Declines in selective attention and attention switching
– Highly distractible and may easily be confused by competing sources of
information
2.2. Compensation strategies
Although individual variability increases with age, it seems that, for the
same task performance, the same types of compensations for functional
losses can be found among older people, resulting in common patterns that
are different from the younger people patterns (Eby et al., 2000). Therefore,
elderly drivers compensate their impaired perceptual-motor functioning (1) by
adapting their driving behaviour and (2) by using their still available compensatory potential.
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When driving, older people attempt to reduce the stressful mental load they are
experiencing. Despite the limitations of information processing abilities, elderly
drivers compensate by driving more cautiously, driving more slowly and attempting to exert more control to monitor their actions more consistently;
A common finding in experiments with elderly drivers is that decrements are
observed under stressful conditions only. Considering the driving task as a skill
with different levels of operation,
– The strategic level is little involved in actual driving, but sets criteria, such as
speed-accuracy and risk taking for the lower manœuvring level.
– The tactical level is the level on which age-related information processing
constraints are assumed to have their impact.
– The higher levels only interfere with the lower levels when the normal
processing capabilities of the lower level fail to resolve a given problem.
– The higher levels involve controlled or attention-demanding processing for
which there are highly limited resources.
The compensatory behaviours related to cognitive declines mainly are
expressed through avoiding driving in unknown and complex environments. The
ability to compensate functional losses often is the key to live this period of life as
a period of continued usefulness, recreation and productivity. Common compensatory behaviours reduce the stress and anxiety felt by elderly drivers in some
driving situations, as well as the risk of driving in these situations (Kostyniuk et al.,
1998; OECD, 2001).
2.2.1. The role of experience
Compensation based on the task knowledge and experience is the reason why
some performance decrements in laboratory tests are not replicated in daily task
performance. Therefore, a greater driving experience should lead to optimize the
driver behaviour, which becomes more constant, exact and more rapidly executed,
less effortful and more automatic. This should result in an increased ability to anticipate potential dangerous situations at an early stage from a few slight cues and
consequently to react in an adequate way and in useful time. However, the following common behaviours have been identified (Holland, 2001, Eby et al., 1998b):
– Elderly drivers need more information before making a decision, and they
make their decisions more slowly, especially under unsafe, stressful and
complex conditions.
– They are more cautious in preparing their actions and seem to want to
control their actions constantly (monitor); this precisely interferes with the
required flexible attention to prepare subsequent actions.
Such increased control may improve the possibility of rectifying errors, provided that enough time is available. The balance between the advantages of
accumulated experience and the age-related declines suggests the following:
– The performance of complex skills, which depend on long-acquired and
continually-practised knowledge of the world, are crystallised and may
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therefore be expected to last during old age, but it is not correct to say that
complex practised skills are unaffected by age.
– Lower level abilities (the rapidity to perceive and identify objects or traffic
patterns, the rapidity to select appropriate responses, the rapidity to anticipate and the rapidity and accuracy of the continuous updating of working
memory) become poorer as age advances.
– Experience contributes significantly to the ability to compensate for deficits at the manœuvring level, but only up to a some point at which information processing related deficits begin to outweigh the advantage of
experience.
– The experienced older driver may not be able to make complex tactical predictions due to the loss of the ability to build up anticipation quickly enough
or to maintain anticipation over sufficiently long periods.
2.2.2. Compensation potential
According to Holland (2001), the elderly compensate for impaired perceptual-motor function by adapting their traffic behaviour, and also by using their still
available compensatory potential. The driving difficulty level seems to be closely
related to the extent of the traffic scene predictability. Therefore, unpredictable
situations due to bad weather conditions or intensive traffic increase the difficulty
to anticipate events. Research suggests that the elderly often can compensate
their deficits on the manœuvring level, using their strategic or supervisory level to
adjust the requirements when demand is low. Therefore, the source of the compensation demonstrated by elderly drivers might be on the higher level (strategic)
or supervisory function.
The literature review carried out by Holland (2001) highlights the following:
– The higher level supervisory function may be capable of modifying the difficulties due to information processing deficits.
– Elderly drivers demonstrate elementary impairments that limit their processing speed and consequently limit their divided attention, which is necessary
to precede a switch in strategy or behaviour.
– Except in very limited cognitive conditions, older people are able to use their
strategic or supervisory functions, to compensate their lower level information processing deficits.
– Despite the very effective compensation shown by elderly drivers and the
specific advantages of experience, older people show changes in functional
capabilities, which, in some cases and circumstances, cannot be compensated for.
– Research suggests that older experienced drivers can adjust requirements, using their strategic or supervisory level to reduce the demands on
the manœuvring level (e.g., changing a route to a less demanding one if
weather conditions look like they are about to deteriorate).
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
– The modifying effect of this supervisory function becomes more limited as
information processing rapidity and efficiency deteriorates.
Despite the very effective compensation shown by elderly drivers and the specific advantages of experience, older people show changes in functional capabilities, which, in some cases and circumstances, cannot be compensated for.
2.3. Elderly drivers and ITS
Much of the research in ITS regarding elderly drivers’behaviour falls under
human factors research and the impact that these systems may have on safety.
It has been documented that elderly persons (perhaps due to their frailty and
increased vulnerability with ageing) are three times more likely to suffer a fatality
than younger drivers if injured in an accident (Okola and Walton, 2003).
Some technological advances such as power steering and ABS may help elderly drivers, but they may be overloaded by in-vehicle information systems together
with the increasing complexity of the urban driving environment. Moreover, they
were not brought up in the computer age and may be distressed when required to
operate machines and interpret high-tech displays. A number of studies highlight
the difficulties of elderly drivers when using ITS systems.
Several studies on elderly and ITS applications were reviewed by Caird
(1999) who found that the elderly do not want to relinquish their control of the
vehicle (as with anti-collision devices) and do not want to be startled because of
loud noises (e.g., warning devices). Moreover, women seem to be more reluctant than men to try new technologies. However, they were enthusiastic about
receiving up-to-date information (e.g., road conditions and weather) and appreciated the devices such as breakdown detection and emergency alerts. As the
elderly prefer to drive a vehicle that is familiar to them, some of the in-vehicle
guidance mechanisms may be less appealing to seniors. Other in-vehicle systems, like those allowing access to emergency assistance, have gained wider
popularity. Seniors approve improved roadway environment/markings such as
protected left turns and more reflective road markings. These vision enhancement systems appear to be promising emerging technologies for assisting the
elderly Schatz et al. (1999).
For the devices that require attention division, increasing age will produce
greater decrements in performance on one or both tasks. A new technology
that demands driver attention in much the same way as other proposed ITS
applications do is the in-car phone. It has been shown that using a phone while
driving can increase the chances of an accident by up to 4.8 times (Redelmeier
and Tibshirani, 1997). The primary factor in the link between phone use and
accidents would appear to be a reduction in driver attention to the events on the
roadway.
The most promising ITS for elderly drivers appear to include Route Guidance,
Emergency Vehicle Location and Response, Vision Enhancement Systems,
Adaptive Cruise Control, and Collision Warning Systems. For example, the driv-
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Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
ers who have vision difficulties at night could benefit from a Vision Enhancement
System which extends the driver’s visibility range, detecting and displaying upcoming objects on a head-up display.
According to the US DOT (Okola and Walton, 2003), there are six major objectives to be achieved by ITS technologies:
– to improve safety,
– to improve mobility,
– to improve system efficiency,
– to increase productivity,
– to conserve energy and protect the environment,
– to satisfy customers.
Concerning elderly drivers, the same authors consider that ITS represent a
potential to increase safety and possibly save lives, as they are particularly vulnerable. The benefits from the use of ITS by elderly drivers presented in table 4 have
been identified in several studies (Suen and Mitchell, 2003; Molnar et al., 2003;
Okola and Walton, 2003).
According to Meyer (2003), the acceptance and appropriate use of new technologies depends on: (1) the system design, accommodating the needs and
expectations of all potential users; (2) the respect for their rights (privacy and
security); and (3) the provision of adequate training. These are key issues that
will ensure the person’s trust in the technology and the appropriate and safe use
of the system.
As innovative technologies, intelligent transport systems require adequate
design in order to avoid the bad outcomes of well-intentioned but poorly
designed and tested technology. Driver training could also be required to
ensure that new technologies are used properly, providing the intended benefits. Even easy-to-use and somehow intuitive, ITS might require some training,
helping the driver to make a safe use of the system or understand how to cope
with the limits of the technology. When using ITS, drivers must understand the
appropriate level of trust to place in the system as early research has shown
that sometimes people place more trust in a system than it is designed to handle (OECD, 2003).
ITS technologies offer a range of benefits to transport systems and users: from
safety improvements to capacity increases and operational efficiencies, environmental preservation and the provision of information. In the context of driving,
ITS include vehicle control devices (Adaptive Cruise Control, rear-view cameras,
backup proximity warnings, etc.); driving assistance devices (navigation, traffic
information systems); and “infotainment” and comfort devices (entertainment,
Internet access and communications systems). This publication will focus on
the in-vehicle information systems (IVIS), which create interactions between the
driver and the system, resulting in a distraction effect and representing additional
tasks to driving.
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Table 4: The potential Benefits of ITS use for elderly drivers
In-Vehicle Technology
Potential Benefits
Collision Warning Systems
Task-load decrease:
Automate much of the driving process
Prevent a potential accident, as it may:
- alert the driver of a hazard
- adjust headway (following distance)
- fit the driver’s difficulties in turning left at an intersection
Driver assistance to cross complex intersections
Driver confidence increase
Adaptive Cruise Control
Task-load decrease:
Adjusting headway (following distance)
Relieving the driver from distance assessment and ahead
vehicle speed assessment tasks
Increase system capacity and efficiency
Minimize headways while maximizing safety (without them,
elderly drivers may decelerate because of fear, leading them
either to drive slower, or to increase the following distance
or both.
Emergency Alert Systems or
Automatic Vehicle Location
Increase safety (rural areas)
Increase driver confidence
In-vehicle route guidance
and navigation
Increase driver confidence
Availability and accessibility of information
Increase mobility
More destination options
Vision Enhancement
Systems
Increase driver confidence and mobility
Allowing elderly drivers to drive at night or in adverse
weather conditions
Automated Lane Changing
and Merging Systems
Provide assistance for difficulties in information processing
Assist the driver in selecting a headway, taking care of the
actual changing or merging
Blind Spot and
Obstacle Detection
Provide support on the detection of objects close to a slowmoving vehicle
In-vehicle signs and
warnings
Ease information detection
Projection of signs and warnings from the roadside into the
vehicle
2.3.1. The use of in-vehicle information systems (IVIS)
Automated devices supporting the driver (navigation, route guidance and collision warning devices) are considered as potentially useful for elderly drivers.
However, the interaction with in-vehicle information systems (IVIS) while driving
causes special difficulties for elderly drivers, who often mentioned them in surveys:
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Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellen/groups/dft_rdsafety/documents/page/dft_rdsafety_
504602.hcsp#top).
Therefore, the specific information load difficulties of older people need to be
taken into account in the systems design.
The driver’s interactions with IVIS represent factors of distraction as they
impose the allocation of cognitive resources to an additional task. Then, the driver
will temporarily be unable to react appropriately in useful time to any particular
event or to manage the driving task in a complex situation. There are risks of
overloading the driver with traffic-related information. Therefore, the integration
of different functions in the vehicle should be designed to provide information to
the driver, avoiding an increase of his or her mental workload. Unless the systems
interfaces and the forecasted interactions will be ergonomically designed, they will
overload and confuse the driver, especially the elderly.
New technologies have the potential to change travel patterns and, sometimes,
can increase risk exposure. A navigation system, for example, can reduce the
driver mental workload when driving in unfamiliar locations, but they may at the
same time encourage people to make more trips to unfamiliar locations, increasing their exposure to risk. This may be particularly problematic for elderly drivers
due to their vulnerability and limited skills.
The results from several studies on Human Factors and IVIS highlight humanmachine interaction and safety issues covering the following issues: (A) individual
differences; (B) elderly drivers’needs (design requirements and training needs);
and (C) the identification of appropriate technologies for elderly drivers.
A Individual differences
These studies focus on variations in task performance, driver distraction,
divided attention, memory recall performance for in-vehicle traffic messages and
navigational preferences in terms of interface.
Concerning the variations in task performance, a study conducted by Paul
Green (2001) focused on the effects of age on driver performance and showed
the following results:
– The measurement results of visual demands using the visual occlusion
method were higher by 15-50% for elderly drivers than for younger drivers;
– The detection times of HUD warnings were longer by 40% for elderly
drivers;
– The reading time of electronic street maps, was longer by 33-100% for elderly drivers on simulator and by 40-70% on road than for younger drivers;
– Entering destinations into navigation systems, elderly drivers took 80%
more time than younger.
Wood and Troutbeck (1992) examined the effects of restricted field of view
upon driving performance and found that the binocular field restriction did significantly reduce the performance in several driving areas:
– Increased time to complete the course,
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
– A significant reduced ability (1) to detect and correctly identify road signs,
(2) to avoid obstacles, (3) to manœuvre through restricted spaces,
– Impaired accuracy of lane keeping and reversing.
Concerning driver distraction related to the use of wireless communication and
route guidance systems, a study conducted by Tijerina et al. (2000) was centred
on the usability evaluation of 4 commercially available route guidance systems
representing alternative destination entry and retrieval methods, in terms of driver
visual allocation, driver-vehicle performance, and driver subjective assessments.
In terms of age effects, the results showed that it took almost twice longer for
elderly drivers than for younger drivers to interact with the systems and to enter all
of the data, although for the Voice Activated Audio Navigation (VAAN) device, the
results were similar between young and older subjects. Elderly test participants
made a significantly larger number of glances on the devices than younger participants. Elderly drivers had also worse performance for lane deviation as they had
more lane exceedences or departures per trial or task completion than younger
participants. Elderly drivers spent about twice longer than young test participants
looking away from the road scene ahead (more time with eyes-off-the-road for
elderly participants). These data suggested that voice recognition technology is
a viable alternative to visual-manual destination entry while driving. The results
highlighted a more favoured voice input over visual-manual methods.
A limitation pointed out by the authors was the fact that this experiment was
conducted in a test track environment. This study does not compare both the
voice interaction task with a controlled situation (only driving,) and the consequent
effects of the interaction with those devices on the detections of stimulus.
A study conducted by Mourant et al. (2001) (http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/departments/nrd-13/driver-distraction/PDF/9.PDF) was centred in a divided attention task
to measure the driver’s ability to use IVIS. As previewed, elderly drivers performed
more poorly than young drivers when attaining information from inside and outside
of the vehicle. This suggests that for elderly drivers the constant switching between
near and far vision affects both the acquisition of information inside and outside of
the vehicle. In addition, the extent of the difference between young and elderly drivers increased with task difficulty. Concerning the driving performance, younger drivers made more lane excursions but the total time was longer for elderly drivers.
The memory recall performance for in-vehicle traffic messages requires the
ability to assimilate and remember in-vehicle traffic messages. This was investigated by Graham et al. (In Y. Noy, 1997) evidencing the following outcomes:
– There was no overall significant effect of age on the number of incorrect
answers although it was found that elderly drivers had more problems recalling information from the more complex messages (presentation of advisory
and junction information on the screen). No differences were observed for the
simple information. Comparing the simple and complex types of information,
complex ones were worse recalled by all of the drivers suggesting that drivers
had more problems to memorize the longer and more complex messages.
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Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
– Concerning the eye glance behaviour, the visual allocation to different areas
of the visual field during normal driving was very similar for the younger and
elderly drivers. However, when the messages were displayed, large differences between both groups emerged. Elderly drivers spent more time looking at the dashboard than younger drivers, and visual allocation to the road
ahead was significantly smaller among elderly drivers.
– Glances to the dashboard were longer for the elderly drivers. In spite of the
non significant difference, the average frequency of glances to the dashboard to assimilate the displayed messages was higher for elderly drivers.
– Both age groups had a greater portion of their visual resources to the dashboard when messages were displayed, especially for the more complex
messages (for those the time and frequency of glances were higher, as
compared with the other types of messages). The increased attention to
the dashboard reduced the attention paid to the road ahead and to the rearview mirrors.
Concerning the navigational preferences in terms of interface, two different
types of interface for displaying in-vehicle navigation guidance were tested in the
following studies:
A study conducted by Wochinger et al. (In Y. Noy, 1997) was carried out on a
driving simulator equipped with a simulated turn-by-turn navigation system that
was composed of a display generating route guidance information (arrows indicating the correct road, distance to the turn, name of the street). The maps had
the correct routes highlighted. The text direction consisted in a linear list of turns,
the number of blocks before the turn, and the street names. The drivers had to
perform a tracking task via a controlled servo-laser. The task goal was to keep a
semi-randomly moving laser within fixed boundaries on the bottom of the front
monitor. A warning tone was triggered when the laser crossed either boundary,
and sounded continuously until it was returned to the lane.
The results suggest that drivers perform better with the preferred type of display (e.g. drivers with a strong preference for maps tend to drive better with maps
than those who did not prefer maps). Navigational performance was better with
the simulated display than with either type of map. Elderly drivers seem to be
particularly reluctant to use maps.
Two guidance systems have been tested in an on-road study carried out by
Brooks et al. (1999): a route map and a turn-by-turn display. Three road environments were selected for this study: freeway, urban and residential roads. The following results were reported:
– Turn-by-turn displays were looked at more often than the route map;
– The glances ratio was significantly lower on freeways than on urban roads;
– The majority of subjects indicated that the turn-by-turn display was used
more often and contained the most useful information, like distance to turn,
countdown, turn direction arrow, next road;
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– Turn-by-turn display was the most likely to be glanced at first;
– Younger women and older men had a comparable number of display glances
per subject (lower) as young men and older women did (higher);
– For each road segment, when subjects looked at turn-by-turn display, a
burst of glances usually occurred at the beginning; then that rate lowered to
a steady rate for the rest of the road segment, with small bursts of glances
occurring at points when the system spoke; glances to the route map display were relatively uniform throughout each of the segments; in general the
glance rate was higher for shorter segments of the road and vice-versa.
B Elderly drivers’needs
Elderly drivers’needs concern both design requirements for in-vehicle technologies and specific training needs for the safe use of the systems.
B.1 Design requirements
The design requirements for in-vehicle technologies fitting the elderly
drivers’needs, the results of some studies and the elderly drivers’preferences
should be reported to the systems interfaces that have been used. The combined
voice and visual interfaces significantly reduce the glance frequency and the turnby-turn display reduces the glance duration with adequate size and form according to the environment features (Marin-Lamellet and Dejeammes, 1995). These
findings stress the need for a good system design.
As suggested by Dingus et al. (1997), an adequate system design for elderly
drivers should focus on reducing the information load. These authors have shown
that the use of a guidance system with both a voice feature and turn-by-turn guidance instructions reduces the number of inappropriate long glances for all age
groups, mainly for older drivers. Another finding is that elderly drivers have shown
a preference to use a guidance system in conjunction with a passenger co-pilot
who should read the display screen and tell them about the displayed information
(Eby, 1999). This solution has been reported as the most interesting for elderly drivers, since it allows to compensate their declines and provides a feeling of safety,
freedom and increased mobility, as well as company while driving. Therefore, the
authors’recommendations for the systems design included the location of the display in such a way that it should be read by a co-pilot passenger. Other studies
report that icons are better than text for displaying messages, but the symbols
should be easily identified and unambiguous (Easterby and Zwaga, 1984; Green,
1993). However, the generation effect in recognising and understanding symbols
has been largely demonstrated and could lead to some difficulties in interacting
with the system (Saunby et al., 1988; Dewar et al., 1994; Bruyas, 1997). That’s
why a “good design” sometimes doesn’t fit the needs and characteristics of older
people and should require appropriate training.
The sensory-cognitive interaction theory applied in a study conducted by
Baldwin (2002) postulates the following:
– Sensory functioning can directly and interactively affect cognitive functioning,
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– Impairment in sensory functioning can exacerbate or be mistaken for cognitive impairment,
– Stress the needs for the improvement of displays.
Based on theoretical and empirical ageing research, the author suggests the
following design recommendations for the systems design:
– Use the auditory channel to present essential collision warnings and navigational information to avoid overloading the visual processing abilities of
elderly drivers, to reduce task switching time and the periods of time when
drivers are required to take their eyes off the road.
– The presentation level of verbal displays for use by elderly drivers with normal hearing abilities for their age group should be at least 10 dB above the
adequate level for younger drivers.
– Ensure that auditory presentation levels are at least +6 dB above background noise levels and preferably +15 dB S/N for drivers experiencing mild
hearing impairment.
– Make use of context to aid comprehension, preferably at the beginning of
the voice message. For example: `Turn ahead: Left onto Hampton’, would
be preferable to `Left on Hampton ahead’.
– Use list form messages rather than prose form or complex messages.
– Use standard signage and terminology when possible, and consistent formatting across display situations.
– Keep message length to no more than three content items.
– Use digitized natural speech rather than synthesized speech and avoid
extensive speech compression.
– Provide navigational information well in advance of driving manœuvres
to allow elderly drivers more time to process the information and plan
manœuvres.
The author points out that these recommendations are provided with the cautionary statement that additional research is needed to verify each one as they
represent tentative design criteria and a list of potential areas warranting further
investigation. It should be stressed as well that any design guidelines aiming at
enhancing elderly drivers’capabilities have the potential to improve safety and
mobility for all drivers.
A publication issued in 2003 by the Transport Research Institute of the
University of Michigan (UMTRI) (Molnar, Eby and Miller) presents recommendations enhancing the elderly mobility through in-vehicle adaptive equipment and
complying with the following requests:
– The equipment should be appropriately chosen according to the elderly
driver’s needs;
– It should be affordable;
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– It should be installed and monitored for fitting the elderly driver’s characteristics and allowing for easy and safe use;
– Opportunities for training and practice should be provided.
This publication presents an extensive list of recommendations for the systems
design, particularly for visual and auditory displays, which should comply with the
elderly driver’s needs and characteristics.
B.2 The elderly drivers’needs for training
The question of how to provide elderly drivers with the opportunity of driving for
as long as possible, while minimizing the risks regarding unsafe driving, is a very
significant issue that needs to be addressed to adjust for the increasing ageing
among the driving population. As a conclusion at the Elderly Driver Consensus
Conference on Assessment, Remediation and Counselling in Transportation
Alternatives (National Older Driver Research and Training Center, 2003, available at:
http://driving.phhp.ufl.edu/publications/CC%20Summary%20Final%2008-19-04.pdf
three issues that should be considered to address unsafe driving resulting from
increasing age: (1) the development of techniques to assess abilities and skills
inherent to driving; (2) the remediation of the individual remaining abilities to fit the
driving demands by means of appropriate training and the use of the technologies
which are identified to provide help; and (3) for those who are unable or unwilling
to continue driving, counselling on alternatives allowing them to remain active and
enjoy a high quality of life should be provided.
The development of training programs aiming at counteracting and/or preventing age-related declines is not independent from the development of adequate
assessment tools to identify the specific abilities and skills which would need
remediation, decline prevention or some enhancement, to define acceptable and
safe thresholds and to evaluate the person’s progress over the training. Moreover,
the criteria for identifying whether an elderly driver is at-risk for unsafe driving
behaviours should be defined. These assessment tools should take into account
the adopted compensatory behaviours by elderly drivers. As referred in the
report of the International Elderly Driver Consensus Conference on Assessment,
Remediation and Counselling in Transportation Alternatives (2003), driving training programs for the elderly should allow (1) to identify the remediation techniques
which are currently being used to compensate specific deficiencies in driver capabilities, skills, and attitudes and to array those that may restore driving ability to
acceptable levels; (2) to determine how specific remediation techniques are or
should be evaluated; (3) to determine when referrals to health care professionals
and other specialists are warranted; (4) to determine what remediation techniques
should be included in a practical remediation protocol.
As compensation behaviours represent the key for older people to go on being
mobile and driving, some in-vehicle systems could make it possible to develop additional compensation behaviours that could enhance their driving performance and
consequently increase safety. However, there is a need for scientific research in this
field and training programs should be developed on this issue and tested for elderly
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drivers. Both training interventions and ITS identified as the most relevant for elderly
drivers could allow them to increase their mobility and improve road safety.
Concerning the training issues for a safe use of IVIS, two questions remain
unanswered:
– How much training is required to make appropriate use of a technology?
– Which type of training is required to make appropriate use of a
technology?
If training is not adapted to a particular group of the target population, the system may be improperly used or even rejected; if it is too intensive or too extensive,
the required motivation for successful learning may disappear. Adequate training
motivates and empowers people to use technology; but poor training may discourage them. Training must be appropriate to the audience’s knowledge, skills and
abilities, as well as to what the audience wants and needs to learn.
Training materials to ensure that the systems will be used safely should be
widely disseminated. It is important that road users understand the limitations
of the systems they operate, the consequences of complacency, and the safety
consequences of other behaviours arising from adaptation to systems. Regarding
elderly drivers, the need for training arises from the fact that older people are not
used to new technologies, which leads them to difficulties in self-learning, mainly
in the case of an additional task to driving, which increases the task complexity
and the related risks.
C The identification of appropriate technologies for elderly drivers
The introduction of a new technological system into the car will not necessarily represent an improvement, as most in-vehicle systems require the driver
to change the behaviour patterns that have served the older driver for decades.
This change may be difficult, and the need to adopt new behaviours may deprive
elderly drivers of one of their main advantages - the extensive driving experience
they have acquired over the years. The notion that a device makes sense on the
drawing board does not ensure that it will have the desired effect once it is introduced into the car. A number of reasons make it difficult to predict the effects of
introducing a new system.
Several studies (Hakamies-Blomqvist et al., 2004; Shaheen and Niemeier,
2001; Mitchell and Suen, 1997) have identified the ITS that might be able to induce
new compensation behaviours, providing assistance for the difficulties resulting
from limitations in (a) motion perception, (b) peripheral vision and (c) selective
attention:
– Collision Warning Systems aimed at intersections (a), fitting the difficulties
found by elderly drivers in turning left on an intersection;
– Automated Lane Changing and Merging Systems (a, b), assisting the driver
in selecting a gap and also taking care of the actual changing or merging;
– Blind Spot and Obstacle Detection (a, b), providing support on the detection
of objects close to a slow-moving vehicle;
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– In-vehicle signs and warnings (c), projecting signs and warnings from the
roadside into the vehicle;
– Intelligent Cruise Control may not be very relevant for elderly drivers unless
they incorporate functions to prevent common errors, such as failure to
comply with rights of way (yield or stop signs) or traffic signs.
– Driver information system for demanding urban traffic situations, assisting
the driver in crossing complex intersections;
– Emergency Vehicle Location and Response Systems, providing assistance
in emergency situations;
– Vision Enhancement Systems, easing night driving;
– Driver condition monitoring: provide a driver with the information to help
maintaining an adequate driving performance. Such systems would monitor
fluctuations in key driving factors associated with the effects of medications,
sleepiness, and cognitive underload and overload.
Based on the above-referred identifications, the systems functions that might
be useful for elderly drivers should be considered rather than the whole system.
Therefore, the following functions can be useful for elderly drivers if the mental
load factors related to the corresponding human-machine interaction as an additional task to driving are minimized:
– Route guidance for mobility increase, allowing for the feeling of independence and safety (if incorporated assistance is provided to the driver to cross
complex intersections its usefulness should be increased);
– Collision warning, which could be very useful at intersections, allowing for
increased safety on left-turns;
– Obstacle detection, being very useful for parking, especially for reversing
manœuvres;
– Assistance on lane changing and merging (the automatic control of the
vehicle should be more tested with elderly drivers before recommending
its use);
– Emergency vehicle location and response systems;
– Vision enhancement systems;
– Driver condition monitoring: provide a driver with information to help maintain adequate driving performance.
2.3.2. The attitudes regarding ITS
Nowadays older people are rarely familiar with new technologies, which leads
them to avoid, in a general way, the use of technological systems. Experience in
a particular task performance is the main resource of older people to keep good
scores in performing the same task. However, the use of experience requires some
stability on the level of the technical and environmental conditions for the task performance. Regarding the driving task, that stability doesn’t exist anymore as many
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Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
changes have occurred in the vehicles and road environment. The increasing
complexity resulting from those changes narrow down the elderly driver’s limits
to develop compensation behaviours. Then, they start to avoid driving in more
complex situations and this may evolve rapidly into giving up driving. ITS could
help elderly drivers to extend their mobility and independent life, but the generation effect regarding the use of technological systems will lead them to avoid the
system use. That’s why an appropriate design of those systems and the provision
of advice for purchasing and adequate training are so important issues.
The development of ITS is very recent and still is in progress. It is well known
that users do not necessarily accept innovation, mainly older people, who are
more resisting to changes than younger. Sometimes, good intentions have bad
outcomes. Actually, on the one hand, it is difficult to predict the way a device could
affect driving, and, on the other hand, there are several reasons why a system that
should improve safety and mobility can have smaller than expected benefits:
– Users may not use the device correctly;
– The device can introduce a feeling of safety that can induce the person to
take more risks;
– The device could not fit the specific driving characteristics of elderly
drivers;
– The user may develop new behavioural patterns.
2.4. Further research needs
New behaviours might be induced by the use of an IVIS, especially a navigation system. Actually, a cognitive under-stimulation in terms of collecting and
memorizing spatial information could lead to a great dependence on a route guidance system, making the person unable to drive without that information. The
same may occur by the use of a collision warning system, which could affect situation awareness. Therefore, the induced behaviours by the systems use should be
studied in order to prevent potential decreases in fitness for driving. The misuse of
a system should be studied as well, aiming at identifying the wrong and risky ways
in which a system could be used. For each system, the induced behaviours by its
use and the side effects on driving behaviours and attitudes should be identified
in order to develop adequate countermeasures.
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3. Professional drivers and IVIS
Vlasta REHNOVÁ (CDV, Czech Republic)
Iva MACKU (CDV, Czech Republic)
Jiří VAŠEK (CDV, Czech Republic)
Veronika ZEHNALOVÁ (CDV, Czech Republic)
Karel SCHMEIDLER (CDV, Czech Republic)
3.1. Background
The related demands with car driving by professional drivers are noticeably
different from the requirements for non-professional drivers. Among the specificities of the professional driver´s work, there are for instance, the driver´s responsibility for the lives of the persons in the vehicle (in the case of public transport)
and his/her material responsibility (the high price of the vehicle and of the load
in case of heavy vehicles drivers). However, the key factor is the fact that a
professional driver spends almost his/her whole working time driving a vehicle,
which is a highly demanding activity both from the cognitive (attention, information perception and processing, decision making) and from the emotional and
social viewpoints.
Accordingly, given that professional drivers are being paid for driving various
vehicles (truck, public transport vehicle, emergency vehicle, taxi etc.).
There is also a much higher risk of fatigue caused by long and irregular shifts
and work demands. The important factor of potential stress comes from the control by the employer (the control of oil consumption, keeping the breaks, being in
time, etc.).
Simply said, driving a vehicle is a highly demanding activity. In this sense, the
group of professional drivers is the most endangered one. Reed and Cronin (2003)
underline that truck drivers are submitted to a number of physical and psychological stresses inherent in their occupation. The long and irregular hours spent at the
wheel cause fatigue and mental stress. A permanent stress condition can then
lead to risky and inappropriate behaviours and to the poor managing of critical
situations, which may be possible causes of traffic accidents (Machin, 2001).
The definition used for truck drivers can be used for other professional drivers
in various areas of transportation; emergency drivers, taxi drivers, drivers of public
transport vehicles etc. as mentioned above.
Concerning the possible usage of IVIS, there is a significant difference between
the private car driver and the professional driver groups. In the case of private car
users, drivers can simply decide and choose which system they will buy and use.
Professional drivers are, in general, not involved in the decision-making about
the IVIS and other technologies in their vehicles. This difference is very important
from the acceptance viewpoint.
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3.2. Accident statistics
It is a question to what extent the use of telematic systems affects traffic accidents. This is being investigated in various research projects (HUMANIST, INSAFETY, etc…). The impacts of telematic systems on traffic safety need to be
thoroughly explored. Nevertheless, certain effort to develop an integrated IVIS
assessment method exists (Cherry, Nodari, Toffetti, AIDE project, 2004).
Unfortunately there is no unified means of collecting such statistical data (unified accident reporting forms) for local authorities, which would take into account
such causes of traffic accidents.
The National Police Agency of Japan has been reporting data on crashes
associated with navigation systems for several years (http://www.npa.jp/english/
index.htm). Phone and navigation systems were identified as the most frequent
risky factors.
There are three key points in the literature on crash occurrence:
– There are crashes in which the use of telematics has been identified as a
contributing factor.
– In some types of crashes drivers were distracted by operating in-vehicle
devices and haven’t paid the required attention to the driving tasks.
– Such crashes are relatively more likely to occur in benign conditions (good
weather, good roads).
Numerous studies examined the problem of multi-tasking while driving and
identified risky factors in connection with the use of telematics: driver distraction,
information overload (particularly the coded information of systems), cognitive
capture (tendency to complete the secondary task – phone call, navigation question) (Green, 2004).
Practical experience with unsafety effects of ITS/CVO fleet management technologies: The number of accidents has a slight tendency to increase further with
the implementation of such systems (Bilgili, Ergn, 2002).
3.3. The risky effects of telematics use
There are a number of studies - field or simulator experiments - describing
risky effects connected with use of in-vehicle telematic devices:
Distraction and information overload (Strategies for Reducing Driver Distraction…,
2003; Green, 2004; Making telematics safer, 2002; Nilsson, Harms, Peters, 2001;
Alling, 2001).
The above reports tend to minimise or eliminate negative effects through integrated systems, better design. Insufficient results were found relating to integrated
systems or to education or operator training.
Driver’s comfort and ergonomic design (Strategies for Reducing Driver
Distraction…, 2003; Green, 2004; Commercial bus and truck safety, 2003; Rosser,
Hofmeister, Baum, 2002).
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This issue is being solved by CEN/ISO standardisation activities. Nevertheless,
the preference of car manufacturers to emphasise the comfort of the driver when
driving a vehicle is disserviceable considering road safety. Comfort of the driver
can be viewed from various points of view. Distraction of the driver is the most
crucial problem. Another problem is that the driver can rely too much on different
devices increasing comfort during driving and the malfunction of such systems
can cause traffic accidents.
Drivers’behaviour, changes, routine and no routine drivers’performance
(Brookhuis, Ward, Janssen, 2001; Jameson, Westerman, Hockey, Carsten, 2004;
Bhise, Downd, Smid, 2003; Nilsson, Harms, Peters, 2001).
The impact of in-vehicle telematic devices use on driver behaviour is obvious. Differences in driver performance were identified. The extra tasks connected
with driving (i.e. obtaining information from in-vehicle systems, reading message
of IVIS etc…) were identified as more risky factors than common driving tasks.
There are no recommendations taking into account the education or training of
users so far.
The reliability of systems (Green, 2004; Wilson, 2004).
Failure of various in-vehicle systems is also important when discussing road
safety. The driver should be able to drive with but also without such systems and
be able to react appropriately when driving conditions change. The driver should
be able to take in-vehicle systems malfunction into account. But a question is the
extent that the driver is able to recognise the failure of such systems.
Malfunction indicators concerning driver safety performance are therefore
required. This issue is also being solved by CEN/ISO standards.
3.4. The legislation frames of ITS use
There are two main questions in this domain (Strategies for Reducing Driver
Distraction…, 2003; Roeting, 2003; Ravlum, 2004):
– Legislative regulations dealing with equipment (technique parameters),
usage (proper and improper use), driver responsibility and penalties concerning accidents caused by the use of an in-vehicle device. The application
of standards is not obligatory. Only the use of phone devices is regulated in
most national legal systems.
– The protection of privacy: There is a possibility to find out some private
user data associated with the installation and function of in-vehicle telematic
devices (vehicle position location, behaviour data records).
3.4.1. The specification of private use
The private use of in-vehicle systems is a voluntary one; this means he/she
equips his/her vehicle because he/she had personally decided to equip the vehicle with such a system. The motivation to use in-vehicle systems and also the
expectation of outcome can vary a lot. The drivers effort can vary from responsi-
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Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
ble (effort to drive safely, to make navigation easier when driving frequently and
long distances) to irresponsible (use of IVIS just as a new modern toy). It can be
difficult to choose suitable equipment for the driver because of insufficient information and because of the producers’effort to sell more than is necessary for the
individual customer. The dealers of these systems usually offer the driver a possibility to lend and test such equipment, but do not offer to train them in operating
IVIS (Petica, 2001; Foyer, Poroorshasp, Calafel, 2000).
A Privately used devices
There are more studies concerned about the evaluation of IVIS systems
(Strategies for Reducing Driver Distraction…, 2003; Brookhuis, Ward, Jenssen,
2001; Bhise, Downd, Smid, 2003; Nilsson, Harms, Peters, 2001; Petica, 2001;
Can educators save…, 2001; Needham, 2001).
Following issues are emphasized:
Is the positive impact of IVIS systems greater than the negative one? The
answer seems to be “yes, but”.
Crucial issues were identified: information overload by secondary task, driver
distraction by information and operation, time expenditure, changes in behaviour
(increase of responsibility). Concerning assistance systems, another key question
is mentioned - Who has priority and responsibility (driver/system) in the case of a
critical traffic situation. Forced style of driving may also provoke driver’s negative
feelings (driver may feel discomfort).
Discrepancy between routine driver performance (primary driver tasks) and
new requirements of specific responses and reactions to in-vehicle device was
also identified as a high risk factor particularly in a critical traffic situation.
Different vehicle equipment (but also not equipped vehicles) could be one of
the risk factors too. This was mentioned in accident analyses (interviews with
drivers involved in accidents focussed on IVIS use by any involved driver). This
finding matches supposed and evaluated changes of driver behaviour in relation
to telematics use. Device monitoring presence of IVIS systems in other vehicles
is not available, so it is difficult or almost impossible to estimate the other driver’s
reactions or car manœuvres for the driving individual.
3.4.2. The specification of professional use
The first and main reason for using telematic applications in fleet management is commercial. These applications mean higher performance, better control,
organisation, document registration and checking of the work regime and the efficiency of work time. The impact of these systems on traffic safety is supposed and
declared by manufacturers, but no relevant data confirming such hypotheses are
available.
For many occupational branches the introduction of new modern technologies
has led to changes in the nature of work itself (DeCroon, 2002). The haulage companies are adopting new technologies such as fleet management systems. These
systems are used to collect and provide data transmission in the vehicle for mile-
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
age, fuel consumption and waiting times. They can monitor the driver’s behaviour,
speed and hours. The dispatcher can obtain information about the position of the
vehicle and can evaluate the driving style. They can allow sending messages
and navigation advice. The benefits of these systems are mainly logistic, and
they bring profits to the road transport company. So we can talk about societal
or economic benefits. On the other hand, the question of how these systems can
influence the driver is rather disregarded.
The use of fleet management systems (on board computers) can affect the
truck driver in several ways. This impact can be positive in the sense of supporting road transport companies (hauliers) in the registration of their drivers´ work
and rest hours. In this way, these companies may manage and prevent fatigue
among their drivers more effectively (DeCroon et al., 2004). The application of
satellite communication provides real-time communications, linking the driver
and the company. Then the systems may provide information to drivers on traffic conditions and hazard, so drivers may use this information, for example, to
avoid traffic jams and thereby reduce time-related pressures (psychological job
demands).
But fleet management systems can also influence the driver in a negative manner as well. These systems can lead to tighter schedules, because they support
more efficient route planning.
Moreover, truck drivers can perceive these systems as an employer’s tool to
monitor their work performance (Romijn and Uijterwaal, 2001, In DeCroon et al.,
2004). As a result, the truck driver may feel restricted in determining how and
when to perform his work (routing, when and where take a break etc.). The potential impacts of positioning and communication systems are important from the
organizational culture perspective. In particular, low job control and high psychological job demands have been found to predict mental health complaints such
as depression and fatigue, and unfavourable organizational outcomes such as
decreased organizational commitment. Said differently, the fleet management
systems can affect the truck driver´s work in terms of demands and control and
thereby the driver´s mental health and job attitudes (DeCroon, 2004).
The work of truck drivers has changed with the implementation of fleet management systems. Important changes have made the work more flexible, more
controlled by the dispatcher (supervisor) within the company, thus it has changed
the whole organizational culture. In the road transport industry, the entry of the
24-hour economy has been accompanied by an increased demand for just in time
deliveries, leading to an intensification of the work of lorry drivers (DeCroon et al.,
2002). Furthermore, the use of communication technology has led to a decreased
feeling of independence and tighter time schedules for these workers. These
changes in the nature of work led to the investigation of the relations between
psychosocial work environment and well being. Several occupational stress models have been postulated that can serve as a theoretical frame for this category
of studies. The most influential and successful is the model of job demands and
control (JD-C model) described by Karasek and Theorell (1990).
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Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
Private drivers are self-imposed drivers whereas professional drivers are not.
Specific devices may represent some restrictions or difficulties for professional
drivers. Therefore a consensus between management and drivers in the acceptance of new equipment is required, because this factor is important for traffic
safety and work satisfaction too.
The study (De Croon et al., 2004) dealt with the effect of OBC systems (on board
computers-systems) on drivers’psychological work environment (i.e., control and
demands) and coinciding mental health (i.e. need for recovery after work) and job
attitudes (i.e. organizational commitment) of lorry drivers. OBC-systems are used
to collect and provide data transmission in the vehicle for mileage, fuel consumption and waiting times. Low job control and high psychological job demands have
been found to predict mental health complaints such as depression and fatigue.
The study found that control protects workers from the unhealthy effects of high
psychological job demands. Job control affords workers greater discretion in when
and how to deal with the demands of the job. More specifically, a worker who has
too much work to do will handle the stress better if the job has some flexibility
in terms of its allocation of time and energy to tasks. In the case of lorry driving,
work situations can be adjusted to the psychological needs and preferences of
the driver more efficiently when the driver can determine at what time and in what
order he accomplishes his route. The restrictive influence of OBC-systems on
lorry driver’s job control, then, indicates that these systems may have a stressful
impact on lorry drivers. The application of OBC systems was not accompanied by
a decrease or increase in the lorry driver´s psychological demands. OBC systems
more frequently produce reports of stress, job dissatisfaction and lack of privacy
among drivers with a negative attitude towards these systems. This suggests that
the driver´s attitude towards OBC technology is an aspect that should be taken
into account during the implementation of these systems.
In conclusion, the results of the study indicate that the application of an OBC
system may negatively affect the lorry driver’s job control and organizational commitment, which may consequently lead to poor systems acceptance and negative
attitudes towards technologies (De Croon et al., 2004).
Systems acceptance by drivers is a very important condition for their right
usage. To be acceptable, the systems must be user friendly, useful, effective,
socially acceptable, and affordable (Regan et al., 2002).
Transport companies therefore should pay more attention to the question of
how to implement and how to use OBC systems and other intelligent transportation systems. More effort should be done to inform the lorry driver about how
and why the system is applied (disprove possible prejudices, deal with negative
attitudes), and underscore and exploit the advantages of the supplied information
for the lorry driver.
A Telematic devices used by fleet management
The domain of fleet management has to adjust to the development of technology, which encompasses the area of transportation. Such technology is able
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
to contribute to the better commercial performance of company (or institution,
organisation etc…).
Fleet management systems cover wireless communication systems to improve
transportation and logistics efficiency. Fleet management services enable communication with vehicles and services for fleet managers such as dynamic rerouting of assets, logistics support, theft prevention, employee management, and
cost management.
Fleet management systems use in-vehicle telematic equipment (such as navigation units and on-board computers), standard cellular technology, advanced
call centre technology and Internet technology. These technologies provide realtime vehicle data such as speed, fuel levels etc.
The most common usage of fleet management is in transportation companies.
The reason to install some kind of telematic device in a lorry cab is to monitor the
driver´s progress on the journey and to help him to complete the day’s work. But
there exists the possibility that drivers can be overwhelmed with the quantity of
information being presented to them, and the danger of being distracted by small
map displays and other sources of route information (Telematics Guide, 2005).
A.1. Electronic dispatching/communication systems
Positive effects - better work organisation, flexible decision, time saving, contact
and communication with people (important for long trip driver), emergency help.
Negative effects - mental distraction, information overload, immediate changes
of destination, customer, time table, emotional messages.
(Commercial truck and bus safety, 2003; Wilson, Popkin, Rau, Hitz, 2002;
Holpfer, 2000; Alling, 2001; Rosser, Hofmeister, Baum, 2002)
A.2. Navigation and location systems
Positive effects - route planning, overview of vehicle movement and position,
immediate help in case of emergency.
Negative effects - more mentally connected. Location system means permanent monitoring of the driver’s location by dispatcher (manager). I.e. this system allows the manager to monitor the improper (private) use of the company
vehicle
(Commercial truck and bus safety, 2003; Driscoll, 2002).
A.3. On-board monitoring and recording of driver behaviour (including
drowsy driver warning systems)
Positive effects - traffic safety improvement through feedback, accident data
collection, a base for the improvement of driver’s skills and adaptation process or
programs.
Negative effects - are more ethic and psychic. The acceptance by drivers
and privacy data security represent the key issue to be solved by management.
Drivers prefer the self-monitoring systems, providing feedback to drivers without
management access to the data.
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Differentiation according to the driver characteristics
Drowsy driver warning systems are a specific issue to evaluate, ethic and legislation difficulties can be expected and further assessment of fatigue monitoring
system is required.
(Roeting, 2003; Commercial truck and bus safety, 2003; Petica, 2001; Wilson,
Popkin, Rau, Hitz, 2002)
A.4. On-board office (as CARPC, TRUCKPC)
Positive effects often are advertised by producers (more from a commercial
viewpoint)
Considering experts’opinions and research findings, this device seems to be
dangerous.
(Suzuki, 2002; Rosser, Hofmeister, Baum, 2002)
B Acceptance and attitudes towards modern information devices
Modern technologies can be considered as a great step on the way towards
improved traffic safety and reduced driver workload. As the fully automated vehicles belong to the far future, the human factor represented by the driver still is the
main safety determinant. The acceptance of new technologies and the guarantee
of their positive impacts on traffic safety and driver’s comfort are the key issues
to be solved by traffic management. The driver has to be included in the efficiency calculation because the full available efficiency of the company will not be
achieved without the full performance of the driver.
This aspect is emphasized in guidelines and studies by means of questionnaires focused on driver’s attitudes, requirements or difficulties connected with
telematics etc. These studies and guidelines result in recommendations of assigning clear rules, respecting driver’s privacy, obtaining data from private car users
and using them for improvement and establishing adaptation lectures, courses or
interviews.
(Roeting, 2003; Commercial truck and bus safety, 2003; Ravlum, 2004; Petica,
2001; Duxbury, 2000; Fern, 2004)
3.5. Further research needs
Education and training programs for private and professional drivers
concerning ITS use
Neither studies nor reports about specific education, training courses or programs for users of in-vehicle telematic devices were found in the literature. Even
the precise guidelines for truck and bus companies do not cover the area of the
specific training of drivers who are using IVIS. Only questionnaires for management and drivers encompassing issues connected with the use of in-vehicle
telematic devices are available.
There is a research need on studies focused on the positive/negative impacts
of IVIS implemented to fleet management (not only commercial aspects, but also
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safety aspects, driver’s attitudes and feelings, difficulties connected with specific
categories of drivers – experience, age, risky drivers).
Several studies refer to risky behaviours or difficulties experienced by older
drivers; warnings about use of IVIS by older drivers was given (such system
may not be suitable for them). This issue requires detailed elaboration and more
focused evaluation.
– Larger and detailed statistics of accidents caused within the use of IVIS:
Accident statistics data were not collected systematically. Detailed information from local authorities needs to be obtained. Appropriate methodology
should be designed.
– Rules of use for private users and possibility of their supervision and checking: standards (CEN/ISO) or human centred demands on technical parameters of IVIS were established.
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Discussion and conclusions
Christhard GELAU (BASt, Germany)
The objective of the present report was to review the existing knowledge on
the impact of IVIS on road safety. It is presented below according to the four basic
functions identified during the discussions in Work Package I. As a next step, the
focus was shifted towards three driver populations, the novice drivers, the elderly
drivers and the professional drivers, who present a specific issue for IVIS use. It
was the overall goal of this literature review to highlight the missing knowledge
and to identify the main questions for further researches, in relation with Work
Package III of this COST Action.
The impacts of phoning on the different aspects of driving behaviour are well
documented by a sound body of knowledge whereas the impacts of other information technologies and the functions they provide seem to be largely unexplored.
Taking into account the rapid technological development in this field, not only more
research but also a different view on the systems are required. Before proceeding to study the impacts of single new devices or their combinations (e.g. SMS
and e-Mail) it would be desirable to develop a generic taxonomy of the performed
tasks with these systems while driving in order to produce the results which can
be generalised and allow for predictions of the impacts of future developments.
For the systems which provide the driver with driving-related information, a
shift in the perspective has to be stated. First, it turned out that from a safetyrelated viewpoint the phenomenon of “Behavioural Adaptation” needs to be considered. Although it has to be acknowledged that the positive impacts of these
systems might be diminished or even overcompensated by the various behavioural mechanisms subsumed under this concept (e.g. delegation of responsibility) there seems to be remarkably few empirical evidence on this issue. Second,
only few of the studies presented and discussed in Chapter 3 operationalized the
impact by means of indicators of driver behaviour. The exceptions are the studies on the effects of navigation systems and of the different aspects of the HMI
design (e.g. voice vs. visual messages) which can be related to the issue of driver
distraction through the interaction with the system while driving. For other services
(e.g. traffic information) a “user needs” perspective seems to be more prevalent
in present research, i.e. there are surveys which try to identify e.g. the different
kinds of information, which drivers would like to get before or during a given trip by
means of interviews. But none of the studies reviewed in the present report provided data on how this information influences actual driving behaviour on tactical
or operational levels or if correlations with indicators like workload, stress, comfort
etc. exist.
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The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
As regards the interactions with IVIS according to drivers’characteristics, a
large body of research showed that young drivers are a very specific group of
road users which is most liable to dangerous driving behaviour due to a lack of
experience. Thus, there are at least two questions to be answered by research.
First, if there are IVIS functions which might be of help for them to cope with their
frequently documented limitations due to inexperience. Second, if the interaction
of this specific group with IVIS while driving might create new, additional risks.
Whereas the findings concerning the first question are not conclusive there seems
to be at least some evidence with regard to the second question: driving a vehicle as well as interacting with an IVIS device requires the acquisition of complex
skills. A research work by Lansdown (2002) reviewed in the present document
indicates that young novice drivers might be at a special risk when learning to
perform a secondary task (e.g. operating the IVIS) while driving because they are
still in the process of acquiring the complex skill of driving the vehicle. Moreover, a
research work by Hosking et al. (in press) suggests that younger drivers are prone
to make use of technologies (writing SMS) which are especially popular in this age
groups, leading to dangerous behaviours (e.g. in terms of lane-keeping) which are
not compensated by more cautious behaviours (e.g. increasing distance to lead
vehicle, reducing speed) which were frequently observed in studies on the effects
of phone use while driving. On the other hand there are also results showing
that teenage drivers are able to prevent their driving performance from becoming
impaired by a secondary task even if subjective experienced workload increases
(Slick and Tran, 2005). This can be interpreted as evidence for compensation by
increased effort. However, as a whole our knowledge on the issue of “Impacts of
IVIS on younger drivers” is far from complete thereby indicating a clear need for
more systematic research to further explore this field.
At least for the elderly drivers and the impacts of IVIS and their driving behaviour, results are somewhat more conclusive. The research reviewed in this report
stresses the importance of Human Factors and highlights the relationships
between the design of the Human-Machine Interaction and safety. This resulted
in numerous recommendations on system design and on the functions, providing
special benefits for the elderly, given the documented age-correlated changes in
visual, cognitive and motor functioning. Nevertheless, it needs to be ensured that
those technologies are properly implemented and well accepted by this driver
group in order to realize their benefits.
With regard to professional drivers the situation takes a new dimension of
complexity due to the context of the use of IVIS. Whereas car driving in a private
context implies that systems are implemented and used voluntarily this situation
changes in the context of professional use. Drivers are in most cases not the owners of the vehicles and the decision to equip the vehicle with one or more IVIS
is not taken by them. It became obvious that IVIS use has to be considered as a
part of their work activity which implies that there are less degrees of freedom to
decide if a system is used or not or to make choices according to personal preferences. Consequently the research reviewed in this report had a clear focus on
the work of a professional driver in its organisational context and on how this is
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Discussion and conclusions
influenced by modern information technology in the vehicle. However, none of the
research explicitly addressed the question of the impact of these technologies on
actual driving behaviour from a safety perspective. This seems to be a significant
issue for future research in particular because professional drivers, on the one
hand, seem to be restricted in their choices to use or not use the systems. On the
other hand professional drivers can be expected to be highly experienced drivers, a factor which might diminish the risks arising from “forced” system use. By
the end these considerations have the status of speculations or in the best case
hypotheses which should be validated by future research efforts.
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
83
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107
Authors addresses
Corinne Brusque
Institut National de REcherche sur les Transports et leur Sécurité
Laboratoire Ergonomie et Sciences COgnitives pour les Transports
25 avenue François Mitterrand
Case 24 - 69675 Bron Cedex
France
[email protected]
Marie Pierre Bruyas
Institut National de REcherche sur les Transports et leur Sécurité
Laboratoire Ergonomie et Sciences COgnitives pour les Transports
25 avenue François Mitterrand
Case 24 - 69675 Bron Cedex
France
[email protected]
José Carvalhais
Universidade Técnica de Lisboa (UTL)
Faculdade de Motricidade Humana (FMH)
Estrada da Costa - 1495-688 Cruz Quebrada
Lisboa – Portugal
[email protected]
Mauro Cozzolino
Department of Educational Science
Faculty of Educational Science
University of Salerno
via ponte don Melillo
84084 Fisciano (Salerno)
Italy
[email protected]
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
109
The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
Christhard Gelau
Vehicle Safety Evaluation, Driver Assistance Systems
Bundesanstalt fuer Strassenwesen (BASt)
Bruederstrasse 53
51427 Bergisch Gladbach
Germany
[email protected]
Clemens Kaufmann
FACTUM Chaloupka & Risser OHG
Danhausergasse 6/4
1040 Vienna
Austria
[email protected]
Iva Macku
S15 - Social and Human Aspects of Transport
Centrum dopravního výzkumu (CDV)
Vinohrady 10
639 00 Brno
Czech Republic
[email protected]
Marta Pereira
Universidade Técnica de Lisboa (UTL)
Faculdade de Motricidade Humana (FMH)
Estrada da Costa - 1495-688 Cruz Quebrada
Lisboa – Portugal
[email protected]
Vlasta Rehnová
Social and Human Aspects of Transport
Centrum dopravního výzkumu
Thamova 7
186 00 Praha 8
Czech Republic
[email protected]
110
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
Authors addresses
Ralf Risser
FACTUM Chaloupka & Risser OHG
Danhausergasse 6/4
1040 Vienna
Austria
[email protected]
Karel Schmeidler
S15 - Social and Human Aspects of Transport
Centrum dopravního výzkumu (CDV)
Vinohrady 10
639 00 Brno
Czech Republic
[email protected]
Anabela Simoes
Instituto Superior de Educação e Ciências
Alameda das Linhas de Torres, 179
1750-142 Lisboa
Portugal
[email protected]
Zuzana Simonova
Area Dipartimentale di Psicologia
Azienda Sanitaria Locale Caserta 1
via Renella 60
81100 caserta
Italy
[email protected]
Christine Turetscheck
FACTUM Chaloupka & Risser OHG
Danhausergasse 6/4
1040 Vienna
Austria
[email protected]
INRETS Synthesis n° 54
111
The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on driver behaviour and road safety
Truls Vaa
Institute of Transport Economics
P.O.Box 6110 Etterstad
0602 Oslo
Norway
[email protected]
Jiří Vašek
S15 - Social and Human Aspects of Transport
Centrum dopravního výzkumu (CDV)
Vinohrady 10
639 00 Brno
Czech Republic
[email protected]
Veronika Zehnalová
S15 - Social and Human Aspects of Transport
Centrum dopravního výzkumu (CDV)
Vinohrady 10
639 00 Brno
Czech Republic
Veronica. [email protected]
Imprimé en France – JOUVE, 11 bd de Sébastopol, 75001 Paris
N° 427631F - Dépôt légal : Juin 2007
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INRETS Synthesis n° 54