Chapter - II
REVIEW OF
RELATED LITERATURE
CHAPTER - //
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The search of literature before and after the selection of the problem
developed deep understanding of the subject in which a research scholar intended to
investigate and explore new areas. Recorded knowledge of the past revealed the
problem and also developed understanding of various techniques available for such a
study. By going through the previous studies, the investigator came to know that
similar study had not been conducted before.
It also developed the idea that
contributed to the overall rationale and interpretation of data. These purposes can
only be accomplished by a systematic and thorough study of the available literature.
"The literature in any field forms the foundation upon which all future work
will be built".48
The review of related literature is presented in the following heads:
i.
Studies pertaining to health related physical fitness
ii.
Studies pertaining to yogic practices
iii.
Studies pertaining to psychological variables
STUDIES PERTAINING TO HEALTH RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS
Sallis and others49 selected five hundred and twenty eight healthy fourthgrade children in California city as subjects, to examine the relationship between
habitual physical activity and components of health-related physical fitness in
48
49
J.C.Agarwai, Educational Research (New Delhi: Agra Book Depot, 1975), p.109.
J.F. Sallis, T,I. McKenzie, J.E. Alcaraz, "Habitual Physical Activity and Health-Related Physical
Fitness in Fourth-Grade Children", American Journal Dis. Child, Vol.l47:8 (August 1993),
pp.890-96.
children. The habitual physical activity was examined in relation to measures of five
components of health- related fitness; the mile run, skin-fold tests, pull-ups, sit-ups
and the sit-and-reach test. The physical activity index was significantly associated
with all the five fitness components. They concluded that active children appear to
engage in a sufficient variety of activities to enhance multiple components of health
related fitness.
Fitness levels of American Youth have shown a marked decline in the last
decade according to recent studies. To determine whether such a tendency persisted
among students entering colleges, the authors evaluated 115 male and 143 female
students for performance on the following fitness-related variables: (1) maximal
oxygen consumption (estimated from Astrand Cycling protocol), (2) body
composition (skin-fold techniques), (3) muscle endurance (sit-up protocol), (4)
muscle strength (bench-press protocol) and (5) joint flexibility (upper and lower body
protocols).
Although neither men nor women exhibited high levels of cardio­
respiratory fitness, the women in the study showed higher relative levels than their
male counterparts.
Both groups showed excellent levels of muscle strength
(compared with normative standards), but they achieved only an average standard for
muscle endurance.
Findings of relatively low levels of cardiovascular fitness
compared with levels of muscle strength, particularly in men, seem to be a reflection
of an inappropriate concentration of physical activity.50
50 E.F. Pierce, et.al„ "Fitness Profiles of Activity Patterns of Entering College Students", Journal of
American Coll. Health, Vol. 41:2 (September 1992), pp. 59-62.
21
National health goals included an increase in the physical activity and
physical fitness of school-age children by the year 2000. To assess current fitness
levels in the State of Maine, more than 8000 public school students age five through
nine, were assessed using a nationally known AAHPHERD health-related physical
fitness test. Maine students were then compared with a national norm groups of (1)
the one mile walk/run (Minutes:Seconds), (2) skin fold thickness (centimeters), (3)
one-minute timed sit-ups (number performed correctly) and (4) the sit and reach test
for flexibility (centimeters). Generally, Maine boys and girls scored higher than the
norms on the sit-ups, sit and reach and one-mile walk/run; however, they had
significantly larger skin fold thickness.51
American physicians are now prescribing exercises for patients just as they
would for the drugs.
Compliance with any exercise programme depended on
realizing the needs and goals of the individual. The guidelines for the programme
should include all of the components of health related physical fitness.
These
included cardio respiratory endurance, body composition, muscular strength and
endurance, and flexibility. A programme for exercise should fit the life style of the
patient and be life long prescription.52
The Physical Fitness Index (PFI) determined by the Harvard Step Test (HST)
is one of the most important indices which predicted the physical abilities of athletes.
HST, Cooper's 12-min-run/walk test and one-mile run are good measures of cardio
respiratory fitness. In the present study, the scholar had attempted to determine the
51 H.R.Lehnhard, et.al,. "Health-Related Physical Fitness Levels of Elementary School Children
Ages 5-9”, Perceptual Motor Skills., Voi. 75:3 (December 1992), pp. 819-26.
52 D.Petrie et.al. "Prescribing Exercise for Your Patient", Medline Journal, Vol. 45:8 (August 1996),
pp. 632-37.
22
relationship between HST and one-mile run in an open field on thirty one school boys
of a rural village, 14-15 years of age, who were in early puberty. The mean HST
score was 90 + 7.07, and one-mile running time was 443.45 + 29.82 seconds. There
is a high correlation between HST and running time (r = 0.94). Probable running
time for one-mile may be determined from the HST score by using the regression
equation: Running time in s = 783 - 4 * HST + 0.13 (SE of estimate).53
Exercise and physical conditioning of physical fitness play an important role
in disease prevention. The three primary components of physical conditioning are
endurance, flexibility and strength training.
Like adults, adolescents can improve
their aerobic fitness by doing aerobic activity with achievement of 60 % to 90% of
the maximum heart rate for a minimum of 20 minutes at least three times per week.
Flexibility should involve major muscle groups, using static stretching only and be
individually tailored for different sports. Strength training is associated with strength
gains in adolescents and is safe when supervised by knowledgeable adults into
adulthood.54
The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) recommended the use of
40%, 60%, 80%, and 85% of maximal oxygen consumption (V02 max) as target
values in developing exercise prescriptions. Further the ACSM stated that 55%, 70%,
85% and 90% of maximal heart rate (HR max) might be used as indices of these
respective levels of % V02 max for the general population.
The current study
evaluated this relationship between %HR max and %V02 max in apparently healthy,
53 S.Machanta, A.M. Chandra and N. Sadhu, "Inter-Relation of One Mile Running Time and HST
Score Among Rural School Boys", Journal of Humman Ergot, Tokyo, Vol.23:l (June 1994), pp.
51-57.
54 J.S.Purcell and A.C. Hergenroeder, "Physical Conditioning in Adolescents", Cur. opin. Pediatr.,
Vol. 6:4 (August 2000), pp. 373-8.
23
young adults. Eighty-one men and eighty-one women between the ages of 18 and 34
engaged in an incremental exercise test to exhaustion. Linear regressions of %HR
max and %V02 max were performed on each subject. From these regressions, target
values of %HR max were computed for each individual. Mean percentage of %HR
max were 63%, 76%, 89% and 92% at 40%, 60%, 80%, and 85% of V02 max,
respectively. At all these values of % V02 max, the values obtained for %HR max
were significantly greater (P < 0.001) than those used by ACSM. Fitness affected
these results, particularly among men. High fit men averaged 2% higher in HR max
than low fit men at any given value of VO 2 max.55
The combination of frequency, intensity and duration of chronic exercise has
been found to be effective. In general, the lower the stimulus the lower the training
effect and the greater the stimulus the greater the effect. As a result of specification
of training and the need for maintaining muscular strength and endurance and
flexibility of the major muscle groups, a well-rounded training programme including
resistance training and flexibility exercises is recommended. Although age in itself
was not a limited factor to exercise training, a more gradual approach in applying the
prescription at older ages seemed prudent. It had also been shown that endurance
training of fewer than 2 days per a week at less than 50% of maximum oxygen uptake
and for less than 10 minutes per a day, was inadequate for developing and
maintaining fitness for healthy adults. In the interpretation of this position statement,
it must be recognized that the recommendations should be used in the context of
participant's needs, goals and initial abilities. In this regard, a sliding scale as to the
55 D.P.Swain, et.ah. "Target Heart Rates for the Development of Cardio-Respiratory Fitness",
Medical Science and Sports Exercise., Voi. 26:1 (January 2001), pp.l 12-6.
24
amount of time allotted and intensity of effort should be carefully gauged for both the
cardio respiratory and muscular strength and endurance components of the
programme. An appropriate warm-up and cool-down which would include flexibility
exercises, is also recommended.56
The initial scores of kabaddi players were measured for the selected physical
fitness components. After giving six weeks training on physical exercises, tests were
conducted in physical fitness components, namely, endurance, flexibility, muscular
strength, shoulder strength and speed. The post test scores of the subjects were
compared with the pre test scores. From these findings, it was concluded that the
physical exercises significantly improve the physical fitness components - flexibility
and muscular strength as measured through sit and reach test, shoulder strength by
pull ups test and speed by 50 metres run test.57
Leshkevitch and others58 studied the influence of sequence of exercises in
training undertakings in the development of physical foundations of speed, strength
and endurance in young sportsmen. Three groups of boys, 12-14 years were given
physical training for four times a week for three months to determine the effect of
sequence of exercise.
The observed changes were noted in speed, strength and
endurance.
56" The Recommended Quantity and Quality of Exercise for Developing and Maintaining
Cardiorespiratory and Muscular Fitness in Healthy Adults. Position Stand of the American
College of Sports Medicine", Schwie:-:-Sports medicine., Vol.41:3 (September 1993), pp. 127-37.
57 P.K.Manimaran, “Effect of Physical Exercises on Selected Physical Fitness Components of
University Kabaddi players”, M.Phil Dissertation (Madras: University of Madras, August, 1998).
58 C.C.Leshkevith, et.aL "The Influence of Sequence of Exercise in Training Undertakings in the
Development of the Physiological Foundations of Speed, Strength and Endurance of Young
Sportsmen", Research Quarterly, Vol. 83:2 (October 1982), p.500.
Travis59 and others found that exercise increases strength, endurance and
mind-body coordination gradually, without the negative effects of the stress/ recovery
cycle.
Sharpe and Liemohn60 conducted a study on low back functioning. In the
study it was concluded that the sit and reach exercise was the effective means for
increasing low back functioning and trunk range of motion.
In 1980 the AAHPERD health related fitness test measured back hamstring
flexibility. Eight hundred and twenty five young females were administered two
trials of three tests.
The measurements included the sit and reach test, passive
hamstring flexibility. The correlation between the sit and reach test and total back
flexibility and lower back flexibility were low. These findings indicated the sit and
reach test had moderate criteria related validity when used as an assessment of
hamstring flexibility in the health- related fitness test.61
The study described changes over two years in different physical fitness
measures and the relationship between their changes in physical activity. Maximal
aerobic work capacity (Watt max), functional strength, muscular endurance, agility
and flexibility were measured in 259 randomly selected high school boys and girls of
16.5 years of age and followed-up two years later, while they still attended school.
Most physical fitness measures increased over time in boys and in girls an increase
59 F.Travis, etal.. "Invincible Athletics Program: Aerobic Exercise and Performance Without Strain”,
International Journal ofNeuroscience, Vol.85:3 (April 1999), pp.301-308.
60 Gina L.Sharpe and Wendell P. Liemohn, "Exercise Prescription and the Low Back", Journal of
Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (November - December 1988), p.77.
61 Allen W. Jackson and Alice A. Baker, "The Relationship of the Sit and Reach Test the Criterion
Measures to Hamstring and Back Flexibility in Young Females", Research Quarterly, Vol. 57:3
(November 1986), p.183.
was found in arm extension strength and trunk extension endurance, but Wattmax per
kg body mass decreased. The physical fitness level in adolescents is so high that only
physical activity at high relative intensity was supposed to have an effect on the
fitness level.62
Study estimated the difficulty of various sit-ups test using an Item Response
Theory (IRT) model and the Rash Passion counts model. Scores were obtained on
eighteen sit-ups tests. The difficulty values of the test ranged from -4.02 to -3.57.
Safrit63 and other concluded that most tests had good fit values.
Gregory64 found that interval training and continuous training were equally
effective in developing endurance when total workload was equal. Garote65 reported
significant increase in the strength and endurance of the abdominal muscles of the
females as a result of a selected routine of yogic exercises for a period of three weeks.
Muscular endurance performance was influenced by the strength of the
individual.66 Isotonic exercises were more effective than isometric exercises in the
development of muscular endurance.67
62 L.B.Anderson, "Changes in Physical Activity are Reflected in Changes in Fitness during Late
Adolescence", Journal ofSports Medicine and Physical Fitness, Vol. 34:4 (December 1994), pp.
390-97.
63 M.J.Safrit, et.al.. "The Difficulty in Sit-ups Test; an Empirical Investigation", Research Quarterly
and Exercise Sport, Vol. 63:(3 (September 1992), pp.277-83.
64 Larry W. Gregory, "The Development of Aerobic Capacity, A Comparison of Continuous and
Interval Training", Research Quarterly, Vol. 50 (May 1979), p.199.
65 M.L.Gharote, "Effect of Yogic Exercises on the Strength and Endurance of the Abdominal
Muscles of the Females", Vyayam Vindyan, Vol. 4: (1970), pp. 11-13.
66 W.W.Tuttle and others, "Relation of Maximum Back and Leg Strength to Back and Leg Strength
Endurance", Research Quarterly, Vol.26: (March, 1955), pp. 96-106.
67 Joseph Wallace, "The Development of Muscular Strength and Muscular Endurance Through
Isotonic and Isometric Exercises" Journal ofPhysical Education, Vol. 14:(1958), pp. 3-9.
Rarick68 and Dorothy and others69 reported that agility seemed to be
fundamental to skill in certain sports activities. Mohr and Haverstick™ found
significant associations between volleying skill in volleyball and agility.
Espenschade71 noted that both boys and girls increase in agility performance
upto fourteen years of age, after which girls seem to decline while boys rapidly gain
in agility performance.
Circuit training is an effective organisational form of doing physical exercises
for improving all physical fitness components. Before and after training, the initial
and final tests were conducted for the variables such as speed, agility, power, co­
ordination, static balance and dynamic balance for the experimental and control
groups. Circuit training was given for eight weeks for alternate days. The study
showed that the skill related fitness components such as speed, agility, coordination,
power, static balance and dynamic balance were significantly improved due to circuit
training among college men soccer players. The maximum improvement attained at
the sixth week of training.72
68 Rarick, Lawrence, "An Analysis of the Speed Factor in Simple Athletic Events," Research
Quarterly, Vol. 8: (December 1937), p.89.
69 Dorothy, Beise and Virginia Peasely, "The Relation of Reaction Time, Speed and Agility of Big
Muscle Groups to Certain Sports Skills", Research Quarterly, Vol.18: (March 1937), p.18,
70 Dorothy R.Mohr and Martha L. Haverstick, "Relationship Between Height, Jumping, Agility and
Ability to Volley ball Skill", Research Quarterly, Vol.27; (March 1956), p.74.
71 Anna Espenschade,"Development of Motor Co-ordination in Boys and Girls", Research
Quarterly, Vol.18: (March 1947), pp. 30-43.
72 R.Thirumalasamy, Paper presented in International Conference at Haryana Agricultural University
(16-18 January, 1995).
28
In the past it was generally believed that agility was almost entirely dependent
upon one's heritage; however, measurement and research revealed that it could be
improved through practice, training and instruction.73
Meadows74 found that both isotonic and isometric exercises improved speed
of movement, while Crowder75 reported isotonic and isometric exercises produced
significant improvement in reaction time.
To examine exercise as a therapy for people with osteoporosis moderate
physical activity improve fitness and overall quality of life and it improves bone
mass, muscular strength and endurance. These recommendations were developed by
the scientific Advisory Board of the Osteoporosis Society of Canada at its 1995
Consensus Conference.76
The relation of habitual physical activity to various components of healthrelated fitness as well as the twelve-month repeatability of the measurements was
investigated in middle-aged men. Rauramaa77 and others found that habitual physical
activity associated beneficially to cardio respiratoiy fitness, body fat and other
essential components of health-related fitness in middle-aged men.
73 Barry LJohnson, Isometric Strength Tests (Louisiana: State College, 1966).
74 P.E.Meadows, "The Effect of Isotonic and Isometric Muscle Contraction Training on Speed, Force
and Strength" Completed Research, Vol. 2:1 (1959).
75 Venor R. Crowder, "A Comparison of the Effects of Two Methods of Strength Training of
Reaction Time", Completed Research, Vol. 2:1(1959).
76 J.C.Prior, et.al.. "Physical Activity as Therapy for Osteoporosis", Canada Medical Association
Journal, Vol. 155:7 (October 1996), pp.940-44.
77 R.Rauramaa, et.al.. "Physical Activity and Health Related Fitness in Middle-aged Men", Midline
Science Sports Exercise, Vol. 27:5 (May 1995), pp.707-12.
29
Eighty students of certificate course in physical education were studied to
investigate the effect of physical training programme on body composition.
percentage was calculated from the skin-folds measurements.
Fat
Physical training
programme was administered so as to improve strength, speed and cardio-respiratory
endurance.
Gill and Brar78 found that the percentage of body fat of students at
college level reduced significantly as a result of twelve weeks training. The control
group did not show any significant change in body fat percentage.
Stemfeld and others79 found that increased fitness was associated with
decreased high density lipo-protein cholestrol and conversely increased fitness was
associated with increased high density lipoprotein cholesterol.
Ranga Reddy80 found that the physical exercises group showed a significant
difference in reducing body fat over that of yogic practices.
The influence of exercise training on body composition changes in children
was examined in terms of muscle, bone and fat development. Because of the excess
fat, body composition methodologies in general use and on over-reliance on the two
components system-fat and fat-free body- the extent of changes especially for muscle
and bone with exercise training had not been well qualified.
With the recent
development of new methodologies these limitations might be overcome.
The
78 Jagtar Singh Gill and B. S. Brar, "Effects of Physical Training Programme in Body-composition of
College Male and Female Students", Indian Journal of Sports Science and Physical Education,
Vol. 6:1 (January 1994), p.9
79
B.Stemfeld, et.al. “Seven-year Changes in Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Lipo Profile
in the CARD1A study” Ann Epidenol, Vol. 9: 1 (January, 2001), pp. 25-33.
80
M.Ranga Reddy, "Effect of Selected Yogic Practices and Physical Exercises on Obese Children",
Doctoral dissertation (Submitted to the University of Madras, October 1994).
30
relationship of body composition to health-related fitness was also explored with an
emphasis on establishing fitness standards for body fatness and the need for research
on the etiology of lower back pain and osteoporosis.81
In case of body composition variables as a result of three different modes of
training employed in the present study, it was observed that combination of yoga and
physical education programme had produced the best result so far as increasing in
lean body mass, reduction in fat percentage. Thus, there was reduction in total body
weight.82
Tanaka83 in his study investigated the relative effects on spot reduction of two
types of exercises, one representing the anaerobic and other representing the aerobic
model. The aerobic exercise resulted in a four per cent decrease in the percent of
body fat. Approximately one-inch loss in waist girth for the joggers/runners.
Anaerobic treatment showed no effect.
Kenney84 found that high intensity training is better than low intensity
training for improving max V02 on a treadmill; that male were significantly different
from females for body fat reduction using Nautilus equipment. Results of Boyd's85
81 T.G.Lohman, "Exercise, Training and Body Composition in Childhood" Canadian Journal of
Sports Science (Department of Exercise and Sports Sciences, University of Arizona, Vol. 17: 4,
December, 1999), pp. 284-287.
82 Mahamaya Chowdhury, "Anthropometric and Physiological Changes Resulting from Participation
of Physical Education and Yoga Programme", Doctoral Dissertation (Submitted to the Jiwaji
University, Gwalior, 1990).
83 James H. Tanaka, "The Effects of Anaerobic and Aerobic Exercise on Body Composition",
Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 49:7 (January 1989), p. 1733-A.
84 J.W.Kenney, "Selected Physiological Changes in Males and Females after Three Months of
Variable Resistance Training and Circuit Weight Training", Dissertation Abstracts International,
Vol. 46: (1986), p.3650.
85 Boyd, John Me Mechen, "The Physiological Effects of Two Variable Resistance Weight Training
Programmes on Male and Female Age 16-23", Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 44:
1983), p. 1375.
31
study on Body composition indicated significant increase in body density and lean
body weight. The male groups decreased more significantly than females in body fat
and body weight. Skin-folds measurements showed significant decrease in Triceps
(all groups) and Biceps (all groups except male endurance measurements).
Jokl86 found, when he studied adolescent boys and girls in a five-month daily
physical training programme, the change in body composition - a significant increase
in active tissue and decrease in excess fat at the conclusion of the training
programme.
The control group, made up of subjects not given to exercise
programme, did not experience such changes.
The purpose of Erber's87 study was to determine the effects of a prescribed
exercise programme on the body composition of young adult men. More specifically,
the study attempted to determine the changes, if any, which occurred in body weight,
body density and percentage of total body fat during a ten-week circuit training
programme.
Wilmore and associates88 in their study showed changes in physique for men
aged 17 to 59 years who jogged three days a week for ten weeks. Body composition
changes did occur but they were relatively small. Because lean body weight did not
change, the decrease in body weight was due to a reduction in percentage body fat
86 Ernest Jokl, "Physical Activity and Body Composition: Fitness and Fatness", Annals of the New
York Academy ofSciences, Vol. 110: (1963), p.178.
87 Stephen P. Erber, "The Effects of Specific Exercise Programme on die Body Composition of
Young Adult Males", Research Abstracts, Vol. 45;2 (1969).
88 J.H.Wilmore, et.al.. "Body Composition Changes With a 10 Weeks Program of Jogging",
Medicine and Science ofSports, Vol.2 (1970), p.1330.
from pre test (18.9 %) to post test (17.8%) values, which represented a fat loss of 1.07
kg. The reduction in individual skin-folds values paralleled the decrease in body fat.
Saopinich89 conducted a study on the effect of detraining on cardio respiratory
endurance in female high school Basketball players.
In this study twenty-one
subjects were administered the Skumnen and Rhyming Step Tests. Once in each
week for six weeks, following completion of the basket ball season. Although no
significant differences were found between heart rate response of the subjects on
either test consistently, significant increase in heart rate were recorded during min
1,2, and 3 of recovery from each tests throughout the detraining period.
STUDIES PERTAINING TO YOGIC PRACTICES
Yoga therapy is the only way to perfect health. It strengthens and activates
the natural resistance of the body and mind.90 In a group of forty physical education
teachers the completion of three months of yoga training produced significant
improvement in general health and also evidence of decreased autonomic arousal and
more of psycho-physiological relaxation (heart rate and respiratory rate reaction) and
improved somatic steadiness (decreased errors in the steadiness test).91
89
Saopinich Jana, "The Effects of Training on Cardiovascular Endurance in Female High School
Basketball Players", Completed Research, Vol. 14 (1972), p. 210.
90
R.Andiyappan, Yoga Therapy (Madras: Bharathi Pathipagam, 1998), p. 33.
91 S.Teller, et.al.. "Physiological Changes in Sports Teachers Following 3 Months of Training of
Yoga", Indian Journal ofMedical Science., Vol. 47:10 (October 1993), pp.235-38.
Khan92 stated that yoga as a unique measure to maintain their fitness in an
easy and better way, regarding maintenance of physical fitness among the adults had
been proved positive. Moorthy93 reported that experiment evidence showed that yogic
practices helped to improve the physical fitness significantly.
Gharote94 evaluated the effect of three weeks yogic training programme
recommended for yogic training in the NFC syllabus on the different fitness factors
were measured by the Fleishman Battery of Fitness Tests.
When the scores of
different tests were converted into an overall fitness index Gharote found that three
weeks of yoga training caused statistically significant positive changes in the fitness
index for both males and females.
Moorthy95 made a comparison of the influence of selected yogic exercises
and physical exercises on the minimum muscular fitness of the school children of age
group six to eleven years. Kraus-Weber tests of minimum muscular fitness were used
to determine the minimum muscular fitness of the school children and training was
given on eight stretching procedure as suggested by Devries as physical exercise and
yogic asanas as yogic exercises. He concluded that yogic exercises and physical
92 K. Khan, Paper presented in International Conference on Health, Sport and Physical Fitness
(Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar, January 16-18,1995).
93 A.M.Moorthy, "Yoga and Sports", Souvenir, First International and Sixth National Conference of
Sports Psychology (25-27 February, 1991).
94 M.L.Gharote, "Effect of Yogic Training on Physical Fitness", Yoga Mimamsa, Vol.l5:4 (1973),
pp.31-35.
95 A,M.Moorthy, "Survey of Minimum Muscular Fitness of the School Children of Age Group 6 to
11 Years and Comparison of the Influence of Selected Yogic Exercises mid Physical Exercises on
them", Unpublished PhD. Thesis, Submitted to University of Poona (December 1980).
exercises contributed significantly to improve the minimum muscular fitness of the
children.
One thousand students were selected at random as subjects and health related
fitness tests were conducted on them. The selected students were further divided at
random into three groups namely, control group, physical exercises and yogic
practices group. AAHPER health related physical fitness test was administered to
find out their physical fitness levels before and after the treatment of experimental
variables for eight-weeks. Analysis of covariance for interpreting the results was
used. It was concluded that yogic and physical exercises groups had significantly
improved the health related physical fitness. When the yogic exercise group was
compared with physical exercise group, yogic exercises group had significantly
improved the health related physical fitness than the physical exercise group. And the
yogic practices group had significantly decreased the body fat than the physical
exercise group.96
Krishnan97 studied the effect of selected yogic practices upon the
development of flexibility. This study was conducted in the subjects selected from
the YMCA College of Physical Education, Madras, Tamil Nadu State. The result
showed a good improvement in flexibility after training in yogic practices. In another
study investigating the effects of a nine week yogic training programme on physically
96
N. Grace Helina, “Effect of Yogic Practices and Physical Exercises on Fitness”, Paper
Presented at National Seminar (Karaikudi: 20 June, 1999).
97
K.Krishnan, "The Effect of Selected Yogic Exercises upon the Development of Flexibility”,
Unpublished Master's Thesis (Submitted to the University of Madras, 1977), p.40.
35
conditioned young males Gharote and Ganguly98 reported similar significant
improvement in the physical fitness index derived from Fleishman Battery of basic
fitness tests as a result of yogic training programme. The gain in extent flexibility
was particularly highly significant in the experimental group undergoing yogic
training.
Robson99 studied "the effect of yoga on flexibility and respiratory measures of
vital capacity and breath hold time". His major conclusion was that both flexibility
and vital capacity could be improved by yogic exercises.
Nine weeks training in yogic physical culture was helpful to improve general
physical fitness level for nine cadet police who were already conditioned to physical
activities as against control group of forty nine engaged only in school schedule as
judged through:
(a) Fleishman basic fitness test (b) Curetons flexibility test (c) skinfolds and Harvard
Step Test. The improvement was more significant in flexibility.100
Static stretching procedures in the form of asanas were evaluated by De
Vries101 improvement in flexibility. Selected subjects were divided into two groups.
98
99
M.C.Gharote, and S.K. Ganguly, "Effects of a Nine-week Yogic Training Programme on some
Aspects of Physical Fitness of Physically Conditioned Young Males", Indian Journal of Medical
Sciences, Vol.33:t0 (October 1979), pp.258-263.
M.Robson, "Effects of Yoga on Flexibility and Respiratory Measures of Vital Capacity and Breath
Holding Time", Vyayam (1974).
100 M.L.Gharote, and S.K. Ganguly, "Assessment of Yoga Training to Police", The Indian Police
Journal(1973), pp.34-43.
101 H.A. De Vries, "Evaluation of Static Stretching Procedures for Improvement of Flexibility",
Research Quarterly, Vol.33:2 (March 1992), pp.222-229.
36
One group was trained by static stretching method and the other by conventional
ballistic methods of stretching for seven periods of thirty minutes each. Both the
groups made statistically significant gains when measured by the Cureton's flexibility
tests. However, he remarked that the static stretching method of Hathayoga seemed
preferable because ballistic stretching methods had been commonly recognized as
causing muscular soreness in the unconditioned person. Earlier evidence by De
Varies102 presented some degree of prevention and or relief from muscular distress by
the practice of static stretching method of Hathayoga. Bury103 has also suggested the
use of yogic exercises in the prevention of accidents and injuries.
Swamy Kuvalayanda104 also made a claim that asanas, especially.
Salabhasana and Mayurasana are very effective in bringing about improved
respiratory function by strengthening the respiratory muscles and by keeping the lung
tissue elastic.
In the heart rate the gymnastic group was superior to that of yoga group and
both the experimental groups were found to be significantly better than that of control
group.105
102 H.A.De Vries, "Prevention of Muscular Distress After Exercise", Research Quarterly, Vol. 32
(1961), pp. 177-185.
103 H.C.Bury, "Athletic Fitness: Its Role in Prevention of Accidents and Injuries", Practitioner, Vol.
206 (1971), pp. 227-233.
104 Swamy Kuvalayanda, Asanas (Bombay: Popular Prakasam, 1971), p.16.
105
Uma Datta, "Comparative Effect of Yoga and Gymnastic Programmes on Growth Pattern of
Primary School Children", Dissertation (Submitted to the Jiwaji University, Gwalior, 1993).
37
Sharma106 conducted a programme on Ujjayi and Bhastrika for forty- five
minutes in three spells in morning for three months on 150 school children affected
by exposure to M.I.C. Gas.
Resting pulse rate, vital capacity, blood pressure,
hemoglobin percentage and cardio respiratory function as measured by Harvard step
test increased to normal rate.
According to Shaver,107 endurance training tends to lower the resting heart
rate (Brady Cardiac). For instance, in highly trained athletes may be as low or lower
than 40-45 beats per minute on the other hand, in healthy but untrained subjects
resting heart rates may be as high as 90 to 100 beats per minute. Thus the trained
subject is generally characterized as having a low resting heart rate and the untrained
as a high resting heart rate.
Gore and others108 reported reduction in respiratory rate as an acute effect of
ten minutes of Kapalabhati.
Hatha Yoga has become increasingly popular in western countries. This is
known about the physiological and psychological effects of yoga practice. Schell109
and others found that the course of heart rate was significantly different, the yoga
group had a decrease during the yoga practice.
106 A.K.Sharma, "Case Control Study on Effect of Yoga on Cardio Respiratory Performance of
School Children to M.I.C. Gas in Bhopal Town", NCSM - '95, Souvenir (Tirunelveli:
August, 1995).
23-25
107 Larry C. Shaver, Essentials of Exercise Physiology (Delhi: Surjeet Publications, 1981), p.84.
108
M.M.Gore, et.al.. "Effect of 10 Minute of Kapalabhati on some Physiological Function", Yoga
Mimansa, Vol. XXVIII: 3 (1989), pp.1-10.
109
FJ.Schell, B. Ailolio and O.W.Schonecke, "Physiological and Psychological Effects of HathaYoga Exercise in Healthy Women", International Journal of Psychosom, Vol.414 (1994), pp.46-52
38
Arun110 found that although both yogic and non yogic groups showed
significant improvement in the cardio respiratory endurance after experimental
period, between the two groups, yoigc group showed greater improvement.
Gopal"1 reported that subjects who were trained for six months in Yoga
demonstrated a lower heart rate during the performance of a variety of yoga practices
than those who performed them without previous training.
Krishnakanthan112 conducted a study to compare the training effects of
pranayama and running on selected physiological and psychological variables.
Measurements in the criterion variables were taken at the beginning and conclusion
of an experimental period of ten weeks. He concluded that the training effects of
Pranayama were significantly greater than that of running with respect to respiratoiy
rate, pulse rate and anxiety level all of which have health orientation.
STUDIES PERTAINING TO PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES
Forty eight medallist and forty eight non-medallist boxers were selected as
subjects, Sports Competition Anxiety Test questionnaire was prepared by Martens to
obtain data to find out the significant difference between medallist and non­
medallists. Factorial Design Analysis of Variance and Scheffe's Post-hoc test were
110
Arun Nathuji Khodaskar, "Normative Study of the Cant Ability in Male Kabaddi Players and
Comparison of the Effects of Selected Yogic and Non-Yogic Exercises on the Cardio-Respiratory
Endurance and Cant Ability", Doctoral Dissertation (Submitted to the University of Nagpur,
October 1989).
1,1
K.S.Gopal, V. Anantharam, S.D. Nighith, and O.P. Bhatnagar, "The Effect of Yogasanas on
Muscular Tone and Cardio-Respiratory Adjustments", Yoga Life, Vol.6:5 (May 1975), pp. 3-11.
112
S.Krishnakanthan, "Training Effects of Pranayama and Running", Ph.D.Dissertation (Submitted to
University of Madras, December, 1996).
used. Om Prakash Bhadana and Tirumalai swamy113 found that there was significant
difference in anxiety level between medallist and non medallist groups.
Due to non-participation of the youth in regular physical activities, the
physical fitness of the general population was slowly decreasing resulting increase in
anxiety and depression. Heart disease and spinal disorders are increasing."4
Miller and others115 found that an intensive but time-limited group stress
reduction intervention based on mindfulness meditation could have long-term
beneficial effects in the treatment of people diagnosed with anxiety disorders.
The
aerobic exercise
training
was
beneficial
to
prevent physical
reconditioning without inducing adverse effects on an individual's joints and general
health. A dance-based exercise programme is a safe and efficient activity to improve
physical fitness and psychological state in persons with rheumatoid arthritis. A group
of nineteen persons (mean age, 49.3+13 year) was put on a twelve week exercise
programme (twice weekly), whereas ten persons (mean age 49.4 + 12 yr) served as
controls. After the twelve- week training programme Noreak116 and others found
positive changes in depression, anxiety, fatigue and tension were observed.
113 Om Prakash Bhadana and R. Thirumalai Swamy, "Comparative Analysis of Anxiety Between
Medalist and Non Medalist of National Level Boxers", Paper presented in International
Conference (Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar, January 16 -18, 1995).
114 Jose James, "Physical fitness - Issues and Problems", Paper presented (Haryana Agriculture
University, Hisar(16-18 January 16-18, 1995).
115 JJ.Miiler, K.Fletcher and J. Rabat Zinn, "Three Year Follow-up and Clinical Implications of a
Mindfulness Meditation - Based Stress Reduction Intervention in the Treatment of Anxiety
Disorders", Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry, Vol. 17:3 (May 2000), pp.192-200.
116 Noreak Fields "Teaching the Gentle Way to Labour", Nurs. Times, Vol. 91:6 (8-14 February,
1995), pp.44-45.
Jambor117 and others found that the duration of eight weeks participation both
the aqua running exercise and quiet rest sessions could be associated with anxiety.
The effects of circuit weight training on perceived stress, job satisfaction and
physical symptoms were investigated in sample of state law enforcement officers.
Forty three male officers who were regularly exercising were assigned for four
months of circuit weight training which led to a significant increase in strength on
cardiovascular fitness, improvements in mood, including decreases in anxiety,
depression and hostility.118
After completion of a 12 week aerobic fitness programme, 82 adult
participants completed the Back Depression Inventory, profile of mood status, state
level Anxiety Inventory and the Tennessee Self-concept scale, physiological measure
used to assess changes in aerobic fitness were maximal work load, sub maximal heart
rate at a standard work load, predicted maximum oxygen uptake and resting heart
rate. Exercise participants experienced a positive fitness change and psychological
improvement over the initial 12-week programme compared to a control group. At
one year follow up, physiological and psychological benefits remained significantly
improved from base line. Overall, results indicate that exercise induced increases in
117
E.AJambor, et.aL "Association Among Fitness Components, Anxiety, and Confidence Following
Aerobic Training in Aqua Running", Perceptual Motor Skills, Vol. 78:2 (April 1994), pp. 595-602.
118 N.Norvwell and D. Belles, "Psychological and Physical Benefits of Circuit Weight Training in
Low Enforcement Personnel", Journal of Consulting Clinical Psychology, Vol.61:3 (June 1993),
pp.520-27.
41
aerobic fitness have beneficial short term and long term effects on psychological
outcomes.119
The twelve-month effects of exercise training on psychological outcomes in
adults aged 50-60 years were evaluated. The trainees showed reductions in perceived
stress and anxiety in relation to controls.
Regardless of programme assignment,
greater exercise participation was significantly independent of changes in fitness. It
was concluded that neither a group format nor a vigorous activity was essential in
attaining psychological benefits from exercise training as healthy adults.120
Several researchers have investigated the effects of jogging on the state and
Trait Anxiety. Battacharya and Roberts121 conducted a study on adults assigned in
jogging. They concluded that the joggers became significantly more fit than the
others, but there was no reduction in anxiety.
Seveir122 determined from an administrative stand point of view that there
were changes in selected factors of physical fitness and personality in a group of adult
women following participation in a six-week programme of aerobic dancing. The
subjects were administered the YMCA physical fitness test and three psychological
119 TM Dilorenzo, et.al. “Long Term Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Psychological Outcomes”
Completed Research, Vol. 28: l(Jan, 2001), pp. 75-85.
120 A.C.King, C.B. Taylor and W.L.Hoskell, "Effects of Differing Intensities and Formats of 12
Months of Exercise Training on Psychological Outcomes in Older Adults", Health Psychology,
Vol. 12:4 (July 1993), pp. 292-300.
121
Barid B. Bhattachaiya and Glyn C. Roberts, "The Effects of a Self-Monitored Jogging Programme
on Anxiety", Paper presented, (First International and Sixth National conference on Sports
Psychology, Delhi University, February 25 to 27, 1991).
122
Vernon Alvin Sevier, "An Administrative Study of the Effects of Aerobic Dancing on Selected
Physical Fitness and Personality Variables", Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 40 (January
1980), p. 3874-A.
42
inventory prior to the participation in the programme. Results indicated that the
subjects improved significantly in five areas of physical fitness and showed
significant changes in four factors of personality, muscular strength, muscular
endurance, dominance, share of well being and capacity to create a good impression.
Parks123 undertook a study to determine the effects of ten weeks physical
fitness programme on selected physiological and psychological variables of elderly
fifteen females of 65 to 82 years.
Pre and post measurements were obtained for
psychological variables. Body composition, flexibility, heart rate and blood pressure
were measured. The subjects participated in the fitness programme half an hour in
the morning three days a week for ten weeks. Each exercise session began with a ten
minutes warming up followed by fifteen minutes of exercise of moderate intensity.
The last five minutes were used as cooling-off period. The 'f test was employed to
analyze the data. The following significant changes were found:
(1) The subjects decreased in percentage of body weight. (2) There was an increase in
flexibility. (3) There was a decrease in heart rate. (4) Anxiety levels of subjects were
observed.
Donoghue and Raphael124 in their study tested existing theory concerning the
effects of fitness on self-concept for females.
Fifty-eight females were tested on
measures of fitness, self-concept, body esteem, and perception of fitness. Regression
was used to test the fit of the model representing existing theory that fitness affected
self-concept indirectly through perception of fitness. It was concluded that fitness
123 Charles James Parks, "The Effect of Physical Fitness Programme on Body Composition,
Flexibility, Heart Rate, Blood Pressure and Anxiety Level of Citizens", Dissertation Abstract
International, Vol. 41 (July 1980), p. 157-A.
I24. Donoghue and K. Raphael, "A Casual Analysis of the Inter Relationship Among Physical Fitness,
Body Esteem, Perception of Fitness and Self-concept for Female Participants of Non Competitive
Sports”, Dissertation Abstract International, Voi.50 (February 1990), p.2424-A.
43
might not have a direct effect on females self -concept. The effects were better seen in
subject’s perception of fitness and levels of body esteem.
Gill and Rao125 conducted a study of self-concept and physical fitness among
169 students of classes IX and X of the Manibai Gujarati Multi purpose Higher
Secondary School, Amaravati city. The age level of the subjects was thirteen to
eighteen years. The physical fitness of subject was measured by AAHPER Youth
Fitness Battery (1973). Pearson's correlation coefficients were computed between
composite scores of physical fitness and self-concept. The correlation between scores
of physical fitness and self-concept were found to be very low in this study. This
might be due to low level of physical fitness in the subjects of this study.
The correlation co-efficient between self-concept and physical fitness was
found insignificant at 0.05 level among sports participants among college women and
it was found significant among non-sports participants among college women.126
Steefani Spilman127 established a study to compare self-concept among
students in relation to their physical fitness motor ability and an over all physical
performance. This study included 665 girls in grade five, seven and ten as subjects.
The subjects were classified into higher and low physical fitness groups according to
grade level. The subject's who have scored the top 25% of all subjects tested were
considered as high fitness group. The subjects who had scored the bottom 25% of all
125 Jagtar Singh Gill and V.S.S.M. Rao, "Relationship Between Self-concept and Physical Fitness", In
Jitendra Mohan (Ed)., Psychology ofSports (Delhi: Friends Publication, 1993), pp.176-189.
126
Subrata Chakrborty, "Analysis of Self-concept, Movement-Concept and Physical Fitness Among
Sports Participants and Non-Sports Participants", M.Phil. Dissertation (Alagappa University,
Karaikudi, July 1994), p.94.
127
Steefani Spilman, "The Effect of Increasing Physical Fitness Level on Louis of Control, Self
Concept and Reported Changes in Life Styles", Ph.D. Dissertation (University of Georgia, 1985).
44
subjects tested were considered as low physical fitness group. The analysis of data
revealed that no significant difference was identified when comparing self concept
among students in relation to the physical fitness, motor ability and composite score
in fifth seventh and tenth grade girls.
Schendel!28 conducted a study on athletes and non-athletes and conducted that
at both the athletes displayed more positive personal and social self-concept than the
non-athletes.
Mavilyn129 studied the self-concept of non-athletes and athletes. The result
showed that participants in physical activities in high school competitive programme
scored higher in self -concept scale than those who do not participate.
Jolly Roy130 found Gymnasts as a group showed higher self-perception scores
on behavioral conduct, global self-worth and scholastic competence. Age of gymnast
had no significant effect on perceived athletic competence.
Young131 reported significant correlation between various sub-scales scores of
Tennesee Self-concept Scale. A significant relationship between self-concept and
physical fitness was indicated for seventh grade boys but not for girls or ninth grade
boys.
128 J.Schendel, "Psychological Differences Between Athletes and Non-Athletes at Three
Educational Levels", Research Quarterly, Vol.36 (1965), pp. 52-57.
129
F.Mavilyn, "Comparison of Self Concept of College Women Athletes and Physical Education
Majors", Research Quarterly, Vol.47 (1976), pp. 218-225
130 Jolly Roy, "Self-Perception Profile of Gymnastic Children", NIS Scientific Journal, Voi. 3 (July
1995).
131
M.L.Young, "Physical Fitness, Estimation of Fitness and Physical Ability and Self-concept",
Abstract ofResearch Papers (Boston AAFIPER Convention, 1981), p.152.
White132 concluded that there might be a significant relationship between
various selected physical fitness measures classified as strength, flexibility and
cardiovascular endurance and certain self-concept sub-scales of the TSCs.
Sorenson133
found
significant
correlation
between
self-concept
and
performance on three motor tasks for the sixth grade girls but absence of significant
relationship with self-concept and motor performance in first grade children and sixth
grade boys.
Black134 found no significant differences in self-concept between athletes and
non-participants but found significant difference between those of high and low
physical skill on physical self-concept, moral and ethical self-concept and family
concept.
AJ.White, "The Inter-Relationship Between Measures of Physical Fitness and Measures of Selfconcept of Selected Mississippi State University Male Students'*, Dissertation Abstract
International, Vol.34 (February 1974), p.4849.
133
C.A.Sorenson, "The Relationship Between Motor Performance in Selected Motor Tasks and Selfconcept of First and Sixth Grade Children", Completed Research in Health, Physical Education
and Recreation, Vol. 21 (1979), p.310.
134
B.MUlack, "The Relationship of Self-concept to Physical Skill and Athletic Participation",
Completed Research in Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Vol. 19 (1977), p.220.