Cent. Eur. J. Geosci. • 6(3) • 2014 • 279-292
DOI: 10.2478/s13533-012-0184-x
Central European Journal of Geosciences
Analysis on spatial distribution characteristics and
geographical factors of Chinese National Geoparks
Research Article
Wang Fang1,2 , Zhang Xiaolei1∗ , Yang Zhaoping1 , Luan Fuming3 , Xiong Heigang4 , Wang Zhaoguo1,2 ,
Shi Hui1,2
1 Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China
2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R, China
3 Lishui University, Lishui 323000, China
4 College of Art and Science, Beijing Union University, Beijing 100083, China
Received 04 May 2014; accepted 19 May 2014
Abstract: This study presents the Pearson correlation analyses of the various factors influencing the Chinese National
Geoparks. The aim of this contribution is to offer insights on the Chinese National Geoparks by describing its
relations with geoheritage and their intrinsic linkages with geological, climatic controls. The results suggest that:
1) Geomorphologic landscape and palaeontology National Geoparks contribute to 81.65% of Chinese National
Geoparks. 2) The NNI of geoparks is 0.97 and it belongs to causal distributional patternwhose regional distributional characteristics may be best characterized as ’dispersion in overall and aggregation in local’. 3) Spatial
distribution of National Geoparks is wide. The geographic imbalance in their distribution across regions and types
of National Geoparks is obvious, with 13 clustered belts, including Tianshan-Altaishan Mountain, Lesser HiggnanChangbai, Western Bohai Sea,Taihangshan Mountain, Shandong, Qilianshan-Qinling Mountain, Annulus Tibetan
Plateau, Dabashan Mountain, Dabieshan Mountain, Chongqing- Western Hunan, Nanling Mountain, Wuyishan
Mountain, Southeastern Coastal, of which the National Geoparks number is 180, accounting for 82.57%. 4)
Spatial distribution of National Geoparks coincide with latitudinal tectonic zone and longitude tectonic zone of geological structure features, which is consistent with the areas around the Pacific Rim of volcanic tectonic zones.
The coupling relationships are obvious between the spatial distributional pattern and the natural and geological
conditions.
Keywords: spatial distribution • National Geoparks • influencing factors
© Versita sp. z o.o.
1.
Introduction
Geological heritage is the record of the earth’s evolution in
response to various endogenic and exogenic forces. It is a
∗
E-mail: zhangxl [email protected]
precious non-renewable natural resource with significant
scientific and aesthetic values. Therefore, it is necessary
to protect this heritage.
The protection of geological heritage has gone through the
different periods: from protection alone to a combination of
protection and exploitation. UNESCO’s geoparks combine
geological research and protection with heritage tourism
as a way to protect and exploit geological heritage.
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1.1. International geological heritage protection
In 1989, a meeting was held by UNESCO, the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) [1] the International Geological Correlation Program (IGCP),and
the World Conservation Union (IUCN) in Washington in
recognition of the global importance of geological heritage. It was decided to implement a plan to produce a
Global Indicative List of Geological Sites (GILGES). In
1996, it was renamed the Geological Attractions Plan.
In 1997, a proposal by UNESCO was adopted by the
United Nations General Assembly to select representative and special regions from the recommended geological
heritage sites as Geoparks [2, 3]. In April 1999, a project
to establish geological parks was proposed in the 156th
Standing Committee meeting of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
The aim was to establish 500 geoparks in the world at
a rate of 20 per year [4, 5]. China was one of the pilot
countries for this world geoparks program. On 13 February 2004, UNESCO held a meeting at its headquarters
in Paris to designate the first batch of world geoparks.
The meeting unanimously approved 28 world geoparks, of
which 8 were located in China and 20 in European countries, including the UK, France, Spain, Greece, Ireland,
Austria, Italy and Germany [6]. So far (in 2012) there are
88 world geoparks distributed in 27 countries around the
world. China has the largest number (26), accounting for
30% of the total. In the USA and many countries in Europe, great importance has also been attached to the protection of geological heritage, and economically advanced
countries, such as USA, Canada and UK, rules and regulations have been worked out, and effective measures have
been adopted to protect geological heritage [7].
There are a growing number of studies on the topic of geoheritage and national geoparks on a global scale. Janice
[8] emphasized the positive role of geoparks in the development of local economy. Some researchers discussed
the links between geodiversity, landscape and geotourism
in Britain [9]. Glasser [10], Wolfgang [11] focused more
on the role of geoparks in aspects of education and popularization of science. Many scholars have studied the
geoparks and geotourism products [12–14]. Kátia Leite
Mansur [15] believed the way of Geological Paths would
make the Geoheritages protected in Brazil. Susan [16]
studied the Geoheritage and Geoparks in Australian by
virtue of female point of view. With the climate change
are now well recognised by many scholars, much attention
havebeen given to the effects on geodiversity, geological
heritage and its conservation [17–20].
1.2.
Geological heritage protection in China
China, with an area of 9.6 million km2, is of great size,
has greatly varied geographical conditions and the regional geological resources have different features. The
terrain is generally high in the west and low in the east.
Mountains, plateaus and hills account for 67% of the land
area and basins and plains is 33%. Most mountains run
northeast to southwest. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is
the highest major plateau in the world, with the average altitude above 4000 m. It is known as the Roof of
the World. Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, the Loess Plateau,
the Sichuan Basin and the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau are
to the north and east of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and together form a second lower step, with an average altitude
of between 1000∼2000 m. The Kunlun Mountains-Qilian
Mountains-Hengduan Mountains form the dividing line
between the first and second steps. The Great KhinganTaihang Mountains-Wu Mountains-Xuefeng Mountains is
the dividing line between the second and third steps,with
many plains and low hills, and most areas are below
200 m [21, 22].
The varied altitudes, terrain types and mountain ranges
give rise to diverse combinations of temperature and precipitation, forming a variety of climates. Eastern China
has a monsoon climate, northwest China a temperate continental climate, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau a alpine climate, with obvious implications for surficial geology [23–
25].
Protection of the geological heritage of China began in
the late 1970s, usually in nature reserves, and developed
rapidly thereafter. The first national geological nature reserve, Shangyuan Mesoproterozoic stratigraphic section,
was located in Ji county, Tianjin, and was established in
1985 [23, 26]. ”Provisions on the establishment of geological nature reserves” was promulgated in 1987. Taiwan took geological heritage protection seriously and took
initiatives beginning in 1989 and carried out county by
county investigations (ref). On the mainland, the Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources issued ”Regulations on geological heritage protection” in 1995 [24, 25].
In 2000, the Ministry of Land and Resources released a
document suggesting criteria for the establishment of National Geoparks and, in the following year, the first batch
of 11 National Geoparks was set up. As of 2013 there are
218, established in 6 batches.
Many researchers discussed the relationship between National Geoparks and the landform, and between geology,
climate,and socio-economic [24, 25, 27–29]. Li and Jiang
[30] (2000), Xing [31] (2004) attempted to find the effect
of National Geoparks on the local economic development.
Several scholars have studied the geotourism carried out
in many Chinese National Geoparks,and clearly proposed
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their development ideas [32–34]. Mu [35] (2007) and Wu
[36] (2008) paid close attention on the issues appeared
when exploiting geoheritage resources.
Despite national geoparks have unique geological and
scientific importance, the distribution pattern and influencing factors of geoparks within China remains few in
the international literature. Therefore, strengthening the
research on geoheritage resources in China has important
meanings. This paper describes the number, types, distribution pattern, and influencing factors of geoparks in
China, which proposes a framework for their interpretation. The laws of geoparks is also revealed on the bases
of resources endowment, climate rock property, and morphometric features and processes.
2.
Materials and methods
2.1.
Data sources
In order to meet the research needs,information on National Geoparks was collected from the official websites of
the Ministry of Land and Resources of the People’s Republic of China and the websites of the Chinese Network
of National Geoparks and Global Network of Geoparks
(GGN). Some data were also collected from the websites
of the 31 provincial-level administrative units in mainland China, including statistical bulletins, reports and
research on geoparks.Other data on National Geoparks
were gained from the website of the National Administration of Surveying, Mapping and Geographic Information. Many maps were produced by superimposing the
locations of the National Geoparks on geologic and topographic maps to create a data base on 218 Chinese
National Geoparks for the period from 2001 to 2013.
2.2.
Research methods
The Nearest Neighbor index (NNI) analysis is a method
of point mode, it is proposed in the first time by Clark
and Evans [37] (1954) to research point mode distance
statistics, Dacey [38] (1960) introduced it in geography,
and its basic ideology is that make the comparison between two kind distances, one distance is between the
adjacent points that belong to point mode, the another
distance is between the adjacent points that belong to
certain theoretical models, and then know the distribution
characteristics of the point mode in study area [27].
The point mode consists of three types of distribution,
i.e., uniform, random, and causal. The Nearest Neighbor
index can be used to determine the relative distribution of
each site. The Nearest Neighbor index is a geographical
indicator that shows the proximity of each point relative
to the distribution of all sites over a geographical space.
The Nearest Neighbor index is defined as R:
R = d/dE =
√
D · d.
(1)
In the above formula, d is the average distance value
among the Nearest Neighbor points, d = dE , is the Nearest Neighbor distance (that is the Poisson distribution),
D is point density. If R = 1 d = dE , the distributional
pattern is considered random; if R > 1 d > dE , the pattern is uniform; if R < 1 d < dE , it is considered casual.
The value of dE can be calculated as:
r
1
dE =
2
A
1
= √ .
n
D
(2)
In the above formula, A is the size of the area, and n is
the number of National Geoparks. The types,distribution
patterns of geoparks were established according to the
features and NNI that they were established to protect.
Then, their spatial distribution was examined, initially according to their location in the eastern, central and western parts of China and, then, the causes of geoparks were
analyzed according to the tectonic zones (endogenous factors) that resulted in their main geological characteristics,
as well as the climatic and lithological conditions (exogenous factors) that impinge upon them.
3.
Types and spatial distribution
3.1.
Types and structure
China features 218 National Geoparks, which can be
broadly classified into 7 types (Figure 1), 25 subtypes
and 56 subclasses, according to their geoheritage and the
main landscape elements. The 7 broad types of geoparks
are grouped under the categories of geological (body, formation) section, geological structure, palaeontology, mineral and ore deposits, geomorphological landscape, water
landscape and environmental geoheritage. Among these,
the geomorphological landscape and palaeontology contribute to 81.65% of the National Geoparks in China (Figure 1).
3.2.
Spatial distribution characters
On the macroscopic scale, the distribution of Chinese National Geoparks assumes a ribbon pattern, cluster pattern and continuous distribution, with the main difference
in spatial distributional being the regional distribution,
which includes East and Central, and West distributions,
and the interprovincial distribution.
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Figure 1.
3.2.1.
Types of National Geoparks in China Note: I- Geological (body, formation) section; II- Geologic structure; IIIPalaeontology; IV- Mineral and ore deposits; V- Geomorphological landscape; VI- Water landscape; VII- Environmental geoheritage landscape.
Various types distributional traits
The spatial and geographical distribution characteristics
of the different types of Chinese National Geoparks are
obviously random, as follows:
The geological (body, formation) sections are mainly located in the North, East, and Central China, with more
concentration of National Geoparks in the provinces of
Tianjin and Hebei in North, Henan in Central and Jiangsum and Zhejiang East regions. Furthermore, the geological National Geoparks are mostly concentrated in the
North, Northwest and Central China, with an increased
concentration in Northern China, including Hebei and Inner Mongolia, and in Central China, including Henan. In
particular, Hubei features almost 9 National Geoparks,
accounting for almost 70% of the total geological National
Geoparks. Besides, the Shaanxi province in Northwest
has several geological National Geoparks. Similarly, the
palaeontological National Geoparks are mainly located
in the Southwest, North, East, Northwest and Northeast China. In particular, the Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou,
Chongqing provinces in Southwest region feature 9 Geoparks, accounting for about 1/3rd of the total palaeontological National Geoparks of China. Besides, the Shanxi and
Inner Mongolia provinces in North house about 1/6th of
the total palaeontological National Geoparks of China,
while the Gansu, Ningxia, Xinjiang provinces in Northwest account for 1/7th of the palaeontological National
Geoparks. The Shandong, Zhejiang, Anhui provinces in
East China have 5 palaeontological National Geoparks,
while the Jilin, Liaoning, Heilongjiang provinces in Northeast feature 3 palaeontological National Geoparks. On
the other hand, the geomorphological landscape National
Geoparks are widely distributed in large numbers in all
the seven geographical zones of China. The Southwest
China has the highest number of geomorphological Na-
tional Geoparks (totalling 37 National Geoparks), contributing to 1/4th of the total number of geomorphological National Geoparks. Followed by East China ranked
the second, South China, Central China and Northwest
China, which rank the second, third, fourth and fifth places,
respectively. The number of geomorphological National
Geoparks in the abovementioned four geographical zones
in China are 84, accounting for about 3/5th of the total. On the other hand, the number of geomorphological
National Geoparks in North and Northeast China are relatively low, with a total of 28 Geoparks, contributing to
only about 1/5th of the total geomorphological National
Geoparks. The water landscape National Geoparks are
mainly distributed in the Yangtze River and Yellow River
watershed. These regions feature 5 National Geoparks,
accounting for 83.34% of the total water landscape National Geoparks. They are primarily distributed in the
Hubei, Sichuan, Shanghai provinces of Yangtze River watershed, and the Shanxi, Henan and Shandong provinces
of Yellow River watershed. The remaining water landscape
National Geoparks are randomly distributed in the other
larger rivers watersheds. The environmental geoheritage
landscape National Geoparks are primary centralized in
Western China, and majority of them are scattered in the
Southwest, Northwest and Tibetan Plateau. In particular, the Sichuan and Chongqing provinces in Southwest
China, Qinghai and Tibet provinces in Tibetan Plateau,
and Shaanxi province in Northwest China show a high
population of environmental geoheritage landscape National Geoparks. Mineral and ore deposit National Geoparks are relatively less, and are primarily distributed in
the Xinjiang province of Northwest China (Table 1).
3.2.2. Distributional pattern of National Geoparks in
East, Central and West China
From the viewpoint of the number of National Geoparks,
most of them are located in the Eastern and Central China,
accounting for about 60% of the total number of National
Geoparks. Although, Western China also has several National Geoparks, it accounts for only about 40% of the
total number. Among them, a large proportion of National
Geoparks in the Western China is mainly distributed in
the Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan and Guangxi provinces,
contributing to almost 50% of the total number of National
Geoparks in Western China. On the other hand, National
Geoparks are scarcely found in the vast Northwest regions
of China and the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau region, featuring
a total number of 34 Geoparks that contribute to only
15.60% of the total number of National Geoparks.
Similarly, from the standpoint of area and density, the
Central region of China ranks the first, featuring an area of
54366.58 km2 that accounts for 3.26% of the Central China.
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Table 1.
Distribution of National Geoparks in Eastern, Central and Western China.
Number of
provinces
Area of this region (104 km2 )
Area of National
Geoparks (km2 )
National Geoparks
area accounted in
proportion to the
regional area (%)
Number of National Geoparks
Density of National Geoparks
(per 104 km2 )
Eastern China
11
106.17
14757.53
1.39
60
1.77
Central China
8
166.99
54366.58
3.26
67
2.49
Western China
12
687.87
38958.69
0.57
91
7.56
Total
31
961.03
108082.80
1.12
218
4.41
In terms of density, the Central region ranks second, with
about 2.49 Geoparks per ten thousand km2 . On the other
hand, Eastern China has the smallest Geopark area of
14757.53 km2 , which accounts for 1.39% of the Eastern
China. However, the density is the highest, which is the
1.77 per ten thousand km2 .
The lowest density of National Geoparks is in the Western
China, featuring 7.56 per ten thousand km2 in the and the
area of 38958.69 km2 . This accounts for only 0.57% of the
region (Table 1).
3.3.
Spatial distribution
According to the above formula (2), the average Nearest
Neighbor index of Chinese National Geoparks is 104.9 km.
However, when this information is used on a digital map,
irrespective of the size (area) of the sites, with each site
representing a specific location for all 218 Chinese National Geoparks, a different pattern emerges. Based on
the Geographic Information System (GIS) measurement
tools, the Nearest Neighbor distance between 218 National Geoparks show average index of 107.9 km. According to formula (1)), the observed value of R is 0.97 <
1, and d < dE , it suggests that Chinese National Geoparks tend to exhibit a causal distribution.
The causal distribution of Chinese National Geoparks,whose number is 180 accounting for 82.57%, is depicted in the following 13 spatial belts.
A. Tianshan-Altaishan Mountain Belt: There are 7 geoparks on the belt, including Fuyun Koktokay (51), Burqin
Kanas Lake (84), Turpan Huoyanshan (194), and Wensu
salt dome (195).
B. Lesser Higgnan-Changbai Mountain Belt:10 geoparks
lies in this belt, including Benxi (1), Yichun Lesser Khingan Range (52), Fusong(62), and Fenghuang shan (92).
C. Western Bohai Sea Belt: There are more than 15 geoparks in this belt, including Laishui Yesanpo (12), Chaoyang
Bird Fossil (23), Liujiaxia Dinosaur (35), and Chengde
Danxia landform (135).
D. Taihangshan Mountain Belt: The number of geoparks
in Taihangshan Mountain is relatively large, with 16 of the
total in China, for instance, Songshan (4), Fuping Tianshengqiao (9), Hongqiqu-Linglvshan (191), and Pingshun
Tianjishan (182).
E. Shandong Belt: The number of geoparks in Shandong
is relatively small, with only 9 of the total in China, including Shanwang (32), Taishan (96), Yimeng-shan (148),
Changshan archipelago (200).
F. Qilianshan-Qinling Mountain Belt: There are more
than 22 geoparks in this belt, for instance, Pingliang
Kongtongshan (115), Bingling Danxia landform (133),
Golmud Kunlunshan (215), Zhuoshui Rongdong (183), and
Chayashan (98).
G. Annulus Tibetan Plateau Belt: There are more than
15 geoparks in this belt, including Tengchong Volcano
and Geotherm (73), Lijiang Yulong Snow Mountain (79),
Hailuogou (80), Jigzhi Nyanboyeshizer (82), and Guide
(139).
H. Dabashan Mountain Belt: The number of geoparks in
this belt is also large, with 15 of the total in China, including Huanglong (154), Dabashan (156), Guangwushan
Mountain -Nuoshuihe River (157), and Yangtze Three
Gorges (207).
I. Dabieshan Mountain Belt: The number of geoparks in
this belt is 14, for instance, Lushan (81), Huangshan (102),
DabieshanHuanggang (105), and Qiyunshan (121).
J. Chongqing-Western Hunan Belt: More than 16 geoparks within this belt, including Fenghuang National
Geopar (150), Xingwen Stone Forest (153), Wansheng
(160), Youyang (185), and Sinan Wujiang karst (188).
K. Nanling Mountain Belt: There are 17 geoparksin the
belt, for instance, Luoping biogroup (48), Lufeng Dinosaur
(50), Fengshan Karst (164), Luzhai Xiang qiao Karst
(165), Danxiashan (129), and Yangshan (142).
L. Wuyishan Mountain Belt: The number of geoparks
in this belt is also small, with only 8 of the total in
China, including Longhushan Danxia Geomorphy (122),
Liancheng Guanzhishan (127), Taining (128), and Swan
caverns (174).
M. Southeastern Coastal Belt: There are more than
16 geoparks in this belt, including Yandangshan (64),
Weizhoudao Volcano (71), Haikou Shishan Volcano Clus283
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Analysis on spatial distribution characteristics and geographical factors of Chinese National Geoparks
Figure 3.
Figure 2.
Distribution pattern of Chinese mountain ranges and style
of National Geoparks.
ter (72), Dapeng Peninsula (76), and Fuding Taimushan
(90).
Further analysis of each site, it shows the obviously
coupling relationships between causal distribution and
the geological structure, topographical features, geologic
types, climatic factor in China, and geoparks in China are
depict the following 13 spatial belts (Figure 2).
4. Spatial structure of Chinese National Geoparks and its relation with
several geographical factors
4.1.
Endogenetic agent analysis
4.1.1.
Identification of latitudinal tectonic zones
trending. Many National Geoparks are distributed in the
transitional zones from the Western to Eastern declining
geomorphic level, and their spatial distribution is also affected by the latitudinal tectonic belts. There are three
well-developed latitudinal tectonic zones in China [39]:
Firstly, Nanling EW-trending tectonic zones, mainly located at 23.5◦ ∼ 26.5◦ N. A series of folded strata in
the EW-trending belts of Paleozoic and Mesozoic developed the largest granite basins and rift basins during the
early Mesozoic Age of Southern China. This zone has 25
Chinese National Geoparks, accounting for 11.46% of the
total. Secondly, the Qinling–Kunlun tectonic belt, roughly
located at 32◦ ∼ 35◦ N, is mainly constituted by strong extruded fracture zones originating from the Paleozoic Age.
The number of National Geoparks in this zone is about 35,
with accounts for 16.05% of the total. Thirdly, Yinshan–
Tianshan tectonic zone, basically located at 40◦ − 43◦ N,
is mainly comprised of extruded fracture zones from ancient metamorphic rocks. This zone has approximate 15
National Geoparks, contributing to 6.88% of the total. In
summary, there are about 75 National Geoparks in the
abovementioned three zones, forming the high concentration zones of National Geoparks (Figure 2, 3).
4.1.2.
The distribution of National Geoparks in China seems to
coincide with the latitudinal tectonic zone of the geological tectonic structure. The main bodies of latitudinal tectonic zones in the geological tectonic structure of China
are primarily composed of East–West-trending belts of
folded strata along the latitudinal distribution, and extruded fracture zones. Its outstanding performance on the
continental crust is the uplift of mountains, which are EW-
Distribution pattern of Chinese mountain ranges and style
of National Geoparks.
Similarities with longitudinal tectonic zones
The distribution of the Chinese National Geoparks also
coincides with the longitudinal tectonic zone of geological tectonic structure. The longitudinal tectonic zone
is along the longitudinal direction of the Earth. A series of giant multi-type structures have been formed in
Asian continental margin areas and adjacent sea regions,
ever since the Yanshan movement, and it is short for Neo-
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cathaysian structural system. It consists of extruded fracture zones of all sizes, including the NNE-trending and
NE-trending, compressive belts, compressor–shear fault
belts and cross within compressor–shear fault belts that
run NEE-trending, and compressional fault belts that run
NNW-trending. The main body is composed of 3 enormous uplift zones and 3 great subsidence zones that run
NNE-trending [39].
Most parts of China fall under the category of the second
and third uplift zones, and the second and third subsidence
zones of Neocathaysian structural system. The second
and third subsidence zones respectively include Northeast
Plain–North China Plain–Yangtze River Plain–Nanling
Mountains, Inner Mongolia Plateau (Yin Mountains)–
Loess Plateau (Liu pan Mountains)–Sichuan Basin–
Yunnan and Guizhou Plateau (Da lou Mountains). The
second and third uplift zones respectively include Hinggan Mountains–Changbai Mountains–Liaodong Hills–
Shandong Hills–Wuyi Mountains–Southeast Hills and
Taihang Mountains–Wu Mountains–Xuefeng Mountains.
Among them, the crust movement and uplift of red conglomerate are typically formed in the Danxia landform
zones of the second uplift zone, such as Pingjiang Shiniuzhai in Hunan, Longhushan in Jiangxi, Chishui danxia in
Guizhou and Taining jinhu in Fujiang. There are significant differences between the up and down movements of
piedmont faults in the third uplift zone, forming criss-cross
landform, staggering majestic mountains and low Basins,
and magnificent plateaus and hills. The two uplift tectonic
zones that are formed due to the Yanshan movement are
typical and rich in geoheritage resources. The agglomeration zones of National contribute to about 1/4th of the
total located in the two zones.
The typical, extruded and longitudinal tectonic belts in
China are the Sichuan–Yunnan belt, Sichuan–Guizhou
belt, Hunan–Guangxi belt. Among them, the most significant part is located between 102◦ ∼ 103◦ 300 E. Its main
body is the Snowy Mountains and Hom Gong Mountains
in western Sichuan, which has been extended to the central Yunnan province. The number of National Geoparks
in the tectonic zones that run NS-trending is about 1/4th
of the total. Besides, there are some scattered and less
obvious NS-trending tectonic zones, fold belts and other
structural systems, such as the Helan Mountains, Lvliang
Mountains, southern Taihang Mountains, which show a
higher distributed of National Geoparks.
4.1.3. Coincidence with geologic structure zones and
three-steps topography of China
Chinese orogenesis can be divided into the following five
episodes: Caledonian movement, Variscan movement, Indosinian movement, Yanshan movement and Himalayan
movement. Caledonian movement is the orogeny that occurred in the Early Paleozoic Era. The Variscan movement is the orogeny in the Paleozoic Era that extends
from the Paleozoic Carboniferous Period to Permian Period. Besides, most mountains in the North of China, such
as Altai Mountains, Tianshan Mountains, Greater Khingan Mountains, Yinshan Mountains, Kunlun Mountains,
Altun Mountains, Qilian Mountains, Qinling Mountains,
with a large number of granitic intrusions, is believed
to have formed during the Variscan movement. The Indosinian movement is the orogeny in the Mesozoic Era
that refers to the Triassic Period to Jurassic Period. The
movement is considered to be responsible for the uplifting of western Sichuan and northwest Yunnan regions to
become a mountain, and the formation of a chain of mountains, including Minshan Mountains, Qionglai Mountains,
Snowy Mountains, Yunling Mountains and so on.
The Yanshan movement is the orogeny that is in the Cretaceous Period of the Mesozoic Era. This movement has
contributed to the formation of various mountains, including the Yanshan Mountain, Taihang Mountain, Helan
Mountain, Xuefeng Mountain, Hengduan Mountain, Tangula Mountain and Karakoram Mountain. Besides, this
movement shaped a series of intramontane down-faulted
basins, and accumulated rather thick sandstone layers in
the basins. The Himalayan movement is the youngest
orogeny that occurred in the Cainozoic era. During this
movement, many mountains and plateaus have uplifted to
a large extent, such as Himalayas, Kailash, Nyainqentanglha, Changbai, Wuyi Mountains and Qinghai–Tibet
Plateau and the mountainous regions of Taiwan that have
been exposed from the sea surface. The Himalayan movement has different effects on a number of ancient mountains. A lot of mountains have become natural demarcation
lines of China terrains. Therefore, this movement is considered as the transition zone of the third-level steps and
ladders terrains.
In general, the terrain characteristics of China is low in
the west and high in the east. The formation of roughly
three-steps (ladders), the geological environments are relatively more active in the ladder transitional zones, retaining typical geoheritages. In addition, the transitional
zones feature more junctions of geological structures than
others, diverse tectonic landforms types, a variety of landscapes including criss-cross mountains, plateaus, plateaus
and basins and basins and plains within the range of each
ladder. There are several zones within the transition zones
and each ladder offers excellent resources for the establishment of National Geoparks. The number of National
Geoparks located in the first range terrain ladder is about
10, accounting for 4.59% of the total. At the same time,
the number of National Geoparks in the second step is 77,
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contributing to a proportion of about 35.32%. Between the
first and second terrain ladder, there are about 21 National Geoparks, accounting for 9.63% of the total. The
number of National Geoparks situated in the third step is
70, contributing to a proportion of 32.11%. The number of
National Geoparks located in the transitional zone of the
second and third terrain ladder is up to 40, accounting for
18.35% of the total (Figure 2, 3).
4.2.
Exogenic agent analysis
4.2.1.
Climate zones analysis
According to previous studies, the climatic conditions have
a significant influence of the distribution of National
Geoparks. In particular, precipitation and temperature are
the most important climatic factors that dominate the style
of denudation and morphology [25, 40, 41].
Precipitation
4.1.4. Accordance with the circum-Pacific Ocean crust
activities zones
The distribution of Chinese National Geoparks is also
consistent with the circum-Pacific Ocean crust activities
zones. China is located in the circum-Pacific tectonic
belt of volcanoes and earthquakes, which is the divergent boundaries of the Eurasian Plates and the Pacific
Plates. Both of them collide or squeeze each other, featuring more active crustal movement. This zone is highly
prone to volcanoes, earthquakes and other crustal movements. As a part of global zones around the circum-Pacific
volcanoes and earthquakes tectonic zones, many a time,
the Chinese eastern coastal zones that border the Pacific
Ocean also suffer volcanic activities, with great influences
from the Cenozoic. Beyond ambiguity, these areas are
one of the most dramatic zones around the circum-Pacific
volcanoes and earthquakes tectonic belts. A large number of geoheritages remain after the earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and other diastrophic activities, thereby providing the material basis for establishing National Geoparks. The volcanic landscapes in China are mainly distributed in the northern mountains of Northeast China,
Inner Mongolia Plateau, mountains of North China, lower
reaches of the Yangtze River, coastal areas of Fujian and
Zhejiang province, Leizhou Peninsula, Hainan Island, Taiwan and the Penghu Islands and western Yunnan province.
They are consistent with the collision zones of both the
Eurasian and the Pacific Plate. Therefore, many National
Geoparks belonging to the volcanic landscapes category
are found in regions from Greater Khingan and Lesser
Khingan to Changbaishan Mountain, and eastern coastal
areas of China. These regions have around 23 National
Geoparks, accounting for 92% of the volcanic category National Geoparks. The Eastern coastal areas of China are
located in the Pacific volcanic and earthquake activities
zone, the unique geographical location of which has promoted the formation of several National Geoparks (Figure 2, 3).
The annual average precipitation of China is over 600
mm per year. Affected by the thermal difference between
land and sea, various topographic factors, and latitude and
longitude location, the precipitation spatial distribution
pattern in China generally shows a decreasing trend from
southeast coastal regions to northwest inland areas.
The southeast China coastal areas that are mainly located in the south of the Yangtze River, and east of
the Tibetan Plateau, including the Yangtze River Basin,
Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau and Sichuan Basin, belong to
sub-tropical and tropical monsoon climate zone. Besides,
they are humid areas, with an average annual rainfall of
more than 1600 mm, and the aridity index of less than 1.
The majority of the north China regions, located in the
north Yangtze River, east Tibetan Plateau, east Greater
Khingan and east Taihang Mountains, including the
Northeast Plain, the North China Plain, Jianghuai Plain,
experience an average annual rainfall of approximately
400 mm, 800 mm and 1200 mm, respectively. These regions belong to the monsoon climate of medium latitudes
zone, and is also the part of humid and semi-humid region, with aridity index is less than 1. The average annual
precipitation is about 400∼1600 mm.
Most of the West and Northwest China are situated in
the west of 400 mm isohyet, including the Qinghai–Tibet
Plateau, Tarim Basin and Junggar Basin in the Northwest and Inner Mongolia Plateau and Loess Plateau in
the North. These regions belong to the non-monsoon climate zone, and is classified as the arid and semi-arid
area with the aridity index of above 1.25. Compared to
the Northeast, the annual rainfall in the Northwest inland region is less than 50∼200 mm. On the other hand,
the hyper-arid areas such as Tazhong area of Tarim basin
and Toksun region of Turpan basin of Xinjiang receive an
annual rainfall of less than 20 mm. Therefore, wind action
plays a main role in semi-arid and arid regions, while fluviation tends to be the most active factors in warm-humid
monsoon areas (Figure 4).
Temperature
Similar to the trend observed in the variation of precipitation, the temperature decreases from the South-
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Here, the geomorphologies are controlled by chemical denudations, including chemical, bio-erosion and water erosion, and less likely by mechanical weathering and abrasion. Karstic and Danxia landforms in the region are the
typical examples of chemical denudation.
Most Central and North China belong to the temperate
and warm temperate zones. The climate is more dry, and
features relatively lower rainfall than Southeast China.
Mechanical denudation is considered to play an important role in shaping the landforms, while chemical denudation impacts on landforms are lower than sub-tropical and
tropical zones, although their roles are considered equally
important.
Figure 4.
Distribution and variation of precipitation across China.
east coastal regions to the much colder Northwest inland
China. The Southeast coastal China has a hot and humid
climate, with the high-temperature summer featuring more
rain, and winters experiencing lesser rain. The annual average temperature is typically higher than 20◦ C.
On the other hand, the climate in North and Northwest
China is mild and humid, characterized by rain and heat
over the same period. It is rainy and humid during the
high-temperature summer, while it is cold and dry during
winter. The annual average temperature is approximately
15◦ C.
The Northwest China belongs to temperate continental
climate zones, including temperate desert, grassy climate
and scarce rainfall. It is very cold in winter, extremely
hot in summer and extremely drought in here. It is colder
than the Southeast and Northwest China, with the average winter temperature being below −15◦ C and the average summer temperature being above 20◦ C. The annual
average temperature is less than 10◦ C.
The Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau belongs to plateau climate
zone, characterizing high-altitude and extreme cold. It is
the coldest area in China, where the annual average temperature is about 4◦ C. In the hottest month, the average
temperature is below 10◦ C.
Although most of the Chinese National Geoparks are distributed in the Southeast China regions in the east of
400 mm isohyet, the annual accumulative temperature is
4000∼8000◦ C. It is obvious that these climatic factors play
a significant role in creating a variety of geological landscapes to some extent. In the process of geoheritages,
the consequently natural weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition processes were dominated by climate
variations, such as precipitation and temperature.
The Southeast China belongs to the sub-tropical and
tropical zones, characterized by warm and humid climate.
The Northwestern region of China belongs to the temperate and warm temperate zones, characterizing semiarid and arid climate with sparse vegetation coverage.
Wind is high almost throughout the year, and has less
humidity and least precipitation, relative to the Central,
North and Southeast China, forming a significant topographic expression of structural and lithological discontinuities. The mechanical denudations play the regnant
role in the process of forming landforms, and include minimized chemical and biological weathering. Loess plateau
and Yardang landforms are typical examples of mechanical
denudations, characterized by the aeolian, glacial erosion
and water erosion.
The Tibetan Plateau is the ’Mountains Plateau’, composed
of a series of high mountains, with an average altitude over
4000∼5000 m. Overall, the climate is characterized by
strong radiation, more sunshine and lowest temperature,
with the accumulated temperature being under 2000◦ C.
Most areas do not experience sufficient heat. The contemporary glaciers and ancient glaciers are developed well,
with wide distribution of glaciers, glarosion and glacial
deposition landforms. The active glacial/peri-glacial processes and landforms are characterized by cirques, pyramidal peaks and U-shaped valleys. Besides glacial and
peri-glacial erosion, most landforms in the region are still
subjected to various geological processes, including postglacial stress release, salt and biochemical weathering.
Differences in rock properties also affect the formation of
landforms in the low-temperature zones (Figure 2-a, Figure 5).
4.2.2.
Analysis of Lithologic controls
Rock type is an important and essential constraint affecting the development of geologic landforms all over the
China. Thus far, several studies have analysed the importance of the rock type [25, 40]. The nature of the
rocks, including the ultrabasic, mafic, neutral, acid rock
and the degree of weathering control the rock resistance
to erosion. This lays the foundation for the development
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Figure 5.
Distribution and variation of climatic zones across China.
of various geologic landforms. Considering the lithologic
importance and its wide variability throughout China, we
have discussed the relevant landforms as follows.
Sedimentary rocks
Rock products of physical weathering on the earth surface and some volcanic eruptions that undergo weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition and diagenesis of
the water or glaciers finally form sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are often distributed in the surface layer
of the earth crust, including shale, sandstone and limestone. It accounts for about 75% of the land area of China,
and are responsible for the formation of unique geological landscapes. China has three major types of sandstone rock landforms, namely, the Zhangjiajie Sandstone
Peak Forest National Geopark (125), which represents
Mature–Old Stage, the Danxiashan National Geopark
(129), which corresponds to Mature Stage and the Zanhuang Zhangshiyan National Geopark(10), which stands
for Young Stage. For instance, Danxia landform is a type
of landform that is formed above the thick red glutenite
layers in inland basin, and characterized by red cliffs.
Danxia landform is a special type of landform, found
and named after its first discovery in Danxia Mountain, which lie in Shaoguan city of Guangdong province,
during 1920s to 1930s. The landform is widely distributed with tropical and subtropical zones, temperate
humid and semi-humid areas, semi-arid and arid zones
and the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau cold area. In particular, it is the most concentrated region in the Southern China. Due to the humid-hot climatic condition in
the Southern China, this region is affected by long-term
and complicated forces from the Mesozoic to Cenozoic
Eras. The terrestrial red conglomerates and coarsegrained sands suffer from continuous erosion and sedi-
Figure 6.
Distribution and variation of climatic zones across China.
mentation, such as fluvial erosion and gravitational collapse, developing exceptional red beds terrains. These
favour the formation of the most typical Danxia landform
landscapes, such as Dunhuang Yardang(114), Pingliang
Kongtongshan (115), Tianshui Maijishan (116), Jingtai
Yellow River Stone Forest (117), Zhangye Danxia (132)
and Bingling Danxia landform (133) in Gansu; Feitianshan (123), Guzhang Red Carbonate-Rock Stone Forest
(124), Zhangjiajie Sandstone Peak Forest (125), Langshan
(126) and Liancheng Guanzhishan (127) in Fujiang; Xiji
Huoshizhai (118) in Ningxia; Kanbula (119) and Guide
(139) in Qinghai; Guanshan (120) in Henan; Qiyunshan
(121) and Dabieshan Liu’an (138) in Anhui; Longhushan
Danxia Geomorphy (122) in Jiangxi; Chenzhou Taining
(128) in Fujiang; Danxiashan (129) in Guangdong; Ziyuan
(130) in Guangxi; Yulong Liming–Laojunshan (131) in Yunnan; Chishui Danxia (134) in Guizhou; Chengde Danxia
landform (135) in Heibei; Yaozhou Zhaojin Danxia (136)
in Shanxi; Jiangyou (137) in Sichuan; Zanda Clay Forest (140) in Tibet; Kuqa Great Canyon (141) in Xinjiang
(Figure 6).
Soluble rocks
Soluble rocks mainly including carbonate rocks and sediments, which have been produced from Precambrian period to now, are mainly located in the low latitudes regions with clear and warm shallow sea (shelf sea) and
shoreland areas. This kind of rock landform is widely
distributed in the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau, Chongqing
municipality, Guangxi province, Eastern Yunnan province
and partial North and Northwest China. Soluble rocks
suffer from long-time water dissolution, and a variety of
mechanical actions, forming the Karst landform, which is
the most representative of the soluble rock landform. The
Karst landform developed not only on the surface but also
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in the underground. The geological features of Karst landforms include peak forests and isolated peaks on the surface, and karst caves and underground rivers on the underground. The most famous is the South China Karst
areas, which are considered the World Natural Heritage,
include Wulong Karst (159) in Chongqing, Shilin Karst
Peak Forest (167) in Yunnan, Libo in Guizhou. Other
National Geoparks that feature the famous Karst landforms are Shihuadong (144) and Shidu (189) in Beijing; Xinglong (145) and Lincheng (168) in Hebei; Zaozhuang Xiong’ershan–Bao dugu (146), Qingzhou (147),
Yimengshan (148) and Yiyuan Lushan (178) in Shandong;
Fenghuang (150), Meijiang (151), Wulongshan (152), Jiubujiang (170) and Pingjiang Shiniuzhai (184) in Hunan;
Xingwen Stone Forest (153), Huanglong (154), Huayingshan (155), Dabashan (156) and Guangwushan MountainNuoshuihe River (157) in Sichuan; Yunyang Longgang
(158), Wansheng (160) and Youyang (185) in Chongqing;
Wumengshan (161), Xingyi (162), Suiyang Shuanghedong
(171), Zhijindong (172) and Sinan Wujiang Karst (188)
in Guizhou; Yangshan (142), Fengkai (143) and Yangchun
Lingxiaoyan (166) in Guangdong; Dahua Qibainong (163),
Fengshan Karst (164), Luzhai Xiangqiao Karst (165), Leye
Dashiwei Karst (175) and Yizhou Shuishang Stone peaks
(180) in Guangxi; Luxi Alu (179) and Jiuxiang Xiagu dong
xue (187) in Yunnan; Fengyang Jiushan (169), Yashan
(177) and Guangde Taijidong (186) in Anhui; Yong’an Taohuadong (173) and Swan caverns (174) in Fujian; Huzhu
Jiading (149) in Qinghai; Jiaozuo Yuntai (176) in Henan;
Wufeng (181) in Hubei; Pingshun Tianjishan (182) in
Shanxi; Zhuoshui Rongdong (183) in Shanxi (Figure 6).
Metamorphic and magmatic rocks
Metamorphic and magmatic rocks have relatively greater
resistance. Most are the core of the mountains, and
widely outcrop in most parts of China. They often give
rise to steep cliffs, grand and precipitous mountains,
and become a significant uplift terrain. Magmatic rocks
have two occurrences types, namely, the magma intrusion activities (intrusive rocks) and the volcanic activity or ejected activities (volcanic rocks). They typically
emerge from the volcanic fields of plates boundaries zones.
Granite, andesite and basalt are the most common magmatic rocks. For instance, granite exhibits homogeneous
lithology. The vertical joints of the development lead
to steep hillsides and isolated mountain-peaks. Yichun
Lesser Khingan Range (52), Yichun Granite Stone-Forest
(93), Fenghuangshan (92) in Heilongjiang; Qimen Guniujiang (100), Huangshan (101), Tianzhushan (102) and
Chizhou Jiuhuashan (103) in Anhui; Taihu Lake Xishan
(104) in Jiangsu; Dabieshan-Huanggang (105) and Mulanshan (106) in Hubei; Sanqingshan (107) in Jiangxi; Si-
guniangshan (108) in Sichuan; Pingtang (109) in Guizhou;
Guiping (110) and Pubei Wuhuangshan (112) in Guangxi;
Baiyunshan (111) in Fujiang; Miyun Yunmengshan (113)
in Beijing, are famous for granite rocks landscapes.
Basalt lava flows in the Quaternary Age are abundant
and frequent, the intense activities of which have brought
about plentiful lava and volcanic platforms in the southeast China coastal areas, including North China and
Northeast China. Pinggu Huangsongyu (58) in Beijing,
Arxan (59) in Inner Mongolia; Datong Volcano Cluster
(60) in Shanxi; Liuhe (61) in Jiangsu; Fushan (63) in Anhui; Yandangshan (64) and Linhai (65) in Zhejiang; Dehua
Shiniushan (66) Pingnan Baishuiyang (67), Zhangzhou
Littoral Volcanic Geomorphy (68), Pinghe Lingtongshan
(74) and Zhenghe Fozishan (75) in Fujiang; Xiqiaoshan
(69) and Huguangyan (70) in Guangdong, Weizhoudao
Volcano (71) in Guangxi; Haikou Shishan Volcano Cluster
(72) in Hainan; Tengchong Volcano and Geotherm (73) in
Yunnan are typical examples of volcanic landform.
Metamorphic rocks are the novel rocks that are transformed by the Earth’s internal forces (temperature, pressure, stress changes, chemical composition, etc.). Metamorphism and sedimentation are the main driving force for
the formation of metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks
include the regional metamorphic rocks, dynamo metamorphic rocks, impact metamorphic rocks and so on. Among
them, regional metamorphic rocks are the most widely
distributed, and mainly outcrop the shield and mass in
all continents and metamorphic active belts in Phanerozoic Eon, including Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic era.
Due to the difference in the lithology and degree of metamorphism of the original rock, the metamorphic lithology
differences vary widely, and form different styles of mountain landforms. Many mountain landscapes constituted
by metamorphic rocks are found in Songshan (4), Taishan
(96), Lushan (81), Wutaishan (196), Wudangshan (19) in
China (Figure 6).
Aeolian and Loess
The formation of Aeolian landform is occurs via the wind
erosion, transportation and deposition. This includes two
categories of landforms formed by wind erosion and wind
deposition. The wind is the main driving force in shaping
the aeolian landforms, while the material composition and
degree of thickness on the ground, vegetation and moisture status, bedrock lithology, difference in rational fissure
development also contribute to the development of aeolian
landform. Characterized by little precipitation, extremely
sparse vegetation, strong physical weathering of rocks,
bare sandy ground and large and frequent winds in arid
regions, aeolian landforms are developed mostly in arid
climate zones [42], such as Zanda Clay Forest National
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Geopark (140). Yardang landform is the most prominent
representative, which is widely distributed throughout the
northwestern China. Zhangye Danxia (132), Bingling
Danxia landform (133) Yaozhou Zhaojin Danxia (136) and
Kuqa Great Canyon National Geopark (141) are famous
from this landform.
Loess landforms are the earthy deposits formed during the
Quaternary Age, that are mainly scattered in the dry or
semi-dry continental climate zone. Loess soil is loose,
vulnerable to intense water and river erosions in the process of formation. Transportation and deposition of wind
are the main driving force of the loess accumulation. Fluvial erosion is yet another indispensable factor that is
responsible for the generation of loess landforms types in
this area, such as loess tableland, loess ridge and loess
hill. The Loess landform shows discontinuous zonal distribution in China, with Loess Plateau being the most
and unique representative example. In addition, abundant
loose Quaternary earthy sediments are found out in the
vast deserts and sandy dune fields of Northern China [43],
such as Luochuan Loess National Geopark (190) (Figure 6).
5.
Conclusion and discussion
This study probes into Chinese National Geoparks from
different aspects, such as the types, spatial distribution
characteristics, influencing factors and also illustrates the
spatial pattern regionalization of Chinese geoheritage resources. Therefore, the main conclusions are summarized
as follows:
1. There are various types of Chinese National Geoparks, among which the geomorphologic landscape
and palaeontology National Geoparks contribute
to a maximum of 178, accounting for 81.65% of the
total number of National Geoparks.
2. The NNI of geoparks is 0.97 and it belongs to
causal distributional pattern whose regional distributional characteristics present ’dispersion in overall and aggregation in local’. The geographic imbalance of National Geoparks’ distribution is obvious with 13 clustered locations.
3. Results suggest that the spatial distributional pattern of the 218 National Geoparks coincides with
the latitudinal tectonic zone and longitude tectonic
zone of geological structure features, which is consistent with the areas around the Pacific Rim of
volcanic tectonic zones. The coupling relationships
are obvious between the spatial distributional pat-
tern of National Geoparks with the natural geological conditions.
4. As the factors influencing the formation of geoheritage resources are quite complex, and the establishment of National Geoparks are affected not only
by natural but also human factors, further analyses
are needed to gain a comprehensive understanding
of the factors influencing the distribution of National Geoparks. The scientificity and rationality of
spatial pattern regionalization of Chinese geoheritage resources still need to be analysed further.
Acknowledgements
The paper is supported by National Science
and
Technology
Support
Program
(No: 2012BAH48F01; 2012BAH48F03), National Natural
Science Foundation of China (No.41171165), and Chinese
Academy of Sciences Visiting Professorship for Senior
International Scientists (No. 2013T2Z0004).
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