Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity and
Livelihoods in Central Virunga National Park
Externship Report: Democratic Republic of Congo
2011
Submitted by:
Joëlle Mukungu Nkombela
Hermès Mushayuma Namegabe
Josué Bombi Kakogozo
Luc Lango Mumbere
Education and Training Program on
Climate Change and Biodiversity in the Albertine Rift
Published by:
The International START Secretariat, Washington DC, USA
in collaboration with:
The Pan-African START Secretariat (PASS), Institute of Resource Assessment (IRA), University of Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania
With support from:
The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation
(Disclaimer: The sole responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors. START,
PASS/IRA and the MacArthur Foundation are not responsible for the information contained herein)
Table of Contents
About .............................................................................................................................................. iv
Summary Project Information ...................................................................................................... v
Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................... vi
1
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
2
Methods..................................................................................................................................... 4
3
2.1
Description of the Study area.............................................................................................. 4
2.2
Sampling ............................................................................................................................. 5
2.3
Data collection .................................................................................................................... 6
2.4
Data processing and analysis .............................................................................................. 7
Results ....................................................................................................................................... 8
3.1
Perceptions of Climate change among local communities and park agents ....................... 8
3.2
Climatic and non-climatic change threats to large mammals ........................................... 10
3.3
Interaction between climatic and non climatic threats to large mammals ........................ 11
3.4
Impacts of climatic threats on livelihoods ........................................................................ 11
3.5
Adaptation strategies......................................................................................................... 15
3.6
Socio economic aspects of ViNP, Rwindi station ............................................................ 16
4
Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 17
5
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 19
6
References ............................................................................................................................... 20
7
List of abbreviations .............................................................................................................. 22
List of Figures
Fig. 1: The central section of the Virunga national park................................................................. 5 Fig. 2: Perceptions regarding change in climate over last 20 years ............................................... 8 Fig. 3: Perceptions regarding rainfall patterns over last 20 years ................................................. 8 Fig. 4: Perceptions regarding changes in temperature over last 20 years...................................... 9 Fig. 5: Annual average precipitation at Goma meteorological station (1960-2008) ...................... 9 Fig. 6: Annual average temperature at Goma meteorological station (1960-2008) ..................... 10 Fig. 7: Principal non climatic stressors on large mammals .......................................................... 11 Fig. 8: Carbonization ..................................................................................................................... 12 Fig. 9: Processing of fish at Vitshumbi .......................................................................................... 13 Fig. 10: Salted fish at Lunyasenge ................................................................................................. 13 Fig. 11: Crop cultivation at Kiwadja ............................................................................................. 14 Fig. 12: Trade and exchange of different products between Vitshumbi’s villagers and
Lungasenge’s communities. ........................................................................................................... 14 Fig. 13 : Poaching and the location of poaching sites within the park ......................................... 15 List of Tables
Table 1: Number of hippopotamuses in Virunga National Park from 1959 to 2005 ..................... 11 About the Education and Training Program on Climate Change and Biodiversity in
the Albertine Rift
This capacity building program addresses the challenge of managing emerging risks to
biodiversity from climate change in the Albertine Rift region of Africa, which encompasses parts
of Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Congo, and Uganda. The program, hosted at the Institute of
Resource Assessment (IRA), University of Dar es Salaam, offers MS-level courses and
externships for conservation practitioners and researchers from the region. The MS-level courses
focus on climate change risks to ecosystems and biodiversity and explore strategies for
conserving biodiversity in a changing climate. Externships allow program participants, working
in country teams, to apply knowledge from the classroom to field-based assessments in the
Albertine Rift. Findings from the externship research are documented in reports such as this. A
special training of trainers’ module equips faculty from regional universities with information,
tools and resources to help them to develop courses on climate change and biodiversity at their
universities.
Two rounds of the program have been held to date, in 2008 and 2010 respectively. More than 45
participants have successfully received training from expert faculty drawn mainly from regional
universities. As a result the program has helped foster a network of individuals and institutions in
the Albertine Rift region engaged in addressing climate change risks to biodiversity. The existing
Masters Program in Natural Resource Assessment and Management at IRA has also benefited
from the integration of courses from this capacity building initiative into that program’s
curriculum.
The International START Secretariat and the Pan-African START Secretariat (PASS), based at
the Institute of Resource Assessment (IRA), University of Dar es Salaam, jointly implement this
effort with funding from the MacArthur Foundation.
Additional information on the program is available at: http://start.org/programs/biodiversity.
iv Summary Project Information
Project Title:
Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity and Livelihoods in Central Virunga National Park
Project Investigators:
1. Joëlle Mukungu Nkombela: Organisation Concertée des Ecologistes et Amis de la Nature
(OCEAN), Democratic Republic of the Congo; Email: [email protected];
[email protected]
2. Hermès Mushayuma Namegabe: Centre de Recherche en Sciences Naturelles/Lwiro
(CRSN), Democratic Republic of the Congo; Email: [email protected]
3. Josué Bombi Kakogozo: Centre de Recherche en Hydrobiologie/Uvira (CRH)
Democratic Republic of the Congo; E-mail: [email protected]
4. Luc Lango Mumbere: Tanyna Center of Conservation Biology (TCCB) Democratic
Republic of the Congo; E-mail: [email protected]
Project Supervisor:
Dr Arthur Kalonji: Field Veterinarian officer, Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of the
Congo; Email: [email protected]
Externship host institution:
Tayna Center of Conservation Biology (TCCB), Democratic Republic of the Congo
v Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity and Livelihoods in Central
Virunga National Park
Executive summary
The Virunga National Park (ViNP), one of the oldest African parks and the biggest one in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has faced political and security instability since the
genocide of 1994 and the war of 2006, in the eastern part of the country. The invasion of the
ViNP by populations and armed troops has induced negative impacts on biodiversity within the
park. While scientific researchers have proven that climate change is likely to impact biodiversity
within protected areas in different ways and add to human pressure, it was appropriate for us to
lead a survey to determine the impact of climate change and human pressures on large mammals
within the central sector of ViNP and on livelihoods of populations living in and around the park,
over the last 20 years.
The objectives of the study were, to assess the perceptions of climate change within the central
sector of the park among local communities and park managers and to assess the state of climatic
and non-climatic impacts on large mammals and human livelihoods. We also assessed adaptation
strategies developed by different stakeholder groups to deal with climate change impacts on
biodiversity. To reach our objective we used questionnaire surveys, interviews, focus group
discussions, literature review and direct observation. Six villages were investigated, three within
the park and three surrounding the park.
We observed that climate change is a very new concept for the majority of parks managers and
rangers and for local communities. Perception of climate change depends on what people can see
and feel about temperature and rainfall. Even where people noted changes in temperature and
rainfall, the impact of these changes was not very perceptible on large mammals, since there also
are many other stressors caused by human activities within the park. Illegal activities, such as
poaching, deforestation and population growth, have been the main threats on large mammals.
Hippopotamus, elephants, buffalos and antelopes are the most at risk mammals in the central
sector of ViNP, and armed troops are the principal agents of poaching even though there are also
some park rangers and members of local communities who have been involved in poaching. The
impact of climate is perceptible on activities such as agriculture, mainly poor harvests due to
reduced rainfall. The lack of meteorological data and information makes the work difficult. The
management of the park is under Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature (ICCN)
which has had limited control for a long time due to an unstable political situation. Since 2010,
ICCN is trying to take control of park management again with new strategies. However attention
is currently focused on reducing human pressures on biodiversity and climate change is not a
priority. Significant effort and investigation will be necessary to account for climate change in the
conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable management of the park.
vi 1
Introduction
Climate change is at the heart of environmental discussion as a serious threat for human wellbeing as well as for the biodiversity conservation. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) defines climate change as “all evolution of the climate in the time that is due to
the natural variability or to the human activities” (GIEC, 2001, p3). But for the United Nation
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), climate change means “all change in
climate, directly or indirectly attributed to human activity that alters the composition of global
atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time
period” (UNFCCC, 1992, p4). In this last definition, human activities are at the heart of climatic
change issues.
Indeed, human activities dramatically increase atmospheric concentrations of certain gases, such
as greenhouse gases (mainly CO2), which tend to warm the surface of the earth, and
anthropogenic aerosols, which tend mainly to it cool (CSCC, 2001). Although biodiversity and
ecosystem services experience changes due to natural causes (Millenium Ecosytem Assessment,
2005), this type of climate change, brought about by human activities is threatening to accelerate
the loss of biodiversity already under way due to other human stressors (Hannah et al, 2005).
The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines biodiversity as “the
variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other
aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part, including diversity
within species, between species of ecosystems” (Warboys and Winkler, 2006, p12).
As defined, biodiversity is the foundation of ecosystem services on which human wellbeing is
intimately linked. It contributes directly to many constituents of human well being through
provisioning, regulating and cultural ecosystem services, and indirectly through supporting
ecosystem services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). People depend on biodiversity for
food, fuel-wood, timber, and medicine. Some human activities, such as agriculture and poaching,
are likely to impact negatively on biodiversity.
Nations participating as parties to the CBD (188) agreed that protected areas are among the most
important tools for conservation of biodiversity (Lockwood et all, 2006). Virunga National Park
(ViNP), one of the seven parks in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), is one such
protected area that is well known for its richness of biodiversity within the Albertine rift region.
The park was created in 1925 and originally named Albert National Park.
The Albertine rift region itself is a region of great importance for conservation, defined as an
‘ecoregion’ by the World Wildlife Fund, as a ‘biodiversity hotspot’ by Conservation International
and as an ‘endemic bird area’ by Birdlife International (Plumptre et al, 2003). This definition
includes all the natural habitats within 100 km east of the border of Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC) and follows the 900 m contour line in eastern DRC, including the protected areas
in northern Zambia (Plumptre et al, 2007). The Albertine Rift region therefore extends from the
northern tip of Lake Albert down to the southern tip of Lake Tanganyika and encompasses the rift
valley, the lakes in the rift and the natural vegetation on the escarpment above the rift (Plumptre
et al 2003). The mountain chain comprising the Albertine Rift straddles the borders of 5 different
nations: the Democratic Republic of the Congo (over 70% of the Ecoregion), Uganda (20%),
Rwanda (6%), Burundi (3%) and Tanzania (1%) (WWF publication, year??).
1 Several studies have showed that the Albertine Rift region is very rich in total numbers of
endemic species of mammals, birds, snakes and amphibians (Plumptre et al, 2007). The sites
within the rift that are most threatened are often those which have no protected status or like those
in DRC that are affected by the civil wars (Plumptre et al, 2007) like the Virunga National park.
José Kalpers and Norbert Mushenzi’s article about DRC’s crisis years (in Languy and de Merode,
2009) provides a lot of information about the conflict within the park and its impacts on
biodiversity.
Indeed, armed conflict has affected the Northern sector of the park since the1986 unrest
(poaching gang). In 1990, several rebels groups formed in the region. As a consequence, several
rangers and members of their entourage were killed and patrol posts attacked. Poaching was the
principal means of financing the rebels’ activities.
In 1994, the year of the genocide in neighboring Rwanda, the massive influx of populations
fleeing Rwanda to seek refuge in Virunga National Park (PNVi), directly impacted the Park with
an unprecedented increase in the pressure on natural resources and causing conditions for the
inclusion of the park in the List of World Heritage Sites in Danger. The refugee situation led to
massive uncontrollable poaching and deforestation: 9,000 hippopotamus were killed and fuel
wood cut for refugee camps was estimated at 600 metric tons/day, depleting and erasing the
lowland forests. All other species of economic value were drastically reduced and tourism
stopped. The staff, which was often unpaid, lacked the means to patrol the 650 km-long
boundaries, and between 1996 and 2004, 105 men from the Park ranger force of 500 men were
killed. The north and centre of the Park was abandoned and protective soldiers turned to
poaching. In addition, fishing villages on Lake Rutanzige (Lake Edward) also threaten the
integrity of the Park. The 2001 eruption of Mt. Nyirangongo above Goma, has further added
greatly to the difficulties caused by civil war (UNESCO, 2001, 2002; Hart & Mwinyihali, 2001).
The Albertine Rift contains some of the highest human population densities and also some of the
poorest communities in Africa, with up to 6-700 people per km2 in the central part of the region
(South West Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi and the adjacent areas of DRC). Over 95% of the
people rely on subsistence farming for their livelihoods (Plumptre et al 2004). Forests
(Afromotanes) in this region are very rich in biodiversity. People living near protected areas like
the ViNP, use their resources for survival (land for agriculture and livestock, firewood). Because
of poverty, people use even prohibited land within the park. This juxtaposition of important areas
for conservation and high human population densities poses challenges to long term conservation
management (Plumptre et al 2004).
As climate is now changing rapidly, it is likely to add to all the existing pressures on biodiversity
as noted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in their third assessment
report (IPCC, 2001b). While there is much uncertainty about how individual species and
ecosystems will respond to the combined impacts of future climate change and other pressures on
biodiversity, it is important to investigate the actual state of climatic change impacts and nonclimate threats on biodiversity, especially on large mammals and livelihoods of people living in
and around ViNP, to manage future climate threats to conservation ant ViNP management.
Considering the importance of the ViNP on biodiversity within the Albertine region, and the lack
of sufficient information on climate change impact on large mammals, the central section of the
park was chosen for assessing the impact of climate change and non-climatic change threats on
biodiversity, especially on large mammals and communities livelihoods, in the past 15 years.
Indeed, there still is very little meteorological data for the ViNP including the central section
especially from the past several years. The present study therefore seeks to address the following:
2 a) To assess stakeholders’ perceptions of Climate change;
b) To assess the climatic change and non climatic change threats on the biodiversity
(especially on large mammals) and the interaction or link between them;
c) To assess the impact of climatic change threats on livelihood; and
d) To assess adaptation strategies developed by local communities and Park manager.
This report presents an initial record of findings related to known human stressors, perceptions of
climate change and noted impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services in the study areas in
central part of Virunga National Park of Democratic Republic of Congo in 2010/2011.
3 2
2.1
Methods
Description of the Study area
Created in 1925, Virunga National Park is the oldest national park in the country and in Africa. It
is situated in the center of the Albertine Rift (0°55'N -1°35'S and 29°10 - 30°00'E) with the
Valley of the Big Rift in the East and covering the mountains of the Virunga in part, close to
Rwanda and Uganda. Covering 790000 ha, the ViNP presents a diversity of habitats that are
incomparable with any other, including steppes, savannas and lava plains, swamps, lowland and
montane forests to volcanoes and the unique giant herbs and snowfields of Ruwenzori at over
5,000 meters (m) high. In 1929, the park was established as an extension of the Albert National
Park and in 1969, the park was revised by Decree No. 69-041 as ViNP, excluding a part which
became the Volcano National park in Rwanda and in 1996 the park was designated a Ramsar site
(800,000 ha). This Park is under Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature (ICCN)
administration, which is one of the institutions in the Ministry for Environment, Conservation of
Nature and Tourism. Virunga National park is made up of three sectors, the Northern, Central and
Southern, as defined by park management requirements.
The central sector of ViNP is made up of the western and southern banks of Lake Edward and the
plains of Rwindi- Rutshuru through to Mabenga. This sector also includes the Lulimbi region,
bordering the Ishasha River in the east, which forms the international boundary with Uganda.
This zone is sometimes, erroneously, referred to as the Eastern Sector. The surface area of the
Central Sector is 339,173 hectares, of which 144,548 ha are part of Lake Edward (Languy & de
Merode, 2009). This sector of the park, with the northern sector, is the richest in biodiversity
characterized by savanna and wetland habitat. The zones of savanna shelter various populations
of ungulates and the density of biomass of wild mammals is one of the highest on the planet (314
tonnes/km2). Human activities are the biggest threat to biodiversity in this sector resulting from
the high density of population in the surrounding areas and within the park. The central sector,
stretching from the Nguli patrol post through to Mabenga, is managed from the Rwindi Station.
This station has been pillaged and attacked on numerous occasions in the past; therefore the
infrastructure is badly degraded. Such aggression resulted in the listing of ViNP as a World
Heritage in Danger in 1994 because of invasion by vast numbers of war refugees and subsequent
massive poaching, deforestation and degradation (UNEP, 2009). The park was originally
designated as a World Heritage site in 1979 (UNESCO, 1979).
4 Fig. 1: The central section of the Virunga national park
(Source: Tayna Center for Conservation Biology, GIS Department)
Climate in the ViNP
Virunga National Park is described as a mosaic of microclimates because of the marked variation
in altitude, even over relatively small distances. Meteorological base stations have been managed
from town, outside the park, but their records bear little relation to the weather inside the park
(Languy & de Merode, 2009). The climate within the park is bimodal with two rain seasons,
centered on October-November and April- May, and two dry seasons centered on January and
July. However, the rainfall and temperatures vary a lot according to the altitude and the relief.
The areas of lowest and highest rainfall in the DRC are found in ViNP less than 75 km apart. The
plains to the south of the lake Edouard are hot and receive less than 1,000 mm of precipitations
per year on average, while the saddle between the Karisimbi volcanos, Mikeno and Bisoke
receives more than 2,000 mm tat 3,000 m of altitude. Above 3,500 m, nocturnal frosts are
frequent. The mean annual temperature in the lowlands is between 20oC and 23oC with a 12oC
diurnal range
2.2
Sampling
Information about the impact of climate change and non-climatic stressors on biodiversity was
focused on large mammals. The study covered six villages in the central sector of ViNP, namely:
Vitshumbi and Rwindi (inside the park) in the territory of Rutshuru, Lunyasenge (inside the park)
in the territory of Lubero, and Kanyabanyonga, Kiwanja and Nyamilima (outside the park) in the
territory of Rutshuru. Vitshumbi is a fishing village like Kiavinonge and Nyakakoma within the
park. Rwindi is the administrative station of the center sector, and agriculture is practiced in other
villages.
5 From each village, a sample size of around 25 households was selected at random for the
interview. Finally, a total of 107 heads of households were interviewed - 27 in Vitshumbi, 15 in
Lunyasenge, 26 in Kanyabayonga, 25 in Kiwanja and 14 in Nyamilima. The difference in number
heads of households interviewed (from 14 to 27) within villages is due to the fact that time was
very limited due to security concerns at the study sites. Vitshumbi was the quieter village where
people were more readily available for interviews than others. At Lunyasenge people were very
distrustful and distant because they believed the researchers were park worker, which made it
extremely difficult to obtain objective information from them. Ultimately the research at this site
had to be halted because whatever information had been obtained from the villagers until then
was very skewed and did not appear correct. Similarly at Nyamilima, researchers were forced to
stop their investigation because of security concerns; there were attacks by armed troops a couple
of days earlier and the researchers could not remain there longer. At Rwindi station discussions
were held with the available park manager and park workers. Focused group discussions were
also conducted for groups of around 10 people organized by gender, or by activity.
2.3
Data collection
Different methods were employed in primary data collection namely focused group discussions,
household questionnaire surveys and direct observations while secondary data collection involved
review of publications and reports.
Primary data collection
Focus group discussions were carried out with participants guided by a checklist of questions.
The participants were village leaders, international conservation NGOs such as World Wildlife
Fund (WWF) and Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), ViNP authorities, the Ministry of
agriculture, fisheries and livestock and local health institutions. We also interacted with local
NGO such as Coopérative des Pécheurs de Vitshumbi (COOPEVI), Programme d’Action de
Développement Rurale (PADERU), and Union des Femmes des Pécheurs pour le Développement
Intégral du Paysan (UNEFEDIP). Focus group discussions provided more clarification on issues
arising from the structured interviews and facilitated collection of very useful and relevant
information for the study. It enabled collection of information on people’s early perceptions on
the impacts of climate change on biodiversity and livelihoods in the area.
Secondary data collection
Secondary data were collected through reviews of both published and unpublished documents.
Literature search entailed review and documentation of information pertaining to climate change
and its impacts on African biodiversity in the Albertine rift region, especially in ViNP. We also
reviewed information pertaining to the livelihoods of people living within and outside the
protected area. This helped to assimilate up-to-date available information and as well as identify
knowledge gaps in the understanding of climate change and biodiversity conservation in ViNP.
The following sources of secondary data were used:
1. ICCN, Rumangabo and Rwindi meteorological stations: Long term temperature and rainfall
data were obtained from the records of Rumangabo and Rwindi meteorological stations
within the ViNP in Goma/DRC. Forty-eight years of data from 1960-2008 from the recording
station located within the park in Goma was obtained. We analyzed this data to determine the
trends of rainfall and temperature over this period and justify people perception of climate
change.
6 2. Publication - The survival of Africa's First national park (Languy and de Merode): This
publication served as a source of data information on the DRC armed conflicts from 1994 to
2006, on the number of hippopotamuses in Virunga National park between 1959-2005 and on
the description of the central section.
3. Municipal Corporation of Vitshumbi Village: Data on major socio-economic activities of
residents was obtained.
Direct observation
The method involved observation of the current status of biodiversity in the park, taking some
photographs, observing local people’s activities, behaviors, relationships, phenomenon, networks
and processes in the field to supplement information collected through other methods. Without
direct observation, it would have been difficult to have an objective understanding of the
information provided by the people interviewed and surveyed. It allowed us to see with our own
eyes impacts that could be attributed to climate change and to non-climatic stressors. It was then
clear to assess people perception of climate change stressors on biodiversity and livelihood.
Questionnaire
The questionnaire helped to obtain information on perceptions of climate change and nonclimatic risks affecting biodiversity among park managers, local communities and key individuals
or group actors within the central part of the park. It also helped to shed light on the kind of ecoservices people benefit from and ecosystems that contribute to their well being; the interaction
between people’s activities, ecosystems and park management; and people’s perceptions of the
most vulnerable species. Perceptions regarding non-climatic risks and conflicts between local
communities and park managers were also investigated. In this context, the questionnaire was
also used to find out the implications of climate risks for biodiversity and park management
strategies. Three types of questionnaires were designed according to targeted groups and key
questions pertain to:
−
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−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
2.4
How do people perceive climate in their own environment?
Is there any observed change in climate?
Do people know some thing about climate change?
What are the main threats for biodiversity, especially for large mammals that can be
attributed to climate change?
What are the main human threats to large mammals?
What are the more threatened species of animals?
How has climate change impacted large mammals?
What is the principal livelihood activity in the area?
How is this activity impacted by climate change?
What strategies have people developed to adapt to climate change?
What are the relations between the park and local communities?
What goods and services do people get from the park?
Data processing and analysis
The coding, processing and analysis of the data were keyed in MS Excel worksheet for statistical
analysis of the data and estimated parameters.
7 3
3.1
Results
Perceptions of Climate change among local communities and park agents
Local communities’ perception of climate change
The perception of climate change depends upon what people see and feel about temperature and
rainfall, and their impacts on livelihood activities, especially agriculture. In four villages
(Visthumbi, Lunyasenge, Kanyabayonga and Kiwanja), there have been noted changes in climate
over last 20 years according to the opinions of more than 55% people investigated. They noted
that temperature had increased while rainfall had decreased appreciably. But at Nyamilima,
nearly 60% of investigated people had not perceived any change, while nearly 40% of them felt
that temperature increased and rainfall decreased.
Fig. 2: Perceptions regarding change in climate over last 20 years
Fig. 3: Perceptions regarding rainfall patterns over last 20 years
8 Fig. 4: Perceptions regarding changes in temperature over last 20 years
Park managers’ perception of climate change
At Rwindi station, Park managers and rangers did not notice any changes in temperature and
rainfall patterns. They noted that temperatures remained elevated overall but they did observe
changes in the arrival rainfall over the past 6 years. According to their observations, the arrival of
rainfall had been erratic, sometimes late, sometime on time and sometime earlier. As a result the
dry season was often prolonged for one or two months.
If we refer to climatic data, the feeling of park managers is justified. Indeed, climatic data
collected at Goma’s meteorological station show us fluctuations in rainfall and temperature from
year to year. After analysis the annual average of precipitation for the period of 1960-2008 was
1170.42mm and 19, 6 for temperature. The maximum record of rainfall was 2510.1mm in 1962
and the minimum 535.0mm in 1989. The trends reveal an overall decrease in precipitation (Fig.
5) and an increase in temperature (Fig. 6)
y = -5,913x + 1320,5
3000,00
2
R = 0,0798
2500,00
2000,00
1500,00
1000,00
500,00
Fig. 5: Annual average precipitation at Goma meteorological station (1960-2008)
9 08
20
05
20
02
96
99
20
19
93
19
19
90
19
87
84
19
78
81
19
19
19
75
19
72
69
19
66
19
19
63
19
19
60
0,00
2008
2006
2004
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1984
1982
1980
1978
1976
1974
1972
1970
1968
1966
1964
1962
1960
2002
y = 0,037x + 18,8
2
R = 0,3812
21,50
21,00
20,50
20,00
19,50
19,00
18,50
18,00
17,50
17,00
16,50
16,00
Fig. 6: Annual average temperature at Goma meteorological station (1960-2008)
3.2
Climatic and non-climatic change threats to large mammals
Climatic threats
Climatic threats such as prolonged drought, cause the drying up of some pools or rivers. The
scarcity of water can impact large mammals and can lead to disease and animal migration toward
other places. Unfortunately, the research team could not make direct observations because Rwindi
station and the ViNP remained occupated by the military making it very dangerous for visitors,
even for park rangers. There, determining the impact of climate change on large mammals is
currently difficult in the ViNP and further research must be conducted to confirm the above
possibilities.
Non-climatic threats
More than 80% of investigated people recognized that there significant impacts to large mammals
induced by non-climatic threats within the central section of ViNP. Poaching is the main threat,
particularly to hippopotamus, elephants, antelopes and buffalos (mainly at Rwindi station) in the
central sector of the park. Hippopotamus have a lot of flesh, so their trade returns a lot of money.
Elephants are killed more for their ivory and antelopes’ meat is a delicacy. Poaching of
Hippopotamus is concentrated within the park near Lake Edouard (which was with its river
network once home to the greatest hippo population on the planet), where people also practice
intensive fishing (see Figures 9 and 10). Table 1 shows how hippopotamus populations decreased
since 1994. Other major threats to biodiversity include deforestation and population growth in
areas inside and surrounding the park. Firewood is a sought after commodity by local
communities. Factors such as rapid demographic growth and a lack of forest management and
reforestation strategies as well as poor financial management of forest beyond the park have
resulted in a lack of vital firewood resources for communities.
10 Fig. 7: Principal non climatic stressors on large mammals
Table 1: Number of hippopotamuses in Virunga National Park from 1959 to 2005
1959
1974
1981
1989
1994
2003
Semliki River
8,811
3,852
2,325
995
141
34
Lake Edward
7,804
9,638
7,769
7,019
4,011
892
Rwindi River
1,300
1,278
920
2,324
1,314
78
Ishasha River
100
335
462
467
400
141
Rutshuru River 7,340
10,262
7,337
9,121
4,417
164
Interior ponds
1,175
3,813
2,282
2,949
566
0
Total
26,530
29,178
21,095
22,875
10,849
1,309
2005
50
683
35
61
58
0
887
(Source: Languy and de Merode (Eds.), The Survival of Africa’s First National Park, 2006, pp.147)
3.3
Interaction between climatic and non climatic threats to large mammals
Human threats on large mammals are more visible than climatic change threats within the central
sector of ViNP. There are a lot illegal activities resulting in the depletion of natural resources, the
principle ones being deforestation, poaching, agriculture and war. Changes in climate combined
with human activities such as agriculture have contributed to the drying up of pools and rivers
where animals drink water and have led to the migration of large mammals to other parks such as
Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda. Indeed, there will likely be increasing competition for
water resources between people and animals. Deforestation may further accelerate drought
episodes and cause increases on temperature. This fact, combined with a decrease on rainfall will
likely lead to species loss, diseases, perturbation on species distribution and other impacts.
3.4
Impacts of climatic threats on livelihoods
There are people living within the park boundaries like at Vitshumbi and Lunyasenge, even
though in Lunyasenge, communities do not want to accept that they are living within the park.
This situation represents the historical link between ViNP and local communities. Local
communities in Vitshumbi live off fishing and while those in Lunyasenge practice both
agriculture and fishing with agriculture being the predominant activity. The main form of
livelihood for people living in the matrix is typically agriculture while overall for the area fishing
and agriculture activities are the principal means of subsistence. The main crops are maize,
11 potatoes, beans, cassava and vegetables. The incomes from these activities help households in
many ways mainly food, educating the children and to take care of primary needs.
Climate change has a perceptible impact on agriculture. Farmers have registered poor harvests
over the years because of the lack of rainfall. They also noted a decrease on soil fertility. At
Vitshumbi, since people do not practice agriculture it was difficult for them to detect climate
change impact on their livelihood activity (fishing). While there are fluctuations in the lake water
levels, theya re common and could not be definitely attributed to climate change. At time there
are insufficient fish populations in the lake but this is mainly attributed to poor fishing practices.
Activities within and around Rwindi station
Fig. 8: Carbonization
[Charcoal is the principal source of energy for people due to the lack of electricity. The increasing
urbanization of local communities has particularly boosted the demand of charcoal (Makala). People
deliver it to Goma each day. This picture shows a man who is going to sell charcoal to people going to
Goma]
12 Fig. 9: Processing of fish at Vitshumbi
[Smoked fish is a method of preservation since people do not have freezers to store fresh fish.
The other way form of preservation is salting.]
Fig. 10: Salted fish at Lunyasenge
[This is another method of preserving fish]
13 Fig. 11: Crop cultivation at Kiwadja
Fig. 12: Trade and exchange of different products between Vitshumbi’s villagers and Lungasenge’s
communities.
[Vitshumbi’s people bring fish to Lunyasenge and buy vegetable, maize, cassava, etc. there,
as they do not practice crop cultivation.]
14 V.4. Adaptation strategies
Fig. 13 : Poaching and the location of poaching sites within the park
(Source: Tayna Center for Conservation Biology, 2011)
3.5
Adaptation strategies
Adaptation strategies developed by local communities
Local communities who practice agriculture have developed a few techniques to cope with
variation in rainfall and temperature, mainly at Kiwanja and Lunyasenge. In general, people have
chosen to grow crops before the farming season. Because of soil infertility issues, local
populations surrounding ViNP the unsustainable practice of slash-and-burn agriculture at
changing locations in the park. This technique however causes pollution and degradation of
vegetation in the park.
Adaptation strategies developed by park managers
As shown previously, climatic change impacts on large mammals are not yet very perceptible, so
there are no adaptive strategies developed. However, ICCN, in collaboration with itspartners like
NGOs involved in conservation, have developed some strategies to reduce human threats on large
mammals:
•
•
Armed troops have been removed from the park: Military camps and posts were
established inside the park as a result of rebel activity. They posed a significant threat
however because undisciplined armed men have led to insecurity, deforestation and
illegal hunting of large mammals which was the only available source of protein for
them.
An alternate arrangement has now been made between ViNP and Forces Armées de la
République Démocratique du Congo (FARDC) to assume park control.
15 •
•
•
•
3.6
Efforts have also been focused on surveillance: now there are two park rangers every
100m
WWF has many projects such as the delimitation operation of the park, to establish the
boundaries of the park, in order to avoid conflict of land between local communities and
the park managers; the Ecomakala1 project, which aims will create a large plantation of
4000 to 5000ha in five years to respond to the communities’ need for fuel wood and
reduce the pressure of on the forest in Goma.
The Programme d’Action de Développement Rurale (PADERU) in Vitshumbi has a fish
smoking industry. Almost all fishermen’s wives go to PADERU’s fish smoking facilities
to smoke fish and thereby to preserve them in the absence of electricity. This practice
reduces deforestation, because PADERU does not use timber from the park. The
initiative has also generated job opportunities for women, even if there are still some
women who prefer to smoke fish at home. Most of fishermen’s wives in Vitshumbi are
member of PADERU.
The other initiative is reforestation: It has been demonstrated that deforestation can have
destabilize large mammals and climate within the park. ICCN is making efforts to
sensitize people and park managers on restoration of forest through reforestation
activities.
Socio economic aspects of ViNP, Rwindi station
ViNP experiences many social conflicts between local communities and park managers. These
conflicts are more about land tenure and cause problems to park management. Within the park in
Vitshumbi the situation is quieter because the village is legally recognized by park authorities.
Vitshumbi and Kyavinyonge are the two fisheries with a legal status within the park. A third
fishery, Nyakakoma, is also tolerated.
Local communities are however unhappy because they claim that ICCN has not respected the
contract signed between customary chiefs and the park. According to that contract, ViNP was
supposed to build schools, hospitals and social infrastructure and allow people free access to
firewood. But up until now, ViNP has not been able to satisfy these community needs. Park
managers blame the situation on the political atmosphere and claim they are making their best
efforts.
Another problem pertains to the land, mainly at Lunyasenge. Agriculture and related activities are
forbidden within the park yet agriculture is the main source of livelihood in that village. This has
generated conflict between the community and park agents. Communities believe that the land
belongs to them and that their land is not apart of the park. But the ICCN claims that the village is
within the park as the ViNP boundary designation card clearly shows (Figure 1). Another social
issue is the lack of benefit sharing. Local communities living in and around the park feel that they
do not benefit from the existence of the park at all, because there is no school or hospital.
Resources from the park in the Central sector are limited and access is also restricted. Alternate
modes of livelihoods in the area are scarce. Tourism and related business, a common livelihood
activity in many protected areas is not easy to practice here due to the ongoing military
intervention and security concerns.
Ecomakala Project: See:
http://wwf.panda.org/who_we_are/wwf_offices/belgium/projects/index.cfm?uProjectID=CD0015
16 4
Discussion
We investigated the perception of climate change by local communities and park managers, in
order to learn more about climate change threats and non-climatic stresses for large mammals in
the central sector of ViNP. We noted that within ViNP, climate change seems to be a very new
topic to park managers, rangers and local communities. People’s perception of climate change
depends on what they see or feel about the atmosphere. It is generally easier for people to talk
about climate change in related to a specific climate dependent activity such as agriculture.
Increases in temperature and the perturbation of rainfall were some of the observed changes in
our study. A majority of the people felt that temperature has increased whereas rainfall has
decreased within the central sector, with impacts such as drought, drying up of pools and rivers
and low harvests for farmers. The lack of meteorological data to establish the trend of
temperature and rainfall during the last 20 years did not allow us to verify these perceptions. The
general lack of information on climate change and its impacts on biodiversity for ViNP landscape
makes the work even more difficult. It is easier to see how other non-climatic stressors such as
the war, deforestation and other human livelihood activities have impacted large mammals within
the park. Hippopotamus, elephants, antelope and buffalos, are the more threatened mammals in
this part of the park. Over the past 30 years, ViNP has lost many animals. For example, there
were 30000 hippopotamus 30 years ago, but in 2009 the park had only 1300 hippopotamus
(UNEP, 2009).
As climate change is already underway in the Albertine rift region we can anticipate impact on
large mammals in the ViNP in the future, which can potentially be:
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
Diseases such as anthrax due to drought
Changes in the timing of species’ lifecycles: there is mounting evidence, for example,
that species are breeding earlier in many parts of the world as a result of recent warming,
changes in population dynamics and survival: temperature and moisture availability
directly affect the physiology of species
Changes in the location of species’ habitats due to shift in rainfall and temperature
patterns
Increases in the risk of extinction for species that are already vulnerable
Increased opportunities for range expansion of invasive species,
Changes in the structure and composition of ecosystems and communities
Increased fire regime occurrences due to persistent drought and reduced rainfall
All these potential impacts of climate change on biodiversity have not yet been perceived by local
communities or park managers within the central section of the ViNP, which seems to be most
threatened by human pressures (poaching, population growth and deforestation). The density of
population has increased very rapidly mainly because of natural demographic evolution,
comparable or superior to other African countries. Tragic conflicts that have affected the regions
of the great lakes in general and the East of the DRC and the region surrounding ViNP in
particular have also played a big role. Rwanda’s genocide of 1994, the wars of 1996 and 2003,
followed by instability and insecurity are notable events that have caused population
displacement (Languy et al, 2010).
Deforestation is the most visible and most documented impact of the refugee crisis (Karper.J and
Mushenzi.N). Indeed, people need wood as a source of energy, land for agriculture and other
natural resources for their day-to-day survival. In addition to the war, there has also been a loss of
institutional control by the ICCN and other state divisions for about 15 years, which resulted in
17 military occupation of the park with illegal exploitation of resources. More than 70% of the
incidents of poaching in the national park of the Garamba and in the ViNP (RDC) are linked to
members of armed groups, according to the Languy and de Merode publication (2009).
The interaction between climatic change threats and non-climatic threats will likely become more
perceptible in the future. The decrease of rainfall can lead to decrease of food resources for
animals; a long period of drought due to climate change can cause the migration of animals to
other parks, such as Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda or in Rwanda. ViNP management
is very much challenged, a fact that ICCN and its partners in conservation are well aware of. That
is why they are now ongoing efforts to restore park biodiversity. According to local communities
and park rangers, the park registered a reduction in poaching in 2010 after new strategies of
control were established. Some animals like antelopes, elephants and hippopotamus, are slowly
returning to the park, they observed.
However, without meteorological data, it will be difficult to confirm the impact of climate change
on large mammals and on agriculture. The political situation in DRC, especially in the eastern
part gives little opportunity to ViNP management to contribute to the wellbeing of local
communities and to the effectively protect biodiversity.
18 5
Conclusion
The study seeks to assess climatic change threats and non-climatic stresses on biodiversity
especially on large mammals and human livelihoods within the central sector of the ViNP, over
the last 20 years and to establish the link between the two kinds of threats. It is clear that, there is
more evidence of human threats on large mammals than climatic change threats within this
sector, due to the insecurity caused by the war and the weak capacity to protect and supervise the
sector by ICCN. Perhaps we can add the lack of political will as another principal factor, which
encourages this situation within the park. As a result activities such as poaching, deforestation,
agriculture have contributed more to species loss that any noted changes in climate.
Hippopotamus, buffalo, elephant and antelopes are the most threatened because of their meat or
ivory. Even though the ICCN is slowly bringing the situation under control to save this part of
the park, the central sector is still very fragile, because the weak political and social situation.
While efforts are focused on reducing human threats to biodiversity, it seems difficult for park
managers to pay attention to managing climatic change. The park does not have infrastructure to
help record climatic variation and assess the impact on large mammals. All meteorological
stations were destroyed during the war. Yet, climate change will pose a challenge to ViNP
management, exacerbated by the impacts of human activities. ViNP needs further research on the
impact of climate change on its large mammals. There is still much work to be done for the
conservation and management of ViNP in this context and special efforts for sensitization and
information dissemination on climate change and its impacts on biodiversity and livelihood are
necessary. It is clear that one of livelihood activities i.e. agriculture around the central sector is
already experiencing impacts of rainfall and temperature variations. Degradation of ViNP’s
resources due to military conflicts and dependence of local populations on fertile land and meat
within the park boundaries threaten biodiversity in the central sector. This situation poses
challenges to achieving key millennium development goals in DRC, especially reducing poverty
and malnutrition and sustainably managing biodiversity. A stable political situation will allow the
park to play a better role in providing goods and services to local communities and to the world.
We are convinced that the ViNP deserves particular attention firstly, as a recognized world
heritage site and secondly, because of its rich biodiversity and eco-services that can benefit local
communities and contribute to improving the economic situation in DRCongo. We are also
convinced that efforts must be made to investigate changes in climate and its impacts to enable
appropriate response strategies by park management. We recommend that:
1. In the same way that the ICCN is reinforcing park control, it must develop a monitoring
system for climate variation within the park;
2. Meteorological data collection must be rehabilitated and meteorological stations and
infrastructure must be restored over the entire park;
3. Research must be conducted on climate change impacts on large mammals within the
park;
4. Provincial Secretariats of climate change must be equipped with computer facilities for
processing and storage of data;
5. Provincial Secretariats of climate change must be provided with minimum financial, real
estate and infrastructure support to facilitate their work;
6. We encourage ICCN to pursue the participatory demarcation process of ViNP boundaries
to avoid conflicts between local people and the park
7. Our precious wish is that war could come to an end, for the security of biodiversity and
people
19 6
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21 7
List of abbreviations
CBD: Convention of Biology Diversity
CI: Conservation International
CRSN: Centre de Recherche en Sciences Naturelles/Lwiro
COPEVI: Coopérative des Pécheurs de Vitshumbi
DRC: Democratic Republic of the Congo
FARDC : Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo
FDLR : Force Démocratique pour la Libération Rwandaise
GIEC: Groupe Intergouvernemental d’Expert sur Changement Climatique
ICCN: Institut Congolais de Conservation de la Nature
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
NGO: Non Governmental Organization
OCEAN: Organisation Concertée des Ecologistes et Amis de la Nature
PADERU : Programme d’Action de Développement Rurale
TCCB: Tayna Center of Conservation Biology
UN : United Nations
UNEP : United Nations Environment Programme
UFEPDIP : Union des Femmes des Pécheurs pour le Développement Intégral du Paysan
ViNP: Virunga National Park
WCS: Wild Conservation Society
WWF: World Wildlife Found
22 Acknowledgments
This research work has been undertaken as part of the training course on climate change and biodiversity
conservation, held at the University of Dar Es Salaam, from July to September 2010. The training program
was implemented by the Institute Resource Assessment (IRA) in collaboration with START (Global
Change SysTem for Analysis, Research and Training) and was funded by the MacArthur foundation. We
are very grateful to all the above institutions. The team is thankful to Mr Pierre KAKULE, the director of
Tayna Center of Conservation Biology (TCCB) for hosting us and providing us access to their facilities.
The team is grateful for the support from our home Institutions - Organisation Concertée des Ecologistes et
Amis de la Nature (OCEAN), Tayna Center of Conservation Biology (TCCB), Centre de Recherche en
Sciences Naturelles (CRSN/Lwiro) and Centre de Recherche en Hydrobiologie/Uvira) which gave us
permission to conduct the research. We are grateful to our mentor, Dr Arthur KALONJI, for his advice and
help.
The team acknowledges the contribution of several individuals and institutions who have made this work
possible: the warden of ViNP Rwindi station, Mr Rodrigue KATEMBO; village leaders who collaborated
in this effort; and members of local and International NGOs such as UPDE, UFEPDIP, PADERU,
COOPEVI, Comité des pêcheurs, WWF/GOMA and WCS/GOMA. The team extends thanks to the rangers
and agents and local communities who were available to share their knowledge with us.
We are also grateful to all other entities who have contributed to this research, in Goma, Vitshumbi,
Lunyasenge, Rwindi, Kanyabayonga, Kiwanja, Nyamilima and Rutshuru.
23