Track & Field Technical
Certification
Organizing and Planning
Training for Track and Field
Training Theory

Stimulus and Adaptation. The human body reacts to any stress in a way which better prepares
it to deal with a similar stress at some later time. Training for athletics is in its simplest form a
planned series of stresses designed to produce a series of such changes in the body. The training
we design and apply to produce these changes is called the training stimulus, and the resulting
changes are called the training adaptation.

Training Theory. Training Theory is a body of science that examines how the body reacts in
response to exercise, and how this exercise can be planned and administered to an athlete in
order to gain the best and most timely performances in sport. Study of the basic principles of
Training Theory that govern the design of training for athletics comprises the remainder of this
section.
Foundations of Training Theory

The Overload Principle. The Overload Principle states that if we want to increase fitness levels
in an athlete, the training stimulus we apply must be more difficult than that to which the
athlete is accustomed. Applying a stimulus of a magnitude less than this will not elicit a positive
adaptation. For long term progress, the training stimuli must become progressively and
systematically more difficult over time. Keep in mind though, that at any time the magnitude of
the training stimulus must be appropriate. If it is too difficult, it may produce too much stress
and make adaptation more difficult. If it is too easy, it will not produce the desired results.

The Principle of Reversibility. The Principle of Reversibility states that if the training stimulus
ever decreases to a level below that which the athlete is accustomed, fitness levels will fall.
While some reversibility may be permitted during planned rest periods, excessive periods of
reversibility compromise the results of the training program.

Principle of Rest and Recovery Inclusion. The Principle of Rest and Recovery Inclusion states
that rest and recovery must be included as a planned part of any successful training program. It
cannot be assumed that this rest will occur. Rest is critical, since adaptation occurs not during
training, but during the rest periods between training bouts. This rest may not take the form of
total rest, but might consist of resting a particular body system on a day when other systems are
being trained. As far as specific training design is concerned, rest days, easy days, use
therapeutic modalities, and regular training sessions geared toward recovery are all part of good
training design.


Principle of Specificity of Adaptation. The Principle of Specificity of Adaptation states that the
adaptations that result from a training stimulus are specific to the nature of the training
stimulus.
o
Specificity. In short, the type of training done determines the type of adaptation
produced, since the body’s concern is preparing itself to better deal with a similar stress
at a later date. This means that specific training must be designed to closely resemble
the demands of competition.
o
Grouping Training Activities. The Principle Specificity of Adaptation implies that all
units combined into a training session should have a common theme, so that units of
training stimuli do not conflict in goal or purpose and that all of the units contribute to
the theme. Combining training components with widely different goals into a training
session confuses the body’s adaptive processes and progress occurs only by chance.
Speed & Power Development, Strength and Speed Development, Work Capacity
Development, Recovery Enhancement, Skill, Speed and Coordination Development, and
Energy System Development are session themes commonly used in good programs.
Training stimuli of radically different natures should be spaced, ideally placed in
separate sessions.
o
Adaptation Timeframes. Adaptations to a workout or series of workouts are typically
complete within 21-28 days, so shifting emphases in training on a regular basis is
important if training time is not to be wasted.
Matveyev’s Model. Matveyev’s model is a graphic representation of how fitness levels are
affected by the training stimulus. When a training stimulus is applied, fitness levels initially
decrease due to fatigue factors. Eventually the organism recovers and surpasses the previous
fitness level, achieving a state of supercompensation. After some time, without added training
stimulus, fitness levels erode to their previous levels. Insufficient training stimuli result in poor
supercompensation, while excessively difficult training stimuli make recovery difficult and
supercompensation hard to achieve.

The Principle of Variance. The Principle of Variance states that variety in training helps to
eliminate staleness, enhance adaptation, and prevent injury. Repeatedly stressing body systems
in the same way can result in overuse syndromes. Employing variety in training can alleviate
these stresses.

The Principle of Individualization. The level of the training stimulus must be appropriate for an
athlete to progress properly. Training that is too difficult or too easy fails to produce the desired
adaptation. The Principle of Individualization states all individuals are different, so training must
be individualized for each athlete’s present level of development. Training cannot be
indiscriminately applied to groups with any hope for group wide success.

Thematic Training. At high levels, due to the amount or difficulty of work needed, it is difficult
to address all of the necessary physical performance components simultaneously. At any point
in the training calendar, certain abilities are being addressed intensely, while others are
addressed intensely at some other time. The concept of Thematic Training refers to the process
of establishing a theme for each portion of training. This theme usually consists of the
development of two or three key physical performance components.

Peaking. Peaking refers to the planning of training to produce the athlete’s best performances
at the desired times, usually the most important competitions. The final few weeks of training
leading up to these competitions is commonly called a peaking period. Training may be set up to
produce from one to three peaks per year, but more peaking periods diminish the chance for
very high performances.

Volume and Intensity. Volume is defined as the amount of training performed. Intensity is
defined as the difficulty of training done. Generally speaking, most good training systems
progress from high volume, low intensity work to lower volume, higher intensity work over the
course of time. This is necessary to prepare the athlete for the intensity of competition.

General and Specific Training. General training is defined as training activities that do not
directly simulate the demands of the event. Specific Training is defined as training that does
directly resemble the demands of the event. While the Principle of Specificity of Adaptations
dictates that training must be specific for good results, general training has a place in the
training program. The purpose of general training is to prepare the athlete for the more intense,
specific training. Over the course of time, training should progress from general to specific.

Simple and Complex Training. Training can be classified as simple or complex by the relative
difficulty of the motor tasks and exercises employed in training. Generally speaking, over the
course of time, training should progress from simple to complex.
Training Design Modules
In the following section, we will examine the units of training that comprise the training program, and
planning considerations for each.

The Annual Plan. The Annual Plan is a plan that identifies all the available training time and
provides a framework over which detailed training is planned. The annual plan illustrates the
location, sequencing, and duration of all phases of training, as well the themes associated with
each. The annual plan should also include the competition schedule and peaking periods. A
fundamental concept in the design of an annual plan is the concept of working back. This means
that once the time available to train and the critical competitions which normally come at the
end of the year are located on the calendar, training is planned backwards from that point.

The Macrocycle. The Macrocycle is a segment of training associated with one peaking period.
Many annual plans for Track and Field consist of an indoor macrocycle and an outdoor
macrocycle. The considerations discussed earlier regarding volume and intensity, general and
specific training, and simple and complex training hold true for each individual macrocycle.

The Phase.
A phase is a segment of a macrocycle with a gross theme. Typically most
macrocycles are divided into two phases, a preparation phase and a competition phase.

The Period. A period is a segment of a phase with a gross theme. In most macrocycles, the
preparation phase is divided into two periods, The General Preparation Period and the Specific
Preparation Period. The Competition Phase is divided into two phases, the Precompetition
Period, consisting of the less important preliminary competitions, and the Competition Period,
consisting of the important later competitions and the peaking period.

The Mesocycle. A mesocycle is a 4-6 week segment of training. Mesocycles are usually
associated with some theme, and the sequencing of individual mesocycles should demonstrate
proper sequencing of training.

The Microcycle. A Microcyle is a 7-10 day long segment of training. For planning convenience,
most microcycles are one week in length. The microcycle typically has a theme, and consists of a
number of training sessions sequenced in some designed order. Throughout the microcycle, to
provide needed rest, recovery and variety, training emphases should alternate.

The Session. A session is defined as a single training opportunity. Each session should have a
theme, and should be organized and sequenced in a logical fashion.

The Unit. A unit is a segment of a session composed of similar training activities. When units are
organized into a session, they should be sequenced as follows. Keep in mind that except for the
warmup and cooldown, it is not imperative that any session include all of these elements.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Warmup
Skill and Technical Activities
Speed and Power Activities
Strength and Endurance Activities
Cooldown
Training Design Examples
Organizing Training

Organizing Speed Training
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Sequencing Speed Training. When developing a speed development program, progress
patiently over the course of time from a focus on accelerative power, to absolute speed,
to speed endurance. Once a particular theme has been well addressed, advance to the
next, but periodically return and review the previously accomplished work. Speed
endurance work interferes with speed development, so it should be postponed until
later, after accelerative power and absolute speed have been adequately addressed.
o
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
Speed Training Protocols. To develop speed, athletes must be given opportunities to
express speed in training. The quality of the work is the critical factor, and Intensities
achieved in acceleration, speed, and speed endurance work must be high. In order to
insure this quality, recoveries must be long enough to insure that each bout of work is of
high intensity, and volumes should be low enough to insure that intensity is not falling
at the end of the session due to fatigue. This same training premise should be applied to
other forms of work that include high speeds of movement, such as multijumps,
multithrows, and Olympic lifts.
Organizing Strength Training
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General Strength as a Foundation. General strength work should be a consistent
component of the training program, serving as the primary strength development tool
for young athletes, and serving to stimulate recovery in advanced athletes. Medicine
Ball work accomplishes similar goals and should be applied in a similar way.
o
Sequencing Strength Training. Reactive strength, power, and absolute strength should
be trained in a remedial way until general strength gains and proficiency have been
attained. Advanced absolute strength, power, and elastic strength work should be
attempted only with experienced, advanced athletes.
Organizing Endurance Training
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Sequencing Endurance Training. Over the course of time, endurance programs should
be designed to patiently progress in intensity and anaerobic demand.
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Endurance Training Activities. When examining run training, good programs progress
from interval work to repetition work in accordance with the principle of increasing
anaerobic demand. Other endurance development tools, such as circuit training, lessen
injury risk, can be used at any time, and can also be designed to stimulate recovery.
o
Cautions for Speed/Power Athletes. Endurance and energy system fitness training
does have a part in training for all events. However, in many training systems for the
sprints, hurdles, jumps, and throws, the endurance component is overdone and actually
harms the development of speed related abilities. With these types of athletes, purely
aerobic work should be avoided. Endurance training for these athletes should be
carefully planned, never overdone, and never scheduled on the same day as speed
oriented training.

Organizing Flexibility Training. Flexibility training of all types is normally administered fairly
consistently throughout the macrocycle. Athletes should consistently be subjected to a diverse
array of flexibility and mobility oriented activities.

Organizing Coordination Training. Constant attention should be given to developing
coordination in all athletes. Improvements in coordination are the key to improvements in
technique and speed levels. The athlete should be consistently subjected to a variety of
coordination demanding activities throughout the training year.
Testing in Training

The Testing Program. Testing is the measurement of performances in controlled environments
in order to gain an accurate, objective means of evaluation. Testing can be used to identify
talent, analyze the training program, evaluate an athlete’s strengths and weaknesses, or to
predict performance. Testing should be rigorously controlled and administered consistently to
insure the validity of the data obtained.

Sample Tests. Common tests used are listed below. A coach may employ any or all at certain
times in the training regimen.
o
30 Meter Sprint. A test of accelerative power. The athlete runs 30 meters for time from
a stationary start.
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30 Meter Fly. A test of absolute speed. The athlete runs 30 meters for time, after
having previously accelerated through a 20 meter acceleration zone.
o
Standing Long Jump. A test of starting power and elastic strength. The athlete performs
a single jump for distance from a standing start.
o
Standing Triple Jump. A test of elastic strength, power, and coordination. The athlete,
from a double legged standing start, performs three jumps. The test begins with a
double leg takeoff, then a right-left or left-right contact pattern prior to landing.
o
Overhead Back Shot Throw. A test of power and coordination. The athlete stands on
the shot toeboard facing away from the sector with the shot in both hands. The athlete
then squats, lowers the shot below the waist, then throws the shot overhead for
distance.
o
Underhand Forward Shot Throw. A test of power and coordination. The athlete stands
on the shot toeboard facing the sector with the shot in both hands. The athlete then
squats, lowers the shot below the waist, and then throws the shot forward for distance.
o
General Strength Tests. These are tests of general strength, coordination, and body
control. The athlete is asked to perform as many repetitions of a given general strength
exercise as possible in a certain period of time. A 30 second situp test is an example.
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Cooper’s Tests. To determine endurance potential, athletes are asked to run for a
designated time period, with distance achieved being the variable measured.
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Time Trials. Depending upon an athlete’s event, time trials of certain distances are
useful to measure progress and predict performance.
o
Weight Training Exercise Tests. These are tests of absolute strength and power using
weight training exercises as the measurement tool. Various protocols can be used, with
safety in testing a priority.
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