Irrigation and Interlinking
of Indian Rivers
ii
The Author
—————
Thakur Shailendra Nath was born in Sitamarhi District of Bihar.
He has written several books and his many articles has been published
in prominent national magazines. His other books on White Collar Crime,
Environment and Agriculture has been widely appreciated. He belongs to
agriculturist family.
Irrigation and Interlinking
of Indian Rivers
— Author —
Thakur Shailendra Nath
2014
Daya Publishing House®
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Astral International Pvt. Ltd.
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© 2014 AUTHOR
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Courtesy: D.K. Agencies (P) Ltd. <[email protected]>
Thakur, Shailendra Nath.
Irrigation and interlinking of Indian rivers / author, Thakur Shailendra Nath.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 9788170359166 (Hard bound)
ISBN 9789351300823 (International edition)
1. Rivers—India. 2. Irrigation—India. 3. River engineering—India. 4. Water
resources development—India. I. Title.
DDC 551.4830954
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Preface
I am pleased to present my recent book titled "Irrigation and Interlinking of Indian
Rivers" before the readers. Today economies are spluttering. Capital markets want
Govt. to balance their budgets, whereas citizens want govt. to spend more to boost
employment, improve education, healthcare and infrastructure. India is caught in
the same dilemma. India’s economy must grow to enable faster reduction of poverty
and attract more investments. While policy makers say there is a gap between the
economies of what needs to be done and what is politically feasible, many fear that
over the past years main stream economies has drifted too far from social and political
realities. It is expected that the planning commission must step up while presenting
the 12th plan and present to the people in plain language the scenario of India’s
future that explain the choices before them so that they can support the fundamental
reforms necessary to create a justly inclusive and environmentally sustainable society.
India’s crisis of the month is overdue reforms to the power and agriculture sector.
However other sector like health care, and education are also on the list.
The numbers released by the agriculture ministry show that about 60 per cent of
India has received less rainfall this monsoon 2012-2013 resulting in 4.4 million
hectares of less area being sown. This represents a seemingly minor decline in area
sown, of 5.5 per cent over last year, but its impact on people who work the fields is
major - by a crude estimate, an income loss of Rs. 10,800 crore. One hectare of agriland provides 285 person-days of employment in a year, according to the National
Commission for Enterprises in the Un-organised Sector. Assuming half is in the
monsoon season-India has two agricultural seasons–this means a loss of 625 million
person- days (4.4 million x 142). The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
is a good reference point to impute a value to it. For the nine months to December
2011, NREGS paid out Rs. 20,866 crore for 1,210 million person-days of employment.
Or, a value of Rs. 10,800 crore for 625 million person-days. This Rs. 10,800 crore loss
vi
is felt more because farm labour perpetually lives on the edge. Rural households will
try to reduce their expenditure, borrow credit for consumption at high interest rates
and sell productive assets like livestock.
Agricultural experts say the government can do more to increase the insulation
of incomes of farm labourers to drought, and not just this year because droughts are
a recurring phenomenon. Further, they add, it can take the shape of a three-pronged
approach- alternative employment in the short term, new income streams in the
medium term and fixing irrigation in the long term and that there are local innovations
in each of these areas that are delivering and can serve as reference points.
Expert agree that the economic and environmental costs of inter-linking India’s
rivers far outweigh its projected benefits.
People believe it is the one-stop solution to prevent floods and droughts, reduce
water scarcity, raise irrigation potential and increase food grain production in the
country. But others say it is just another grandiose scheme involving huge costs and
leading to long-term ecological consequences. The contentious idea of interlinking
India’s rivers has come to the fore again with the Supreme Court’s directive on February
27, 2012 to the Central government to set up a special committee for its implementation.
The National Water Development Agency (NWDA), the nodal agency responsible
for inter-basin transfer of river waters, has identified 14 river links in a northern
Himalayan river development component and 16 in a southern peninsular river
development component even as a lot of experts have raised doubts about the
feasibility of the projects.
The population of India, which is around 1,200 million at present, is expected to
increase to 1,500 to 1,800 million in the year 2050, and that means the requirement of
food grains will go up to about 450 million tonnes. To meet this requirement, the
agency estimates that it will be necessary to raise the irrigation potential in the country
to 160 million hectares for all crops by 2050. India’s maximum irrigation potential
through conventional sources is about 140. Besides, floods are a recurring feature,
particularly in the Brahmaputra and the Ganga, affecting the States of Assam, Bihar,
West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh. Almost 60 per cent of the river flows of the country
occur in these rivers. On the other extreme are large areas in the States of Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu that face recurring droughts.
As much as 85 per cent of the drought-prone area in the country falls in these States.
Inter-basin water transfer aims to transfer water from the surplus rivers to the deficit
areas. The Brahmaputra and the Ganga, particularly their northern tributaries, and
the Mahanadi, the Godavari and the west-flowing rivers originating in the Western
Ghats are said to be surplus in water resources. The NWDA’s ambitious plan is to
build storage reservoirs on these rivers and connect them to other parts of the country.
This, it believes, will reduce regional imbalances. Other benefits of the project spoken
about are additional irrigation, domestic and industrial water supply, hydropower
generation and navigational facilities.
It is in this context that the Supreme Court’s judgment delivered by a three-judge
Bench in the case In Re: Networking of Rivers in favour of interlinking rivers as a
priority has to be seen. It has raised the hopes of people living in drought- and flood-
vii
prone areas. However, critics of the project warn that there is no consensus among
the States to link rivers and that it will be a huge waste to spend precious resources on
a project whose feasibility and benefits have not been studied thoroughly. Instead of
focusing primarily on a few large and usually political controversial steps, we also
need to take a hundred small steps in the same directions that will collectively take us
very far.
I am obliged and indebted to my department and senior officers and colleagues
who have provided necessary help and guidance in writing this book. I am also
thankful to Mr. Anil Mittal, who has agreed to publish this book. The help extended
by M/s Gupta Services, Gwalior in typing of this book cannot be forgotten.
I owe a deep debt to my family members for their reverential and encouraging
attitude. I would not have found a congenial environment at home for under taking
the onerous task of writing a book in difficult times, covering a wide range of complex
issues of Environment.
I shall welcome criticism and suggestions for improving the quality of this book
from readers.
Thakur Shailendra Nath
E-mail [email protected]
Contents
Preface
1 . Introduction: An Overview
v
1
1.1 General–1.2 Water Crisis in India–1.3 Interlinking of Indian Rivers–1.4 Benefits of
Interlinking of River–1.5 India’s Water Future–1.6 The Initiative’s Recent Momentum–
1.7 Concept of Interlinking of Rivers–1.7.1 Himalayan Component–1.7.2 Peninsular
Components–1.7.3 Benefits from Peninsular and Himalayan Rivers Development
Components–1.8 Case Study of Bihar–1.8.1 Hydrometeorological–1.8.2 Hydrological–
1.8.3 Topographical–1.8.4 Hydraulic–1.8.5 Demographic–1.9 Monsoon and Indian
Economy–1.10 Living with Flood–1.11 Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts of
Floods–1.12 Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts of Droughts–1.13 Rehabilitation
of Displaced Families–1.14 Objectives of Inter-Basin Transfers (ILR)–1.15 Inter-Basin
and Intra-Basin Water Transfers Projects (ILR)–1.16 Special Socio-economic Impacts of
ILR Projects–1.17 Dams and Environment–Supreme Court Judgment, 2000–1.18 Conflict
Management–Participation of Media and NGOs–1.19 Interlinking of Rivers and
Hydropower Energy–1.20 The Future of Hydropower–1.21 Using Water Power to Fight
Poverty.
2 . Major Rivers of India
2.1 General–2.2 Topography–2.2.1 Subsurface Streams–2.2.2 Permanence of Flow–2.3
Classification of Rivers–2.3.1 Youthful River–2.3.2 Mature River–2.3.4 Old River–2.3.5
Rejuvenated River–2.4 Uses of River–2.5 Ecosystem–2.6 Chemistry–2.7 Flooding–2.8
River Source–2.9 Characteristics of Sources–2.10 Ganga River–2.10.1 Gangotri Glacier–
2.10.2 Gaumukh (Gomukh)–2.10.3 Gangotri Temple–2.10.4 The Shivaling–2.10.5 Course–
2.11 Geology–2.12 Hydrology–2.13 History–2.13.1 History of Ganga River–2.13.2
Irrigation–2.13.3 Dams and Barrages–2.13.4 Economy–2.13.5 Pollution–2.13.6 Ecology
and Environment–2.13.7 Ganges River Dolphin–2.13.8 Water Shortages–2.13.9 The
Effects of Climate Change on the River–2.13.10 Illegal Mining and Stone-Crushing in
the River Bed–2.14 Yamuna–2.14.1 Course and Catchment–2.14.2 Important
48
x
Tributaries–2.14.3 Irrigation–2.14.4 Management–2.14.5 Pollution–2.15 Gomati River–
2.15.1 Geography–2.16 Brahmaputra River–2.16.1 Course–2.16.2 Assam and Adjoining
Region–2.16.3 Sharing of the Brahmaputra Water–2.16.4 Early History–2.17 Narmada
River–2.17.1 Narmada Basin–2.17.2 Forests and Sanctuaries–2.17.3 Anthropological
Sites–2.17.4 Narmada River Development (NRD)–2.17.5 Early Background and Dispute–
2.17.6 Tribunal Award–2.17.7 Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) at Navagam–2.17.8 The
Indira Sagar Project (ISP)–2.17.9 Other Completed and Under Construction Projects–
2.17.10 Navigation along the River–2.18 Chambal River–2.18.1 Mythology–2.18.2 Origin,
Drainage and Mouth–2.18.3 Vegetation–2.18.4 National Chambal Sanctuary–2.18.5
Dams on the Chambal–2.19. Shipra River–2.20 Krishna River–2.20.1 Course–2.20.2
Tributaries–2.20.3 Bridges–2.21 Kaveri–2.21.1 River Course–2.21.2 Tributaries–2.22
Godavari River–2.22.1 Dams and Bridges along the River–2.23 Tapti River–2.23.1 List
of Tributaries–2.24 Mahanadi–2.24.1 Source–2.24.2 Middle Course–2.24.3 Mouth–2.24.4
Navigation–2.24.5 Trade and Agriculture–2.24.6 Water–2.24.7 Floods.
3 . River Water Dispute
107
3.1 Introduction–3.2 Water Stress Challenges Growth –3.2.1 In Fact, Water Wars–
3.2.2 Water Literally is Food–3.3 Stagecraft and Statecraft–3.4 Impact of Water Linking
of Rivers on Bangladesh–3.5 International Legal Aspect of Interlinking of River–3.5.1
Dam Building–3.5.2 Settlement of River water disputes–3.5.3 Interstate River Water
Disputes–3.5.4 The Existing and Relevant Constitutional and Legal Provisions Relating
to Water in India–3.5.5 Major Causes of Conflicts in River Water–3.5.6 Principles Used
for Settlement–3.6 The Settlement Mechanism–3.6.1 The Negotiation Route–3.6.2
Settlements through Treaties–3.6.3. Interstate River Water Projects Funded by the
Central Government–3.7 Overview–3.7.1 Krishna-Godavari Water Dispute–3.7.2 The
Cauvery Dispute–3.7.3 The Sutlej Water Dispute–3.8. Interlinking of Rivers in India–
3.8.1 Himalayan Rivers Development Benefits–3.8.2 Peninsular Rivers Development
Benefits–3.9. The India-Nepal Treaty–3.9.1 Mahakali Treaty and Pancheshwar
Multipurpose Project–3.9.2 Sapta Kosi High Dam Multipurpose Project and Sunkosi
Storage-cum-Diversion Scheme–3.9.3 Burhi Gandaki Hydro-Electric Project–3.9.4
Standing Committee on Inundation Problems–3.9.5 Sub-Committee on Embankment
Construction (SCEC)–3.9.6 Flood Forecasting and Warning System on Rivers Common
to India and Nepal–3.9.7 Joint Committee on Water Resources–References.
4 . River Ecosystem
4.1 Introduction–4.2 Abiotic Factors–4.2.1 Flow–4.2.2 Light–4.2.3 Temperature–4.2.4
Chemistry–4.2.5 Substrate–4.3 Biota–4.3.1 Bacteria–4.3.2 Primary Producers–4.3.3
Insects and other Invertebrates–4.3.4 Fish and other Vertebrates–4.4 Trophic
Relationships–4.4.1 Energy inputs–4.4.2 Invertebrates–4.4.3 Fish–4.5 Community
Patterns and Diversity–4.5.1 Local Species Richness–4.5.2 Resource Partitioning–4.5.3
Persistence and Succession–4.6 River Continuum Concept–4.7 Human Impacts–4.7.1
Pollution–4.7.2 Flow Modification–4.7.3 Environmental Impact of Reservoirs–4.8
Upstream Impacts–4.8.1 Creation of a reservoir–4.8.2 Fragmentation of River
Ecosystems–4.8.3 Reservoir sedimentation–4.9 Impact Below Dam–4.9.1 Riverline and
Coastal Erosion–4.9.2 Water Temperature–4.10. Effects on Humans–4.10.1 Diseases–
4.11 Effects on Flood-Dependent Ecology and Agriculture–4.11.1 Case Studies–4.11.2
Effects on the Earth Itself–4.13 Streams and Rivers: Habitats Partitioned at Different
Spatial Scales–4.13.1 Local Scale Structure: Pools, Riffles, Meanders, and the Hyporheic
Zone–4.14 Micro-Habitats–4.14.1 Exchange with Surrounding Environments–4.14.2
Disturbance and Community Interactions–4.15 Environmentalists’ Outcry about Indian
River Interlinking Project.
140
xi
5 . Irrigation Potential in India
157
5.1 General–5.2 Water Requirements for Different Crops–5.3 Water Productivity–5.3.1
Rice–5.3.2 Wheat–5.4 Waterlogging and Salinization–5.5 Water-Borne and Water-Related
Diseases–5.5.1 Malaria–5.5.2 Bilharzia–5.5.3 Effects of Small Dams on the Prevalence of
Bilharzia–5.5.4 The Control of the Water-Related Diseases–5.6 Potential Environmental
Impacts of Darns and Reservoirs–5.6.1 The Impact of Dams on Flooding–5.6.2 The
Impact of Dams on Fisheries and Wildlife–5.6.3 Socio-Economic Impacts Irrigation
Schemes–5.6.4 Alternatives to Mitigate the Negative Impacts of Irrigation Projects–5.7
The Role of Wetland and the Impacts of Water Development Projects–5.7.1 Wetlands in
the West African Sahel.
6 . Challenges and Opportunities for Agriculture Development
177
6.1 Introduction–6.2 Problems of Indian Agriculture–6.3 Genetically Modified Food
(GM Food)–6.4 Surplus Water to Deficient Areas–6.5 River-Interlinking can Solve
Inter-State Disputes–6.6 Rivers–6.7 Rivers in India–6.8 Fundamental Objections to
River Interlinking–6.9 The Beneficiaries of River Interlinking–6.10 Alternative
Strategies–6.11 Strengths of IIT Bombay–6.12 Climate Change Effect–6.12.1 Objectives–
6.12.2 Forests–6.13 Future Thrust.
7 . Environmental, Ecological and Human Impact of Interlinking
of Indian Rivers
197
7.1 Introduction–7.2 Impact of Interlinking of Indian Rivers–7.3 The Problem of
Displacement–7.4 Displacement–7.5 River Water Pollution–7.5.1 Pollution in the Ganga
River–7.5.2 Pollution in the Yamuna River–7.5.3 Impact of River Water Pollution–7.5.4
Prevention and Control of Pollution–7.5.5 Use of Informal Regulation of Pollution–7.6
Aquatic Lifecycles.
8 . Project Cost Vis-à-vis Benefit
208
8.1 General–8.2 The Benefits–8.3 The Financial Challenges–References.
Ind ex
213
1
Introduction: An Overview
Chapter 1
Introduction: An Overview
1.1 General
The rainfall over the country is primarily aerographic, associated with tropical
depressions originating in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The summer
monsoon accounts for more than 85 per cent of the precipitation in the Indian
subcontinent. The uncertainty of occurrence of rainfall marked by prolonged dry
spells fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall is a serious problem for the country.
Regional variations in the rainfall lead to situations when some parts of the country
do not have enough water even for raising a single crop. On the other hand excess
rainfall occurring in some parts of the country creates havoc due to floods. Flood
damages which were `52 crore in 1953 have gone upto `5,846 crore in 1998 with
annual average being `1,343 crore, affecting the states of Assam, Bihar, West Bengal
and Uttar Pradesh along with upfold human suffering. One of the most effective
ways to increase the irrigation potential for increasing the food grain production,
mitigate fields and droughts and reduce regional imbalance in the availability of
water is the interlinking of our rivers to transfer water from the surplus rivers to
deficit areas.
Irrigation experts have said interlinking of some of the major rivers in the country
would solve the chronic water scarcity problem as well interstate river water disputes.
85 per cent of the water in the country is utilized for agriculture and irrigation purposes.
The remaining 15 per cent is used for domestic and industrial purposes, further the
population explosion had increased the demand for water by nearly seven times in
last 50 years. Surplus water from a major river could be diverted easily through
another river, taking care of drought prone areas. The river linking project can be
adopted to make water available in places like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu. National Water Development Agency has already done the ground