FREUDIAN THEORY FROM PSYCHOLOGY:
AN INTRODUCTION BY RUSS DEWEY
The name Sigmund Freud dominates early history personality theories. Freud proposed the
first major personality theory and psychotherapy procedure. He painted a picture of human
personality so forceful (some would say bizarre) that he inspired strong devotion or strong
opposition. Sometimes scholars analyze how frequently famous names are mentioned in the reference
sections of journal articles. A citation analysis like this will often show Freud near the top of the list.
So he is one of the most-frequently cited names in psychology, even though Freud was not a
psychologist but a psychiatrist.
What is evidence that Freud remains influential in modern psychology? What does a citation
analysis fail to show? Why do modern psychologists teach his theory? What such a citation analysis
fails to show is that many present-day citations of Freud are critical or negative in tone. Psychologists
commonly refer to Freudian theory as a historical fact, then they discuss why they disagree with it or
how newer ideas are better. Most of the personality theories generated in the first half of the 20th
Century were presented as alternatives to Freud's theory.
So, while it is true that Freud's name comes up a lot in psychology classes, it is not true that
most psychologists embrace Freud. To the contrary, most psychologists (with some exceptions)
believe Freud's work is unscientific, poorly supported by research, and primarily of historical interest.
However, Freud's theory was very influential. In order to understand how ideas about psychology
developed in the 20th Century, one must be familiar with Freud and his theories. Therefore Freud is
discussed in many psychology classes.
Sigmund Freud In the 1890s, Freud proposed a theory that distinguished between three
different levels of consciousness. Conscious thoughts are mental products currently in awareness.
Preconscious thoughts are memories not currently in awareness but easily retrieved. Unconscious
thoughts are things a person cannot voluntarily bring to awareness. This was Freud's first theory
about how the personality was put together.
What were the three levels of consciousness, in Freud's theory of the 1890s?In 1923, Freud
came out with a new book, The Ego and the Id, describing a new, comprehensive theory of
personality organization. Most people think of this as "Freud's personality theory." However, he
came out with it after practicing for 40 years, so it was a relatively late development in Freud's
career. What new theory did Freud propose in the 1920s?The ideas of id, ego, and super-ego were an
attempt to describe important components of the psyche (overall mental contents). Freud called them
functions. He cautioned his readers to remember that id, ego, and super-ego were not "persons in
their own right." They were just concepts-handy words for describing patterns of human behavior.
The first developing part of the psyche, in Freud's theory, was the id, which means "it." Freud
got the idea of a psychological id from a psychologist named Georg Groddeck who lived in Vienna at
the same time as Freud. To Groddeck, the id was a dark, unknown part of the mind that controls us
but remains outside our awareness. Groddeck wrote a book called The Book of IT in which he
argued that we are "lived" by this unseen presence. In other words, "it" is really in control!
Where did Freud get his idea for the "id," and how did he describe it? Freud described the id as
"chaos, a cauldron full of seething excitation" dominated by impulses of sex and aggression. Freud
proposed that the id was the source of the libido, a source of energy for the entire psyche. This
energy was expressed in drives or urges like sex and aggression. (Freud used the German word trieb,
which means a motivating tendency, sometimes translated as "wish.") What is "primary process
thinking"? Freud described the mental activity generated by the id as primary process thinking.
Primary means first. Primary process thinking is primitive, dream-like thinking, presumably the first
type of thinking we experience as babies. It is simple, irrational, and gut-level, aimed at seeking
pleasure or avoiding pain. As adults, we experience it most often in dreams or in moments of mental
disturbance.
What was the pleasure principle? Freud believed the id generates urges and impulses in
accordance with the pleasure principle : pursuit of immediate gratification, regardless of
consequences. The pleasure principle might be described as "I want what I want when I want it."
Primary process thinking, which Freud believed was typical of unconscious mental processes, was
said to be dominated by the pleasure principle. It aimed to satisfy the demands of the id in irrational,
unrealistic ways, often through fantasy. Freud believed, for example, that dreams were aimed at
satisfying id impulses. Freud believed babies were "all id" when born. When a baby is hungry or
lonely, it cries and demands immediate relief. Even children three or four years old have a hard time
waiting even a few hours for something they want. They operate on the pleasure principle; they want
immediate gratification. What was the unconscious like, according to Freud? In general, Freud said,
the unconscious is infantile. It is not necessarily evil, but it is childlike. It is innocently good or bad
depending on circumstances, reacting with immediacy to events as they happen. Unconsciously,
Freud believed, we are all like little children: we want immediate gratification and have low tolerance
for frustration. Only the development of more mature, controlling parts of the mind helps us avoid
expressing id impulses and acting like babies when we are grown up.
THE EGO: The second of Freud's three divisions of the psyche is the ego. Ego means "I." It
is roughly equivalent to our sense of identity-who we think we are. Modern theorists sometimes refer
to the ego as the executive function. The part of the mind/body system that Freud called the ego is
the part that executes plans and coordinates activity.
What is the ego? What was the point of the "rider on the horse" analogy? Freud described the
ego, drawing power from the id while controlling it, as resembling a rider on a horse. In this
metaphor the horse represents the id: a primitive, animal-like source of energy. The rider represents
the ego. It may be weak or strong, clumsy or skillful. If the rider is uncoordinated or lacking in skill,
the horse goes whatever direction it pleases, and the rider must hold on for dear life. This is like a
person whose impulses are out of control, poorly coordinated by the ego. On the other hand, if the
rider is an expert, the horse becomes like an extension of the rider's willpower, making the rider
swifter and more powerful than a human on foot. Similarly, in Freud's view, the id provided raw
energy, and the ego (if skillful or well controlled) used this energy to do remarkable, positive things.
What is ego strength? To Freud, a good horse rider was like a person with good ego strength.
Having a strong ego is not the same thing as being egotistical or "stuck up." Having good ego
strength means you can remain in control of your impulses, even under adverse circumstances, and
that you persist in directing your energy toward long-term goals.
What part of the ego was unconscious, in Freud's opinion? In Freud's scheme the ego is not
entirely conscious. Some of the plans and activities a person coordinates may not be conscious. For
example, repression of unpleasant memories is an activity that Freud attributed to the ego, and it was
though to be an unconscious sort of defense. Similarly, the other defense mechanisms (discussed in
the next section) were said to be unconscious functions of the ego, carried out to defend the psyche
(the overall mental system) against painful thoughts and emotions.
What is "secondary process thinking"? What causes it to develop, in Freud's view? Freud said
the ego develops in early childhood. Little children discover that id-impulses often cannot be gratified
immediately. The pleasure principle is not realistic. Sometimes, to get what you want, you must be
rational or tolerate a delay. The ego develops as a result of this clash between desires of the id and
realities of the world. With the development of the ego comes conscious, rational thinking. Freud
called this secondary process thinking because it occurs later in development and modifies the most
animal-like primary process thinking.
How does ego development affect the ability to delay gratification? What is the reality
principle? While primary process thinking is dominated by the pleasure principle, secondary process
thinking-that which is controlled by the ego-is based on the reality principle. Freud described the
reality principle as the ability of the ego to make plans that take reality into account, even if it means
postponing pleasure or enduring pain. For example, most students realize they must complete school
before they can embark on a career. Therefore they endure years of schooling in order to achieve
their ultimate goals. In Freud's scheme this would be seen as an example of the ego's ability to
execute plans and to defer gratification, in accordance with the reality principle.
THE SUPER-EGO: The super-ego was a third function that Freud hypothesized. The word
super means above, and the super-ego is like a supervisor of the psyche, monitoring our activity and
making value judgments which lead us to feel good or bad about our behavior. Freud believed that
we learn morals and values from the people who take care of us in childhood. Gradually these values
are internalized or taken inside us, and the result is the super-ego. He said the super-ego, as an
"internalization of parental values," was responsible for both pride and guilt. Because of this
two-edged quality, one psychoanalyst (Schecter 1979) referred to the loving and persecuting
super-ego.
What was the super-ego? What does the iceberg diagram show? According to Freud, the
super-ego was partly unconscious. We could be aware of parts of it, but we could also be surprised
by guilt or pride. Freud, in a famous metaphor, compared the psyche to an iceberg. The following
diagram is based on Freud's metaphor. Like an iceberg (Freud said) nine-tenths of the psyche is
invisible to us, submerged in the unconscious.
The "devil on one shoulder, an angel on the other" represents what, in Freudian terms? What
"three masters" did the ego serve? Freud said the ego is often caught in a struggle between the id and
super-ego, which pull in opposite directions. This is commonly symbolized by a devil on one
shoulder, an angel on the other shoulder, each speaking into a different ear.
Freud wrote, "The poor ego...has to serve three harsh masters," It adapts to reality, it adapts
to the urges of the id, and it adapts to the super-ego. This was the ego's function: to serve as the
master executive, juggling all the priorities, planning out the best course of action. In Freud's theory,
the ego was the agent of adaptation for the entire personality.
THE ICEBERG METAPHOR: How are Freudian concepts "best regarded"? Are these
divisions of the psyche real ? Students sometimes get carried away with Freudian theory and start
talking about id and ego and super-ego as truly existing things. However, Freudian concepts are best
regarded as metaphors....ways of describing patterns of behavior, not physically existing brain
circuits.
What part of the brain is responsible for id-like functions? If you want to make the opposite
argument, that a concept like id is more than a metaphor, you could point to similarities between the
id as Freud described it and the limbic system of the brain. Almost all the impulses Freud attributed
to the id (sex, aggression, "primitive" emotions) are controlled by the limbic system. What was
known about the organization of the brain, in Freud's day? The limbic system was not named and
identified until the 1940s. However, in Freud's day, doctors believed that the large cerebral cortex of
the human brain functioned largely to inhibit or suppress the activity of lower brain centers. This
conclusion was based on the observation that patients who suffered damage to the cerebral cortex
became uninhibited, restless, and impulsive. Freud was trained as a biologist and was attempting to
make his theory consistent with biological knowledge of his day.
Why did Freud cite Faust more than any other work, according to Swales? Freud was a heavy
user of cocaine in his early adulthood, and this may explain some of his ideas about the id. Cocaine is
known to activate the structures of the limbic system, causing sexual and aggressive impulses.
One researcher (Swales) pointed out that Freud cited Goethe's Faust more than any other
literary work. Faust is about a man who sold his soul to the devil in exchange for deep knowledge
about human nature. Putting two and two together, Swales suggested that Freud might have
accepted his addiction to cocaine as the price to be paid for insights into the "seething cauldron of
excitations" as he described the id. This may also account for Freud's bouts of depression in later
years—another typical side effect of long-term cocaine use. It should be noted, however, that other
Freud scholars were outraged at Swales' suggestions, which they regarded as speculative and
damaging to Freud's reputation. What was the reason for so many conflicts in human society,
according to Freud? Freud described an unruly unconscious at odds with civilization. In a book titled
Civilization and its Malcontents, Freud argued that civilization clashes with our animal nature. A
primary purpose of organized society (he argued) was to tame the primitive id. For example, as
Freud pointed out, all major religions regulate sexual behavior. Doesn't it seem odd, Freud asked,
that social institutions concerned with spiritual goals always regulate this aspect of behavior? To
Freud, it all fit with his theory. To the extent we successfully tame our animal nature and turn its
energy toward higher goals approved by society, we are civilized. However, this means we are
always fighting our inner nature. Freud thought this was the underlying reason for many conflicts and
problems in modern humans. We are torn between the impulses of the primitive id and the dictates
of society.
REPRESSION: Freud believed the id was a source of childish or uncivilized thoughts and
feelings, many of which (like lust or hatred for parents) were unacceptable to the ego. Painful
memories, or unacceptable thoughts from the id, could make the conscious part of the mind recoil
and turn away. Freud felt this was one of his greatest insights and most original contributions. He
wrote, in 1925: I named this process REPRESSION; it was a novelty, and nothing like it had ever
before been recognized in mental life.
What was repression, as Freud described it? Freud described repression as pushing things
under the surface or simply turning away. If a painful memory or unthinkable thought is buried
deeply enough, it causes no anxiety. Repression is successful. The conscious mind is spared the pain
or discomfort of confronting this part of the psyche. But if repression is incomplete, or threatens to
fail, a person may become anxious. Then the memory starts to behave like a cork that is being held
under water. It threatens to rise to the surface unless a person exerts constant pressure to keep it
down.
What was the libido? How did this relate to repression? A core concept in Freudian
psychology is that of the libido (pronounced li-BEE-do). Freud saw the libido as general life energy,
generated by the id, sexual in origin, but expressed in many different ways. Freud believed repression
tied up libidinal energy. This was suggested by the metaphor of a cork held under water. If the
analogy is correct, as Freud believed, then a person must expend mental energy to keep something
repressed, particularly when the repression is failing. Therefore, a person repressing important things
feels depressed or lacking in energy.
When a person finally allows a repressed thought back into consciousness, a great deal of
energy is released. The person feels "a weight has been lifted from my shoulders." Much of Freud's
therapy, (Therapies), was aimed at bringing unconscious problems to the surface, so the psychic
energy tied up in repressing them could be freed up and used for constructive living.
What happens when repression starts to fail? As long as repression succeeds, the ego is
protected from unpleasant urges and memories. When repression fails, a troublesome thought will
threaten to intrude into everyday consciousness. At this point, Freud suggested, a person will
perform mental maneuvers to avoid confronting the unacceptable thought. The maneuvers are known
collectively as defense mechanisms. They occur automatically, according to Freud, as the ego seeks
to protect itself. Freud thought that defense mechanisms were never the result of conscious, rational
thought processes.
DEFENSE MECHANISMS: Perhaps the simplest defense mechanism is denial—refusing to
admit something has happened. Denial, like many other defense mechanisms, is especially clear in
little children. A child breaks a vase in full view of everybody and immediately exclaims, "I didn't do
it!" In adults, denial is common when a person suffers the sudden and unexpected loss of a loved one.
A common reaction is, "It can't be true." Psychiatrists who work in Emergency Rooms of major
hospitals see this reaction so often that they expect it. Another common area of denial relates to
alcoholism. Alcoholics are notorious for denying they have a problem when everybody else sees it.
What is denial? How do children show it? How is rationalization distinguished from lying? A
second common defense mechanism is rationalization. Rationalization occurs when you
unconsciously give yourself a false explanation of your own behavior. As Freud described it,
rationalization was supposed to be an automatic self-protective reaction, carried out by the
unconscious part of the ego. So rationalization is a defense mechanism in the Freudian sense when
you do not realize you are lying to yourself. This distinguishes rationalization from ordinary
deception, which occurs when a person knows the truth but tries to fool other people.
The defense mechanism called intellectualization occurs when a person adopts a cool,
scientific attitude toward something that threatens to cause emotional upset. A friend of mine who
taught gross anatomy at a medical school let me visit the classroom where he taught. Each first-year
medical student had a cadaver to work on, so the room looked like a morgue. But (he explained) the
students quickly learned to regard the bodies as nothing but laboratory material for dissection.
Whether or not they realized it, this professional attitude probably helped them combat feelings of
dread and fear.
What is projection? What are common examples of it? Projection is a defense mechanism that
occurs when people avoid a negative evaluation of themselves by seeing their own unpleasant
thoughts or actions in other people. A student who cheats will tell you "everybody cheats." A man
who cheats on his wife acts genuinely surprised to find out some men are faithful. Many college
students experience projection in the context of a fading romance. The person who wants to end the
relationship accuses the other of "acting funny" or "wanting to break up" when it is actually the
person who makes the accusation who feels that way. What is displacement, as Freud explained it?
Displacement is a defense mechanism in which libidinal energy is supposedly redirected from a
desired (but unavailable) goal to a substitute. One girl found herself sleeping with a big stuffed
dog—a gift from her father—after she broke up with her boyfriend. She even kissed the stuffed
animal good night. When she got back with her boyfriend, the animal returned to its former location
in the corner of her room. Displaced aggression is another common variety. Instead of striking a
teacher who gives you a bad grade (the id's underlying impulse) one might kick a can. What is
reaction formation? Reaction formation is an intriguing defense mechanism, if you accept Freud's
logic. In reaction formation a person defends against unacceptable thoughts or impulses by
converting them to their opposite on the surface. The ego thereby fortifies itself at its point of
greatest weakness. Freud said reaction formation has a compulsive or excessive quality. For
example, a student reported having a fistfight with his father, who he deeply resented for abandoning
his mother. The student peppered his essay with statements about how much he loved his father,
when it seemed he was having trouble dealing with the exact opposite emotion.
Why did Adler call sublimation "the healthy defense mechanism"? Sublimation is a defense
mechanism that Freud thought occurred when libidinal energy is channeled into socially acceptable,
approved activities. Freud had a background in chemistry, where sublime means to pass from a solid
to a vaporous state. The defense mechanism of sublimation causes earthy id impulses to be channeled
into refined and civilized behavior. Alfred Adler called sublimation "the healthy defense mechanism"
because it produced socially beneficial outcomes for humanity.
What is the goal of "undoing"? Undoing is a ritualistic effort to undo damage and reduce guilt
over some action in the past. Nobody can change the past, so the act of undoing is usually symbolic.
An example of undoing occurs when a girl sends a pleasant Valentine's Day card to an ex-boyfriend
with whom she broke up. The girl who sends the card feels guilty about having hurt the other
person's feelings. The message is, "I am really not such a bad person." A boy who received such a
card thought his ex-girlfriend was being sadistic, trying to make him hurt. But Freud would probably
say her unconscious purpose was to convince herself that she was not such a bad person.
Why might isolation be hard to detect in another person? Isolation occurs when somebody takes a
problem or conflict and shuts it off in a corner of the mind, isolating it from day to day thought
processes. A person who is using isolation may give no external clue to the conflict, except for a
tendency not to react when you expect a reaction.
What is a conversion reaction? A conversion reaction occurs when somebody converts
psychological problems into a physical ailment. For example, a person who witnesses a horrible
incident may go blind for psychological reasons, although the person's eyes are still good. See the
story of Anna O. in Chapter 13 for many examples of conversion reactions. (In present day
psychology this is called a somatoform disorder.)
How might Freud explain a fanatical devotion to comic books or sports teams? Identification
is a defense mechanism that occurs when a person avoids painful thoughts and emotions by
identifying with some symbolic sources of strength. For example, people who are weak or have
troubled lives often become fanatically devoted to comic book or science fiction heroes, soap opera
characters, political parties, or favorite sports heros.
What is regression as Freud described it? Regression occurs when a person under stress
reverts to behavior characteristic of a younger age. Under severe stress, people may curl up in the
fetal position like a tiny unborn baby. A less extreme form of regression occurs when adults, under
stress, show childish behavior.
FREUD'S SEXUAL THEORY: Freud's observations about repression and defense
mechanisms were some of his best work, according to present-day researchers. That is why we have
spent some time with them. But to Freud, the sexual theory was his most important work. He
explained almost all unusual psychological phenomena with references to sex. For example, Freud
explained the déjà vu experience by saying it was an unconscious memory of the mother's genitals
(Slochower, 1970). That may sound extreme but it is actually typical of how Freud thought.
Which part of this theory did Freud think was most important? How did Freud's early
associates react to his ideas? Many of Freud's early associates objected to the extreme and rather
exclusive emphasis he put on sex. They preferred to think that sexual impulses were involved in
some, but not all, mental problems. Freud insisted his sexual theory applied to all mental illness.
Freud himself described his sexual theory as having all the popularity of "a freshly painted wall." But
Freud stuck to his theory and would not agree to any modification of it. Breuer, an early mentor and
colleague of Freud's, wrote that Freud was "a man given to absolute and exclusive formulations."
The "Family Drama" According to Freud, a little boy in the phallic stage begins to feel
vague erotic feelings for his mother. Father is seen as a competitor for mother's affections. The boy
begins to fear and hate his father as a rival. He is sure his father knows about this hate. Meanwhile
(Freud asserted) the father has probably caught the boy masturbating and threatens to cut off his
penis as punishment. (Freud must have experienced something like this, because he claimed it was
nearly a universal event.) Therefore the boy centers his emerging fear of the father on his penis. The
result is castration anxiety (fear that his penis will be cut off).
What was the sequence of events in Freud's family drama? This state of affairs is so
uncomfortable that the boy deals with it using two defense mechanisms: reaction formation and
identification. The boy decides he loves his father (reaction formation) and that he wants to be like
him (identification). Freud thought this was where a young boy's sexual identification came from:
sexual jealousy followed by the defense mechanisms of reaction formation and identification.
Similarly, a little girl was said to develop love for her father during the phallic stage. In her case,
noticing she had no penis, she would develop penis envy, concluding that the dreaded castration had
already taken place. She would notice her mother had suffered the same fate, so she would dislike
her mother. These feelings were said to be resolved by reaction formation and identification, so the
young girl ultimately loved and identified with her mother.
What caused penis envy, in Freud's view? Freud put great emphasis on the family drama,
using it to explain early roots of adult psychopathology (mental disturbance). He conveniently
dismissed the lack of memory for these traumatic events of childhood by saying that when the
Oedipal and Electra conflicts are resolved, the memories of these events are successfully repressed.
For example, few if any males remember being threatened with castration as a young child, yet Freud
thought this was a universal occurrence...it was simply repressed. If you find the "family drama"
bizarre, you are in good company. Few present-day psychologists take it seriously—at least, not in
the United States. Psychologists in other countries, such as Mexico and Belgium, were more
accepting of Freudian theory in the late decades of the 20th Century, after it was already considered
a historical curiosity in the United States. One can also draw a clear distinction between Freud's
theory about the psychodynamics underlying the family drama, on the one hand, and Freud's
observations of common patterns in childhood, on the other. The family drama theory, with its
tableaux of sexual jealousies and fears, receives little support from research in developmental
psychology. However, there are many little girls who love their Daddies and little boys who love
their Mommies, and each can feel jealous of the opposite-sexed parent.
One mother writes:
For the last two years I have had an opportunity to observe a child in the Oedipal stage of
development. My son who is eight years old and the "baby" of the family is a perfect example.
Some observations I have made that bring this to light are: 1. He tells me several times each day, "I
love you Mommy" or "Mom, I really care about you."
2. I can do no wrong in his eyes. He accepts whatever I do without too much question even if he is
disappointed.
3. He will not let anyone but me help him dress or do his homework. He relates to me better on a
teaching basis than anyone in the family. 4. He doesn't dislike his father but doesn't have a whole lot
to do with him and follows me instead.
5. He picks wild flowers in the yard or field and brings them to me. 6. If an argument comes up he
will take my side.
7. He goes out of his way to please me whether at school or play. This is a delightful stage of
development to participate in from my angle (his mother) and it is very rewarding to teach him at this
time. He is open to most suggestions and eager to please. [Author's files]
Freud might shake his head and say this mother is doing her son harm by failing to encourage
resolution of the Oedipal conflict. A Freudian psychologist might predict that this boy will someday
expect his girlfriend or spouse to "be" his mother, and this will lead to misunderstandings. Other
psychologists might see nothing here but a son who loves and delights his mother.
Another student writes of the Electra conflict: When we were discussing the Electra
conflict in class it made me remember how I was when I was a child. I was always my "daddy's little
girl." Wherever my dad went I went too. When we went shopping as a family, my older sister went
off with my mother to look at the "girlie" stuff, and I always went off with my father. My mother
and I didn't get along during this time. I never wanted to do what she told me to do. I guess that was
a form of resentment I felt toward my mother because of the attention she got from my father. As I
have grown older I have become closer to my mother even though I still care a lot for my dad.
[Author's files]
What evil consequences might result from an unresolved Electra complex? Freud said such a
woman might become a castrating female, like Scarlet O'Hara in Gone with the Wind, teasing men
without ever being serious, because her heart still belonged to Daddy.
How do modern researchers disagree with Freud about the "latency stage"? What were
characteristics of the "genital" stage? Freud said the latency stage (or "latent stage") occurred after
the phallic stage, around 8 or 9 years of age. From this age until puberty, he said, children
concentrated on growing up and playing with same-sex friends. Sexual urges went underground and
seemed to disappear. Again, modern researchers do not agree with Freud. Some say the latency
period simply does not exist. Sexual concerns are no more or less dominant in children of this age
than at other pre-adolescent stages. With adolescence comes sexual maturity and the genital stage.
Freud said this stage is marked by a growing concern for the psychological and erotic satisfaction of
one's partner, rather than self-centered gratification typical of earlier stages.
SUMMARY: FREUD'S THEORY: Freud is one of the most influential figures in the
history of psychology, but not necessarily because modern psychologists accept his ideas. Freud is
one of the most frequently cited names in psychology, but many of the citations are critical in nature.
Many other personality theories were formed as a direct reaction to Freud's theory, branching off in
directions neglected by Freud, or using portions of his ideas while rejecting others.
The word psyche refers to the mind as a whole. Freud believed much of the psyche was
unconscious; he compared it to an iceberg, which was nine/tenths under water. In his 1923 theory,
Freud distinguished between the id (the primitive, animal-like part of the mind, supposedly the source
of energy for the psyche), the ego (the "agent of adaptation" in the psyche, mostly conscious) and the
super-ego (the source of self-evaluation, guilt and pride, an internalization of parental values). The
id was totally unconscious, Freud believed. The super-ego was partly unconscious, and the ego was
mostly accessible to consciousness. Freud described the phenomenon of repression, in which the
conscious mind turns away from a painful thought or memory, pushing it down into the unconscious.
9
The thought does not go away, however, and energy from the libido (life energy) is consumed by
keeping it repressed. This energy can be released, Freud thought, when a repressed memory is
re-admitted to consciousness.
Freud described a variety of defense mechanisms, by which the ego defended itself against
unpleasant thoughts, memories, or wishes. This is probably the part of Freud's theory that is most
acceptable in today's psychology. However, Freud himself put the most emphasis on his sexual
theory, especially the sequence of events in early childhood that he labeled the "family drama."
Scientific research fails to support many of Freud's ideas, with the notable exception of the defense
mechanisms.