"The Struggle for Water"
The British ancIJ the Modernizatiol1l
of Egyptian irrigation
Jaroslav Valkoun
Since ancient times, it Ilas been believed that Egypt was a gift created by the Nile. Every
Egyptian ruler empllasized protection of tlle Nile because all Egyptian agriculture was
absolutely dependent on regular irrigation. The ftrst significant development of tlle irrigation
system took place under the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha. The next stage in the improvement
of irrigation occurred in the 1860s, when Egypt started to become an important worldwide
cotton produeer.' Given the fact that irrigation at that time did not allow for the cultivation
af larger areas Khedive Isma il Pasha made extensive investments in construction and
modernization of the irrigation system and an adequate infrastructure.'
When the British Anny oceupied Egypt in 1882, it only found a broken eeonomy, an
inefficient administration, excessively inlluentia! internationa! institutions, and not very
friendly natives. In the light of the fact that the British intended to stay in Egypt for longterm strategie reasons, they made a deeision to earry out reforms which would stabilize and
streamline the Egyptian eeonomy and administration, and lead to the development of the loeal
inhabitants. Her Majesty's Government therefore appointed Sir Evelyn Baring (1841-1917),
later Lord Cromer, the Diplomatie Agent and Consul-General in Cairo; they almost could
not have chosen a better administrator for Egypt. He \Vas one of only a few Britisll officials
who had thorough knowledge of complicated Egyptian finances and extensive experience
from India, whieh qualifted him to earry out reforms in aeeordance with the Indian pattern ,
the so-called "Indianization of the Egyptian administration".' Lord Cromer belonged to the
generation of colonial administrators who were strongly inftuenced by the Indian Mutiny in
1857. Most British administrators were shoeked by the Indian events - the loeal soeiety did
not accept the establishment ofWestern institutions and rules. Cromer's generation began
to realize the significance of the traditional way of life in oriental soeiety; this is why it carried
Dut reforms in Egypt which, unlike in earlier times, were more sensitive towards the natives. 4
The modernization of the Egyptian irrigation system eertainly symbolised British suceess.
The wealth of Egypt had resided in the soil since ancient times. Egyptian agriculture was
For exa mp[c in 1860-1865, Egyptian cotton export increased fivefold. export profits grewby a factorof fourteen,
and eotton exports increased from about 36 %to <lbout 92 %oftota! E!,'yptian export. EARLE, E. M., Egypt;afl
CouoJ/ a/ld clle America/l Civil War, in: Political Science QU<lrterly, Vol. 41, 1926, No. 4, pp. 534-535.
2
Ismn il Pashn built up 112 irri gnt ion cnnn ls in lengtll or 8,400 mnes, 430 bridges, 910 rniles or ronds, 64 sugar
fnctories, n reservo ir in Suez, a public water nl:lin in Alexandria, 910 miles of railways, 5,200 miles oftelegraph
lines and t 5ligllthouses between thc Mcditcrranean Sca <Ind thc Aden Bay. SABRY, M., La gé/lťsc de "csprir
IwtiOI/ Égypticl/, 1863-1882, Pnris 1924, p. 86.
3
TIGNOR, R. L., Tllc "//ldial/izatio/l "ofclle Egyptiall Admi/listratio/l Ulil/cr Bricisll Rule, in: Thc Amcrican
Historica [ Rcvicw, Voj. 68, 1963, No. 3, p. 639.
4
TIGNOR, R. L., Modemizatioll al/d British Colo/lial Rule ill Egypc 1882-1914, Princcton 1966, pp. 95 -96.
93
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absolutely dependent on regular watering from the Nile because the rainfall intensity \Vas
insufficient. Lord Cromer realized this fact, and that is why he supported hydraulic projects.
Irrigation meant more cultivated lands, greater yields of field crops, and an increased number
of harvests, which led to higher revenues for the Egyptian n easUl)'. These calculations were
strengthened by efforts of the Egyptian Governl11ent towards a solve nt economy and the
smooth settlement of foreign debts. '
The Nile is well-known for its annual ft ood, which Hows from the Blue Nile and the Atbara
River' and is brought about by heavy rains in Ethiophia.' This stream brings rich red-coloured
ferti lizing silts,' approximately eighty-five mill ion tons annually, from virgin forests; it usually
reac hes Egypt in the late July. The inundation culminates in the months of August and
September.' ln December, when the Hood surge reaches Egypt from an immense southern
tributary of the Wh ite Nile, the Sabat Riverthewmer-Ievel of the Blue Nile drops sign ifiantly,
and theAtbara River becomes a wadi. Since the Hood level of the White Nile is constant almost
year-ro und, Egypt is nearly absolutely dependent on this source of water when the Hood surge
subsides. The White Nile is supplied by swa mpy areas and large equatorial lakes."
The main problem is that the Nile on ly Hoods in the second part ofthe year, and therefore
the soil Iies fa llow for several months. For about forty days in autumn, muddy water containing fertilizing silts from the Ethiopian highlands slowly Hows, soaks into the soil, and then
overHows the ingenious system of basins and di kes, recalling the days of the Pharaohs. Every
year, the soil was renewed in this \Vay. This basin irrigation watered cultivated areas and made
a winter crop (wheat, barley) possible." Nevertheless, it had the disadvantage ofrequiring a
great deal of manpower. After the end of each annual flo od, Egyptian peasants had to \Vo rk
on cleaning the cana ls of sediment or repairing their damaged banks. Additionally, forced
labourers (corvée) , who were very often whipped, IVere frequently used for the construction of
5
ln dcwi[ SLOANE, W. M., Egypcond Eng/al/d, in: Political Science Qua rtcrly, Vol. 19, 1904, No. 3, p. 472.
6
7
Thc Blue Ni lc <Ind Ihe Atbara Rivcr are thc most significam right-hand tribularicsor Ihe Nile.
ln August, when the Nilc nood spcaks, Ihe now rJICof thc NUc <l l Aswan \\las about founeen thousands squarc
mClrcs per sccond, comparcd 10 rour hundreds squarc melres per second in late May. PEEL, S., 8 ricish Ad-
8
Thc sills conlaincd a largc pcrcenta gc of ca rbonate of lime, oxide oC iron, and carbonated oC soda. In detail
GEMMIL L, I~ E, Egypr Is rheNile, in: EconomicGeography, Vol. 4, 1928, No. 3, p. 300.
9
During days of peak overAow, tlle Nile <lt Aswan consistsof tllc Wll ite Nile ( 10 %), thc Blue Nilc (68 %) , and
thei\tbara Rivcr (22 'XI). The Nile usuallyconsists of thc Whitc Nile (83 %) and the Blue Njle (17 %). SANDERSON, G. N., E/lg/a/ld, Ellrope and rite Uf}f}cr Nite 1882-1899, Ed inburgh 1965, p. 10.
10
Co rnparc LANGER, W. L., Thc Diplomacy oflmpcrialism 1890-1902, New York 195 1, p. 106; MARLOWE,
J., FOllr AscpccIsofEgYPI, London 1966, p. 233; PEE L, S., op. ci!., pp. 516-5 17; SAN DES, E. W. C., Tlu: Royal
ElIgil/C!ers ill Egypr alld rhe Sl/dan, Chat ham 193 7, pp. 361 -362.
II
Compare GEMMILL, P. E, op. cit., p. 300; PEEL, S., O['J. cit., p. 517; RICHARDS, 1\., '/ecfll/ical al/d Sodal
CI/(/I/ge jil Egypliafl AgriclIllllre: 1890-1914, in: Ecollomic DťW!loplllťflt and Cl/llllrlll CI/tll/ge, Vol. 26, 1978,
No. 4, ['J. 726; TIGNOR, R. L., 8rilish Agricullllral al/d Nydnllllic Polky ifl Egypr, 1882-1892, in: AgriclIlcural
NistOI)', Vol. 37, 1963, No. 2, ['J. 63.
mi"iscrat;OIl (/11(/ Irrigatiol/ ;11 Egypt , in: Polítkal ScicnccQuartcrly, Vol. 20, 1905, No. 3, p. 516.
,
94
Studies
I "Th e Struggle fo r Water"
bridges, roads, and hydraulic works, but were sometimes also abused for private purposes.1 2
The main advantage ofthis basic irrigation was that the Relds neither needed any fertilisers,
nor any special preparations such as ploughing, for example. At the same time, the annual
inundation prevented excessive salinity of the soil. ll
The area of fertile land near the Nile \Vas limited to a strip of ten Ol' fifteen miles wide along
the river and the Delta area; this is why perennial irrigation became the only possible way of
using this land effectively." Perennial irrigation required a good deal of hydraulic constructions
(weirs, barrages, dams, deep canals, and pumping stations) and various landscape modiRcations (strengthening and raising of the banks), in order to achieve a log-term increase in the
water level of the Nile during a season without \Vater. Ever since the days of Muhammad Ali,
the Egyptians have made efforts to preserve and more effectively use the regular Oood surge,
as well as protect themselves against periodic massive ftoods. Therefore, perennial irrigation,
which watered cultivated lands and protect them from over-inundation more effectively than
basin irrigation was established in the Delta. Perennial irrigation \Vas necessary for the summer crop, which consisted ofprofitable export commodities such as cotton and sugarcane. IS
At the same time perennial irrigation was set up, the original three-year crop rotation was
converted to a two-year crop rotation. On the one hand, this modiRcation brought about higher
cotton yields; however, it also led to a decrease in bean production." It was estimated that for
every fE 2 invested in perennial irrigation, fE 5 was earned, due to the increased crop yield. 17
The chaotic end of Khedive Ismail's reign and Urabi's period gaye rise to political instability, which logically resulted in poor canal maintenance - the beds became clogged \Vith mud
and the banks crumbled.ln a report from 1883, the British Ambassador in Constantinople,
Lord Dufferin, focused on the situation of Egypt at the time, and paid special attention to irrigation. He suggested that British hydraulic experts with Indian experience should be called
on to improve the irrigation. The Egyptians \Vere able to adopt Indian technological skills
without complications because the water conditions and local climate in Egypt were in many
respects similar to the Indian subcontinent. In March 1883 well-known British engineer Sir
12
BAR[NG, E., Modem Egypt, Vol. 2, London 1908. pp. 407-409.
13
RICHARDS,A., op. cit., p. 726.
[4
GEMM[LL. P. E, op. cit., p. 296.
[5
SeeGEMMILL, P. E, op. cit., p. 30'1; RICHARDS,A., op. cit., p. 727;TIGNOR, R. L., Britisll ... , p. 63.
16
The origin three-ye:lr crop rot:ltion: first ye:lr - clover (November-M:lrch), cotlon (April-October); second
ye:lr- be:lns (November-May) , fallow (June-October); third year- wheat or barley (November-May), maize
(June-October). The new two-yearcrop rot:ltion: first yea~ - cotton (April-OclOber), wheat, barley, or bcans
(November-May); second year - fallow (May-Ju[y) , maize (Ju[y-Novcmbcr) , clover (Novcmbcr-March). Under a two-ycar crop rot<ltion in!itead of a thrcc-ye<Jr crop rotation the toral cultivated area of Lower Egypt
increased from 17 % in 18 941040 % in 1900, :lnd S6 %in 1908. Compare OWEN , R., Tllc Rapid Groll'rll o[
Egypc 'sAgricufwraf Oucpur, 1890-1914, asall Earfy E.wlfllpfc o[rlteGrl!l!ll RL'\'ofurioflSo[Modern SOluh Asia:
Impfic(1ciolls[or rl/(: Writirlgo[Globa/ Histor)', in: Journal of Global History, Vol. 1,2006, No. I, s. 91;
SOlil I!
RICHARDS, A., op. cit., pp. 727-728.
17
PEEL, S., op. cit., p. 526.
95
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Colin Campbell Scott-Moncrieff" arrived in Cairo as a tOUl'ist. After a personal conversation with Lord Dufferin, he accepted an offer of J:E 2,000 per annum and the position of the
Inspector-General of Irrigation." Shortly afterwards, he officially became the British UnderSecretary (the British Advisor) in the Ministry of Public Works. Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff
started development of the Egyptian hyd raulic economy according to British-Indian technical
knowledge. 20
Once, Scott-Moncrieff expres sed this abo ut his tas ks: "Irrigation is an art which there
is no occasion to practise in England. But there are few forms of agricultu re which are not
practised in one ar another Df Her Majesty's many possessions ... 112 1 In the ensu ing six l110nths
he examined the situation and conditions of the irrigation system. He soon realized that he
needed his Indian colleagues to successfully complete this ta sk. During t\Vo consecutive years,
seven British irrigation engineers fromlndia arrived in Egypt." Subsequently, Scott-Moncrieff
divided the Khediva te into eight districts (irrigation circuits), and put each of these engineers
in charge of irrigation affai rs for one district. Theysupervised \Vater distribution, ftood control,
maintenance ofwater works, cleaning dikes and canaIs, raad cons truc ti ons, etc.; vely often
they became impartial and incorruptible arbiters for the Egyptian countryside."
The first considerations abo ut the Nile Ba rrage (the Delta Barrage) had already appeared
during the French occupation of Egypt in 1798- 1799. During his reign, Viceroy of Egypt
Muhammad Ali focused on setting up perennial irrigation in the Delta, \Vhich Iies between the
Damietta and Roseua branches, in order to increase of cotton production; this necessitated a
radical change in the whole canal system of the time. ln 1833, he began to repair and improve
the banks and canals at the location below Cairo where the Nile splits into two brancl1es. The
idea of constructi ng a regulating barrage, which would distribute water between the two
branches in summer and leave a free passage fo r the ftood surge, was planned by the Egyptian
chief engine,,' Linant de Bellefonds." Originally, it was even calculated that stones fo r the
construction orthe Nile Barrage would require disassembly orthe Great Pyramids of Giza ."
18
Sir Colin CampbcJl Scott-Moncricff (1836- 19 16) a British engineer. From 1856 to 1883 hc served as nn irrigarion c:-.:pcrr in tbc Ind ian Ministry for Irrigation. In thc years 1883 to 1892 he held nn appoin tmcnt as rite
British Undcr-Sccrclury (the British Advisor) in thc Ministry of Pu blic Works in Egyp t. ln detail about hi s
remarkable life HOLLl NGS, M. A., Thc Lifc ofSir Colin C. Scou-Mollcrieff, London 1917; Ohílllar)': Sir Coli1l
Scott MOllcrieff, in: The Geograp hical Journa l, Vol. 47, 1916, No. 6, p. 48 '1.
19
At flrst Scott-Moncrieff herd the posts of the Inspector-Gcncra l of [rrigation and thc British Under-Secretary
logether, as thcy wcrc somcwhat pcrsona[ly scparatcd.
c., op.dl.,p. 37 1;TI GNOR, R. L , British ... ,p. 64; T[GNOR, R. L.,Modemizacioll .. ., p. 110.
20
SAN DES, E. W
21
T 1GNOR, R. L. , Bricish... , p. 64.
22
Robert Hanbury Brown, E. W P. Foster, William Edmund Ga rstin, A. G. W. Reid, Justin Ross, James Hulifax
Western, William Wil lcocks. MANSrmLD, r., Tll(: 8ritish ill Egypt, London '[ 971, p. 114.
23
T1GNOR, R. L., I1r;tisll .. . , p. 66.
24
Louis Maurice Adolphc Linum de Bell efonds, Linant Pas ba, {1799- 1883), Frcnch cngineer and an explorer
af Egypt. [n 1831-1 869 he held tbe positian of chicf cngineer af Egypt's publicworks.
25
Compare BROWN , R. H., /-lisloryofche 8arrage (1( IIIe Hmd oj (Iii: De/Ul of Egypt, Cairo 1896, pp. 1-7; SAN DES,
E. W. C., op. d l., p. 363.
96
SlLI cl ies
I "Tll e S tru ggle fo r Wote r"
ln 1843 a new French engineer, Mougel Bey, modified the existing pian, and newly pro po sed
fortifying the Damietta and Rosetta Barrages, which should retain 20 feet ofwater for the
SllrnlTIer season,16 as well as three big canals'l7 which \vere to convey this water through the
provinces. Construction of the Nile Barrage began in 1847. Because it was built very hastily,
its foundations IVere laid in quite a sloppy way. Shortly afterlVards, cracks appeared in the
masonry; construction progressed slowly due to various obstacles. By 1861, the Nile Barrage
had been partly finished; both bridges, including roads, guardrails, and watchtolVers, IVere
put into operation. Nevertheless, the defects in the foundations of the Nile Barragewere not
repaired. The estimated costs of existing construction reached J::E 1,880,000."
An experimental filling up of the Nile Barrage took place in 1863. But the expected success
did not materialize because dangerous cracks appeared right alVay in almost all the masonry.
Additionally, the Damietta branch IVas not fitted with a regulating gate and hence could
not retain any water, and two of the three canals remained unfinished. The most serious
complication occured, when the barrage cracked from the foundations to the peak and the
stream pulled dOlVn ten arches. The Nile Barrage seemed to be a completely botched project.
The Egyptian administration therefore had to IVrite it off as an expensive failure. In 1863-1882
the Barrage was only partially used due to apprehension that greater pressure would totally
destroy it. 29
At this point, IVhen the Nile Barrage had proven to be useless, the Egyptian Minister for
Public Works, a French engineer by the name of Rousseau Pasha, considered obtaining
water for the perennial irrigation IVith th e assistance of pumping stations; he defacto
decided to implement an unofficial pian by Linant de Bellefonds. Negotiations conducted
with a private company revealed that implementing the idea would require a one-time
non-refundable expense of J::E 700,000, and J::E 250,000 per year for smooth operation,
which was unacceptable." Scott-Moncrieff maintained the position that from a long-term
perspective, itwould be more effective to iniprove the existing irrigation system and build new
hydraulic structures than to invest in the pumping stations." Therefore, he set one of the most
26
Thc Damietta Barmgc was to have45 archccJ openings, comparc to only 39 for thc RoseUn. Each openingwas
26lt:í Feel wide, and was to be fltled with iron gmes, serving for regulation Df thewatcr leve]. SAN DES, E. W. C.,
op. cit., pp. 365, 367.
27
Theywere thc easle rn cana] Rayyah Tewfi"i (the provinces af Kalinbiyah nnd Sharkiya h), having becn nssisted
by tbe crmals lsmaiJiayah, Slmrkawiyah and Basusiyab, central Rayyah Menufiyah (thc provinccs of Menufiyah
and Gbarbiyah) , an d western Rayyah Bahem h (the province ofBahemh). BROWN, R. H. , op. cit., p. 31.
28
Comparc BROWN, R. H. ,op.c it., pp.7-21 ; COLVlN,A., IThcMakillgofModem Egypr, London 1906, p. 223;
SAN DES, E. W. c., op. ciL , pp. 366-367; SCOTI-MON CRIEFF, C. C., Egyplialllrrigmioll, in: The Geogmphical Journal , VoJ. 35 , 1910, No. 4, pp. 425 -426; TlGNOR, R. L. , Urilish ... } p. 66.
29
See SAN DES, E. W. C., op. cit. , p. 368; TlGN OR, R. L., Tlle ';fl1dianizcuion" ... , p. 656.
30
ln detail see MARLOWE, J., emmerofEgypt, London 1970, pp. 128-1 29; SAN DES, E. \ov, C., op. cit., p. 373;
TIGNOR, R. L., Bricish ... , p. 67.
3 1 TIGNOR, R. L. , Thc ;'Indiallizarion" ... . p. 656.
97
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capable engineers, William Willcocks," to make the necessar)' temporary adjustments to the
irrigation." ln 1884, he fitted the Damietta Barrage with the missing regulating gate, which
allowed the amount of water retained to increase by about a meter; all for an 'inconsiderable'
fE 25,000." Nevertheless, the main problem IVas stili that the foundations were resting on
the muddy and sandy main bed.
ln 1885, Sir Evelyn Baring managed to obtaitl a loan of fE 1,000,000 for irrigation projects,
and re-construction of the Nile Barrage could continue. The foundations had to be repaired
to eliminate seepages. At first, the British only filled missing stones in the Barrage." Later,
Scott-Moncrieff made the decision to widen the stone foundations; he decisively rejected
very expensive digging."
ln accordance with Indian experience, William Willcocks proceeded to horizontally extend
the foundations along both their sides. The thickness of the masonry with the assistance of
concrete and stones doubled to 224 feeL Workers could strengthen the Barrage when the
water level of the Nile was low (from March to June); hence the reconstruction was planned
forfour years. After thorough preparations in 1887, the Nile Barrage began to undergo repairs."Thanks to floodlights, 10,000 labourers could work night and dal' on the building
site, which was surrounded by an earthen bulwark. At the same time, nine steam pumps
continuously pumped aut leaking \Vater. During reconstruction af the Barrage, the missing
eastern Taufiqi canal was dug at a cost of fE 372,000. In June 1890, reconstruction was
finished; it co st fE 465,000. Thanks to a new and abundant source of water for perennial
irrigation, cotton production increased by about a million pounds." After almost sixtyyears
the Nile Barragewas in place. l9
32
Sir Willialll Willcocks (1852-1932) a British enginecr <lnd plnnner af thc Aswnn Dnm. He cntercd the public
consciousncss with his irrigmion projects in India, Egypt, Somh Africa, Romania , and Mcsopotmnia. H. E.
W" Obituar)': Sir William Wi/lcocks. in: Thc Gcographic<J1 Journal, Vol. 81, 1933, No. 1, pp. 94-95.
33
ln 1876, a British irrigation expert af tllc Rayal Engineers from India, Major Geneml Fo H. Rundull inquired
imo thc Ni1c Barrage. He came 10 lhe conclusion llHlt the original foundatiolls had the optima I depth but
34
Compare with BROWN IR. H., op. cit., p. 38; PEEL, S., op. cit., p. 520; SAN DES, E. W. C., op. ciL, p. 374;
TIGNOR, R. L., Bricish ... , p. 67.
SAN DES, E.
C., op. cit., p. 374.
insufAcient width.ln detail SAN DES. E. W. C., op. cit., pp. 367~369.
35
36
37
38
39
98
,v.
T1GNOR, R. L" The "lndiallizacion "... , p. 656.
After che f<lilurc of the Drlllnmond~Wolrf mission to Constaminople, which endeavourcd to !l1odiry tlle status
of tlle British Army in Egypt, the British occupation bcc<l!l1c more perrnanent; this is why from Ihm moment
on British ofl1ci<lls bcgall to pian long-term invcst~ncnt projects. TIGNOR, R. L., Modcmizatioll ... , p. 89.
BROWN, R. H., op. CiL, pp. 42~52; MARLOWE, J., Cromcr... , p. 153; SAN DES, E. W. C., op. cit., pp. 376-377;
TIGNOR, R. L., British ... , pp. 67-68;TIGNOR, R. L" Modemizarioll ... , p. 119.
ShorUy after tlle opening of thc Nile Barrage, there were fcars llml the old foundarions, closed in with new
m:lsonry, would co][apse on <lccoun! of pressure. This is why in subsequent years auxiliary weirs were built.
<Ind wcrc complctcd in May 1901 ar a cost fE 434,000. ln detail SANDES, E. 'vv. C., op. ciL, p. 379; TIGNOR.
R. L., Modemizatioll ... , p. 120.
5 cudi es
I "Th e 5truggle fo r Water"
Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff left Egypt in 1892, and William Garstin'" became the new British
Advisol' for Irriga tioll. If Scott-Moncrieff's period culminated in construction of the Nile
Barrage, the Aswan Dam (the Assuan Reservoir), which took pride ill the title "the greatest
reservoir in the wo rld" symbol ised Garstin's era." After completion of the Nile Barrage in
the Delta, there we re not any "relatively cheap" further projects, which could increase the
share of perennial irrigation; construction of a huge reservoir on the Nile in Upper Egypt
seemed to be the only solution .
First, the irrigation experts had to settle a few problems: where to build the reservoir, how
to prevent sedimentation of fertile silts, how to ensure their smooth efnuxion through the
dam, and where to obta in the money. The ideal place, having an extraord inarily deep granite
bed, IVas the ft rst cataract above Aswan, about 600 miles to the south of Cairo." Sir Samuel
Baker, a British explorer of sources of the Ni1e and the Governor of the Egyptian provi nce
Equatoria in the 1870s, ftrst got the idea of the Aswa n Dam in 1866. Several va riants were
proposed in subsequent years, but unfortunately were difficult to carry out from a technical
point of vieIV. Gnly in 1893 did Sir William WiIIcoeks begin to intensively prepare the plans for
this reservoir." After tlVO yea rs, he published his ftnal proposal for t1le gigantic straight dam,
1 %miles in length and about 115 feet in height; the costwas estimated at about f:E 750,000."
However, there was a snag in this pian; it would entail the partial submergenee of a famous
group of ancient temples on the Island of Philae, upstream of the dam. WiIIcoeks originally
caJculated a total sum of f:E 250,000 for moving the temples to another isla nd, againstwhich
European archaeologists, in particular, ardently protested. The establishment of an international eommittee with British, French, and Italian representatives solved nothing. SirWiIIiam
himself was fed up with this headache, so just for a joke he suggested that the estimated cost
of the reservoir could be eovered by selling the Philae eomplex to the Americans, who would
most eertainly have the temples removed and re·erected in New York. FinaIIy, the Egyptian
government mode a concession; it reduceď th e height of the dam by about 26 feet and promised that the foundati ons of the Philae temples would be strengthened. However, this step
diminished its original capacity by more than half." Winston Churchill used bitter criticism
40
Sir Willinm Edmund Gnrstin ( 1849-1925), <l British cnginccr. [n 1S72-ISS5 hc sClvcd in llle Indinn Ministry
of Public Worl.:.s. [n 1885, hc rcccivcd nn inviWlion from Sir Colin Scott-M oncrieff <Ind arrived in Egypt. Afler
seven ycars he 1001.:. Scott-Moncricff's post thc Briti sh Undcr-Secrewry in the Egyptian Ministr)' of Public
Works. Latcr hc hcld the funclion a British Dircclor of thc SuczCa nal Com pany. H, G. L., Obiwary: Sir William E. Garsr;ll, in: Thc Gcographical loumal. Yol. 65, 1925, No. 3. p. 279.
41
ISSAWI, c.,Egypt Silice 1800:A Smdyill Lop-sieled Dew!/olmU!m, in: The Joumal of Economic Histor)', YoL 21,
1961.No.l.p.9.
42
PEEL, S., op. ci!., pp. 523·524.
43
D., H. , The A~SIIlIll D(lII/, in: Journal of thc Roya l Arrica n Society, Vol. 12, 19 13, No. 46, p. 200.
44
Accord ing to plans, thc dam should Imvc 140 lowcr <I nd 40 uppcr sluiccways so wntcr would not overnow a
pca l.:. of tlle dam but r<ltllcrwould regulatcd by stccl g31CS. SAN DES. E. W C., op. ciL, p. 382.
45
Sec COLVIN, A., op. cit. , p. 4 18; SAN DES, E. Vrl. c., op. ci t., pp. 382-383; TIGNOR, R. L. , Mo{/emizar;oll ... ,
p.222.
99
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anc! commented on it Iike this: "The State must struggle and the people sta rve, in arcler that
professors may exult and tourist nnd same place on which to scratch their names,"4G
By late 1895, British engineers had prepared everything needed for the construction, with
the exception of money. Lord Cromer drew up a surplus Egyptian budget for 1895; as a good
administrator he wanted to use it for investments but a dispute over money arose between
supporters of economic development and military cirdes. In other words, the British Advisor
for Irrigation, Sir William Garstin, was at odd s with the commander-in-chief ofthe Egyptian
Anny (the Sil"dar), Sir Horatio Herbert Kitchener (1850-1916). Sir William believed the
moneywould best be used for construction of the Aswan Dam, whereas Sir Horatio championed using it for a future re-conquest of the Sudan. Kitchener believed that sooner Ol" later
they would have to drive out the Mahdists, who had controlled the Sudan since 1885. The very
\Varm weather and 10\V \Vater level of the Nile indicated that a campaign would not ta ke place
in 1896, and for these reasons Garstin and the dam prevailed. But shortly thereafter, in March
of 1896, Her Majesty's Government made a deci si on to re-conquer Dongola. Therefore, construction of the Aswan Dam had to be postponed until the re-conquest of the whole Sudan."
ln late 1897 Lord Cromer propounded the British Prime Minister, Marquis of Salisbury, the
intendecl dam saying this: "!f\Ve are to bear the Sudan burden \Ve must increase the revenue,
and the onlyway to do so is to improve the water supply.''''ln 1899, His Royal Highness
the Duke of Connaught and Strathearmlaid the foundation stone of the future hydra ulic
structure. The contract \Vas given to Messrs. John Aird and Company. Contrmy to Willcock's
original calculations, the foundations of the resetvoir had to be deepened, which made the
construction considerably more expensive,49 The maill complication was that Cromer clíd not
have sufficient finance, because t1le Egyptian Government spent too much on the Sudanese
campaign; therefore he had to borrow money. The final costs of the Aswan Dam, induding
the minor Assiut Barrage'" and the Zifta Barrage," reached nearly fE 3,500,000."
46
47
48
Si\NDES, E. W. C., op. cit. , pp. 383.
More compnre GREW, E. S., Fidd-Marshal Lord Kitchcflcr: His U/emul WorkJor (he Empire, Vol. I, London
1916, p. 162; CHURCHILL, W., The Riw:r War, Vol. 1, London 1899, p. 172; WI-IEELER, H. E B., TllťStory
ofLord Kilclu:l/er, London 1916, p. 83.
MARLOWE , J., Cromcr... , p. 226.
49
The m:Jximum height from tllC foundations was about 125 feet. The thickncss of thc dam at thc top was 23
fcct and at the deepest part was S1 feet. Thc m:Jsonryweighcd ovcrone mill ion tons in total. COLVIN, A., op.
cit.,p.417.
50
Thc Assiut Barmgc was buUt (1898-1903) at Assiut in Uppcr Nilc, approxinlillcly 250 milcs to the south of
Cairo. hs main task wns to provide the Ibrahimiya C::mal with water, wltích wns Anislted in 1873 during thc
reign of Ismail Paslta, in Low Egypt. COLVIN, A., ,op. cit, p. 418; PEEL, S., op. ciL, pp. 525-528.
5[
Thc Ziftn Barmgc, wltich wns built on the Onmiettn branci, of the Nile, W:JS sllpplied witlt water tlle Delta.
PEEL, S., op. ciL, pp. 526.
52
Lord Cromcr obtained from the Geneml Reservc of Caisscdc fa dcltc Pu/J(iqm: IE 1,346,229, thc Specinl Rcservc
of thc Egypti:Jn Trcasury rE 143.165, nnd he had to borrow the bnlnnce of rE 1,950,000 from thc financinJ
consortium of n British financier Sir Ernest Casscll. According to thc contractunl nniclcs, Egypt repnid in
sixty six-rnonthly instalments of IE 76 648, sUlrling frum the lime of rhe Anishing of the construction. More
compDrc. O., H.. op. cit. , p. 200; MANSfIELO, P., op. cit, pp.l1S-119; MARLOWE,J., Cromc/'... , p. 227.
100
Stu di es
I "Th e Stru ggle fo r Wa ter"
A British construction com pany built the dam from gra ni te and Portland cement. 10,000
labourers, including 800 skilled Italian stonecutters, worked on the project. The reservoir
co ntained an amount of masonry equa l to about one-third ofthat used in th e Great Pyramids
of Giza. The rise in the N ile \Vater level \Vas felt as far upstream as Korosko , ] 40 miles to the
5l
south of Aswan. The reservoir could retain almost enough water for the perennial irrigation.
When the Aswan Dam was built, the productivity of so me cultivated areas paradoxically
decreased by 17 percent, because the reservoir did not release all fertile silts through the
sluiceways." From 1885-1907, the area where cotton was cultivated increased from 850,000
feddans" to nearly 1,300,000 feddans. In the 1880s, the cotton yield per feddan rose from
some 3.5 cantars" to over 5.5 cantars in the years 1896-1899, and, later in Lord Cromer's
era of 1905-1908, it began to decrease by an annual ave rage of 4.25 cantars. In 1909, when
there was a catastrophically poor crop, productivity only reached 3.13 ca ntars per feddan. "
ln 1884, cotton made up about 67 percent of Egyptian exports, but by 1906 it was already
about 83 perce nts." ln the Ilrst decade of th e 20'''century, a gradual reduction in cotto n yields
was brought about not only by the Aswan Dam, but also by the critical convergence of several
factors - a rise in the water table, particularly in Lower Egypt where the British did not succeed in drainage, soil deterioration due to shortening of the fallow period, and insect attacks."
Before the First World War hmvests were not as rich as before th e erection of the reselvoir
at Aswan. The extension of crop areas, aided by a sufficient supply ofwater, allowed profits
to be maintained. In 1912 and 1934, the As\Van Dam was heightened and strengthened,
doubling its storage capacity.~ No subsequent Egyptian hydraulic works ever surpassed its
renown. After the re·conquest of Khartoum, British hydraulic engineers began to pay close
attention to the Nile and its tributaries, which flowed through Sudan."
During the first two decades of British occupation, the Egyptian Ministry of Public Works
invested approximately 8 percent of government expenditures into irrigation - fi.ve times
more than into health selv ices and ed ucation combined." This ministry was th e only one
which reg ularly obtained Ilnancial support fordevelopment projects. In the Ilrs! ten yea rs of
Cromer's era, the lack of money meant that on ly limited proposals for improvements, such
as thorough cJeaning and widening of th e canals, could be pursued. For this reaso n, the
53
[n detnil COLVIN,A. , op. ciL, p. 417; PEEL, S., op. cic., pp. 525-527.
54
MCFARLANE, J., '/'I/{: Prodl/criOIl olCouoII ill Egypt, in: Journnl af the Royn1 African Society, Vol. 8, 1909, No.
32, p. 378.
55
I feddan = 0.44 hectnrc.
56
I cnntnr =44,5 ki logra mcs.
57
OWEN, R., op. cic., pp. 84-85.
58
T1GNOR, R. L. , Brirish ... , op. cit., p. 72.
59
RICHARDS, A., op. ciL, pp. 728-730.
60
GEMM ILL, P.
ť.,op.
ciL, p. 302; MARLOWE, J., CrollleJ'... , p. 227.
6 1 To the problems sec RAVEN STEIN, E. G., Sir WiIli(/m C(//'srin's Report as to Irrig{/tioll Projeccs Oll rlle Uppťr
Nik, in: The Geographical Joumal, Vol. 18, 190 I , No. 4, pp. 398-403.
62
TIGNOR, R. L.,Brirish... , p. 65.
101
)l(
2009/2
Egyptian administration made a decision to entrust these activities to private contractors,
which diminished the number af men who were conscripted us cOI1/ée,Gl
Previously, the Egyptian administration had forced fellahs to IVork in remote locations
with the aid of a whip. One-eighth of Egyptians \Vere subject to the corvée. For the Egyptian
Government, the c011'ée meant very cheap manpower, which it did not need to either pay or
support. The fellahs \Vorked with their tools and slept under the open sky. Usually, the poorest,
who could not pay to free themselves from this "patriotic servi ce", \Vere chosen. The situation
IVas further complicated by the fact that corrupt omcials frequently enabled rich landowners
to use the cOI1/ée on their private estates. G4
The attitude to\Vard the corvée IVas carried over from basin irrigation into perennial
irrigation. Thereafter, the soil did not already Iie fallow part of the year but required intensive
farming and care. Cleaning and digging cana ls was more time-con suming as well. AII at
once, the corvée became an inefficient and ineffective institution, very often criticised by the
Europeans; modern mechanization and paid IVorkers seemed to be the optimal solution.
Nevertheless, the Egyptian Government did not have the financial resources to purchase
machines or pay salaries, IVhich is why during the flrst years of the occupation, British advisors
reluctantly tolerated this relic of history. Fmm 1883-1889, the number of men conscripted as
the c011'ée, decreased from 202,650 to 58,788 persons per one hundred days. In 1889, in the
context of debt conversion, the Egyptian Government almost abolished the c011'ée, except for
some safety measures (the duty to watch the Nile during the inundation).lt had to undertake
new expenditure for c1eaning canals, amounting to about fE 400,000 per year."
It is generally believed that Cromer's reform efforts were successful, particularly regarding
the modernization of irrigation and agriculture, and also commendable in the reorganization
ofthe Egyptian army, police,judiciary, and politica! institutions. The British failed in the areas
of hea!th services, education, and prisons. Cromer's administration of Egypt IVas regarded as
"an extraordinary examp!e of the British imperia!ism in action" - the introduction of order
into chaos, and leading the natives to political and economic responsibility. The British succeeded in integrating most village communities into the cultural, political, and economic Iife
of Egypt; only far-flung villages stili remained iso!ated in the 'captivity' of traditions.
63
64
TIGNOR, R. L" TI/i: "/ru/icmizarioll" ... , p. 655.
Sec BARING, E. , op. ciL, Vol. 2, p. 409; CI-UROL, v., Th r: Egyptiafl Problem, London 1921, p. 70; SJ\NDES.
op. cit., pp. 364·365, 378.
65
102
More comp<lre RAE, W. E, Eg}'pt To-da)'.. Thc First to tllt: Third Klu:diw:, London 1892. p. 177; MARLOWE, J.,
Cromer... , op. Cil ., p. 152; SAN DES, E. W. C., op. cil., p. 378; TIGNOR, R. L., l\I!odert/;zation ..., pp. 120-1 22.
Stu cl ies
I "The St ru gg le for Wate r"
"The 5truggle for Water"
The British and the Modernization of Egyptian Irrigation
This article analyses the problems of the Bri tish modc rni zat ion cfforlSof the Egyplian irrigat ion
sys tem, which was the basis of a dynamic development of the Egyptian economy in the l:Jte 19th
cenrury :Jnd which symbolized the 8ritish success in Egypt. Egyptian agriculture suffered from
its dependence on regu l:Jr watering from the N ile bec~use of insufficient minfall intensity. The
residc nt of the Her M:Jjcsty's Govermnen t, Lo rd Cromer, re:::dized this fact, ;] nd thal is why he
supported hydr:Ju lic projects. It me:Jnt more cult iv:Jted lands, greatcr yields of fie ld crops, :Jnd an
incrcased r1Llrnber of Iwrvests, which led to hig her reven ucs fo r tlle Egypt i:Jn Treas ury. Durin g
Crorner's cm thc British hydmu lic engi neers, such as Sir Co lin Ca mpbe ll Scott-Monc rieff, Sir
Willi:Jm Garstin, and SirWill i:Jm Will cocks, nor only fi nished great projects oft he Nile Barr:Jgc
:md the Asw:Jn D:Jm, the biggest reservoir of its time, but 31so procceded of completely modernization thc Egypt ian irrignt ion.
KeyWords
Egypt ian Agricul ture, Egyptia n Irrigat ion System, Egyptian Governme nt, Egyptia n Min istryof
PublicWorks, I-Iydraulic Engineers, Nile Barrnge, AS\V:l1l D:llll
103