>c\ko`m 4
M`g\odjincdkn =`or``i oc`
@g`h`ion
4), A\hdgd`n ji K`mdj_d^ O\]g`
G`nnji J]e`^odq`n
ȸ ?`n^md]` oc` k\oo`min oc\o `sdno di oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin ajm oc` h\di bmjpk `g`h`ion)
ȸ D_`iodat oc` ^jgphin di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` oc\o ^jio\di ,$ oc` \gf\gd h`o\gn' -$ oc` \gf\gdi` `\moc
h`o\gn' .$ oc` c\gjb`in' \i_ /$ oc` ij]g` b\n`n' \i_ _`n^md]` oc` _dz`m`i^`n ]`or``i `\^c a\hdgtȱn
`g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji)
ȸ Bdq`i oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm \i `g`h`io' _`o`mhdi` don a\hdgt ji oc`
k`mdj_d^ o\]g`)
Diomj_p^odji
Rdoc oc` diomj_p^odji ja `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin' r` ]`b\i oj b`o \ _``k`m pi_`mno\i_dib ja oc` k`mdj_d^
o\]g`) <i pi_`mno\i_dib ja oc`n` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin rdgg kmjq` oj ]` diq\gp\]g` \n r` gjjf \o ]ji_dib
\i_ ^c`hd^\g m`\^odjin) Oc` jm]do\g m`km`n`io\odji h`ocj_ ajm m`km`n`iodib `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji dn ncjri
]`gjr) Oc` jm]do\g m`km`n`io\odji r\n g`\mi`_ di \i `\mgd`m ^c\ko`m ]po gdf` h\it ja oc` nfdggn tjp g`\mi di
^c`hdnomt' do rdgg ]` pn`_ \ bm`\o _`\g di ocdn ^c\ko`m \i_ di n`q`m\g ^c\ko`mn g\o`m di oc` ^jpmn`)
-2.
rrr)^f,-)jmb
Di ocdn g`nnji' r` rdgg aj^pn ji oc` ^jii`^odji ]`or``i oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji \i_ oc` h\di bmjpk
`g`h`ion ja oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`) R` rdgg i``_ oj m`h`h]`m oc` np](g`q`g {ggdib bmjpkn di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`)
F``k oc` ajggjrdib {bpm` di hdi_) R` rdgg pn` do ajm oc` i`so orj ^c\ko`mn)
#Njpm^`5 Md^c\m_ K\mnjin) >>(=T(N<$
<gf\gd H`o\gn C\q` Ji` @g`^omji di Oc`dm Jpo`m @i`mbt G`q`g
@g`h`ion @i_dib rdoc s1 = <gf\gd
Di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`' oc` `g`h`ion \m` \mm\ib`_ di jm_`m ja di^m`\ndib \ojhd^ iph]`m) Di km`qdjpn h\o`md\g
r` g`\mi`_ oc\o oc` \ojhd^ iph]`m dn oc` iph]`m ja kmjojin di oc` ip^g`pn ja \i \ojh) Ajm \ i`pom\g \ojh'
oc` iph]`m ja kmjojin dn `lp\g oj oc` iph]`m ja `g`^omjin) Oc`m`ajm`' ajm i`pom\g \ojhn' oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`
dn \gnj \mm\ib`_ di jm_`m ja di^m`\ndib iph]`m ja `g`^omjin) O\f` \ gjjf ijr \o oc` {mno bmjpk jm ^jgphi
rrr)^f,-)jmb
-2/
di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`) Do dn oc` ji` h\mf`_ ȳ,<ȴ di oc` K`mdj_ O\]g` {bpm` ]`gjr) Oc` bmjpkn jm a\hdgd`n
\m` oc` q`mod^\g mjrn ja `g`h`ion) Oc` {mno bmjpk c\n n`q`i `g`h`ion m`km`n`iodib oc` n`q`i k`mdj_n ja oc`
k`mdj_d^ o\]g`) M`h`h]`m oc\o \ k`mdj_ di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` dn \ cjmdujio\g mjr) Bmjpk ,< dn oc` jigt
bmjpk rdoc n`q`i `g`h`ion di do)
Bmjpk ,< ja oc` K`mdj_d^ O\]g` #Njpm^`5 Md^c\m_ K\mnjin) >>(=T(N<$
O\]g` 4),5 @g`^omji >ji{bpm\odjin ajm Bmjpk , H`o\gn
@g`h`io
<ojhd^ Iph]`m
@g`^omji >ji{bpm\odji
Gdocdph (Li)
Nj_dph (Na)
Kjo\nndph (K)
Mp]d_dph (Rb)
>`ndph (Cs)
3
11
19
37
55
Am\i^dph (Fr)
87
1s2 2s1
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s1
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
5p6 6s1
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
5p6 6s2 4 f 14 5d10 6p6 7s1
Rc\o _j tjp ijod^` \]jpo \gg ja oc` `g`h`ion di Bmjpk ,: Oc`t \gg c\q` s1 \n oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g
`g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji) Oc` rcjg` iph]`m di amjio ja oc` ȳnȴ o`ggn tjp rc\o k`mdj_ oc` `g`h`io dn di) Ajm
`s\hkg` nj_dph' I\' c\n oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 ' nj do dn di k`mdj_ 3) Do dn oc` {mno `g`h`io
ja ocdn k`mdj_)
Ocdn bmjpk ja `g`h`ion dn ^\gg`_ oc` \gf\gd h`o\gn) Oc`t b`o oc`dm i\h` amjh \i^d`io <m\]d^ #\g f\gd$
]`^\pn` ȳn^d`iodnonȴ ja oc` odh` ajpi_ oc\o oc` \nc`n ja oc` q`b`o\odji oc`t r`m` ]pmidib ^jio\di`_ \ g\mb`
\hjpio ja nj_dph \i_ kjo\nndph) Di <m\]d^' \g f\gd h`\in \nc`n) R` fijr oj_\t oc\o \gg \gf\gd h`o\gn
c\q` `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odjin `i_dib di s1 ) Tjp hdbco r\io oj ijo` oc\o rcdg` ct_mjb`i dn jao`i kg\^`_ di
bmjpk ,' do dn ijo ^jind_`m`_ \i \gf\gd h`o\g) Oc` m`\nji ajm ocdn rdgg ]` _dn^pnn`_ g\o`m)
<gf\gdi` @\moc @g`h`ion C\q` Orj @g`^omjin di Oc`dm Jpo`m @i(
`mbt G`q`g
@g`h`ion @i_dib rdoc s2 = <gf\gdi` @\moc
O\fdib \ gjjf \o Bmjpk -< di O\]g` 4)-' r` ^\i pn` oc` n\h` \i\gtndn r` pn`_ rdoc bmjpk 1 oj n`` da
-20
rrr)^f,-)jmb
r` ^\i {i_ \ ndhdg\m om`i_) Do dn oc` n`^ji_ q`mod^\g bmjpk di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` \i_ do ^jio\din jigt nds
`g`h`ion)
Rc\o _j tjp ijod^` \]jpo \gg ja oc` `g`h`ion di bmjpk -<: Oc`t \gg c\q` \i jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g `g`^omji
^ji{bpm\odji ja s2 ) Oc` rcjg` iph]`m di amjio ja oc` ȳnȴ o`ggn tjp rc\o k`mdj_ oc` `g`h`io dn di) Ajm
`s\hkg`' h\bi`ndph' Hb' c\n oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 , nj do dn di k`mdj_ 3 \i_ dn oc` n`^ji_
`g`h`io di oc\o k`mdj_) M`h`h]`m oc\o oc` s np]g`q`g h\t cjg_ orj `g`^omjin' nj di Bmjpk -<' oc` s jm]do\g
c\n ]``i {gg`_)
@g`h`ion di ocdn bmjpk \m` bdq`i oc` i\h` \gf\gdi` `\moc h`o\gn) Oc`t b`o oc`dm i\h` ]`^\pn` `\mgt
ȳn^d`iodnonȴ ajpi_ oc\o \gg ja oc` \gf\gdi` `\mocn r`m` ajpi_ di oc` `\mocȱn ^mpno) <gf\gdi` `\moc h`o\gn'
\gocjpbc ijo \n m`\^odq` \n oc` \gf\gd h`o\gn' \m` nodgg cdbcgt m`\^odq`) <gg \gf\gdi` `\moc h`o\gn c\q`
`g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin `i_dib di s2 )
O\]g` 4)-5 @g`^omjid^ >ji{bpm\odjin ajm Bmjpk -< H`o\gn
@g`h`io
<ojhd^ Iph]`m
@g`^omji >ji{bpm\odji
=`mtggdph (Be)
H\bi`ndph (Mg)
>\g^dph (Ca)
Nomjiodph (S r)
=\mdph (Ba)
4
12
20
38
56
M\_dph (Ra)
88
1s2 2s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
5p6 6s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
5p6 6s2 4 f 14 5d10 6p6 7s2
Ij]g` B\n`n C\q` 3 @g`^omjin di Oc`dm Jpo`m @i`mbt G`q`g
@g`h`ion @i_dib rdoc s2 p6 = Ij]g` B\n`n
#Njpm^`5 Md^c\m_ K\mnjin) >>(=T(N<$
Oc` {mno k`mnji oj dnjg\o` \ ij]g` b\n r\n C`imt >\q`i_dnc' rcj dnjg\o`_ \mbji di oc` g\o` 1700 n) Oc`
ij]g` b\n`n r`m` \^op\ggt ^jind_`m`_ di`mo b\n`n piodg oc` ,41+n rc`i \ ^jhkjpi_ r\n ajmh`_ ]`or``i
s`iji \i_ |pjmdi` rcd^c ^c\ib`_ oc` r\t ^c`hdnon qd`r`_ oc` ȳdi`moȴ b\n`n) Di oc` @ibgdnc g\ibp\b`'
di`mo h`\in oj ]` gda`g`nn jm hjodjig`nn6 di oc` ^c`hd^\g rjmg_' di`mo h`\in _j`n ijo m`\^o) G\o`m' oc` i\h`
ȴij]g` b\nȴ m`kg\^`_ ȴdi`mo b\nȴ ajm oc` i\h` ja Bmjpk 3<)
rrr)^f,-)jmb
-21
Rc`i r` rmdo` oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin ajm oc`n` `g`h`ion' r` n`` oc` n\h` b`i`m\g om`i_ oc\o r\n
j]n`mq`_ rdoc bmjpkn ,< \i_ -<6 oc\o dn' ndhdg\m `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin rdocdi oc` bmjpk)
O\]g` 4).5 @g`^omji >ji{bpm\odjin ajm Bmjpk 3< B\n`n
@g`h`io
<ojhd^ Iph]`m
@g`^omji >ji{bpm\odji
C`gdph (C`)
I`ji (I`)
<mbji (<m)
Fmtkoji (Fm)
S`iji (S`)
2
10
28
36
54
M\_ji (Mi)
86
1s2
1s2 2s2 2p6
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
5p6
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
5p6 6s2 4 f 14 5d10 6p6
<nd_` amjh c`gdph' C`' \gg ja oc` ij]g` b\n`n c\q` jpo`m `i`mbt g`q`g `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin oc\o \m` oc`
n\h`'ns2 np6 ' rc`m` n dn oc` k`mdj_ iph]`m) Nj <mbji' <m' dn di k`mdj_ 3' dn \ ij]g` b\n' \i_ rjpg_ oc`m`ajm`
c\q` \i jpo`m `i`mbt g`q`g `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ja 3s2 3p6 ) Ijod^` oc\o ]joc oc` s \i_ p np]g`q`gn \m`
{gg`_) C`gdph c\n \i `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji oc\o hdbco {o dioj Bmjpk -<) Cjr`q`m' oc` ^c`hd^\g m`\^odqdot
ja c`gdph' ]`^\pn` do c\n \ apgg {mno `i`mbt g`q`g' dn ndhdg\m oj oc\o ja oc` ij]g` b\n`n)
C\gjb`in C\q` 2 @g`^omjin di Oc`dm Jpo`m @i`mbt G`q`g
@g`h`ion @i_dib rdoc s2 p5 = C\gjb`in
#Njpm^`5 Md^c\m_ K\mnjin) >>(=T(N<$
Oc` c\gjb`in \m` \i dio`m`nodib bmjpk) C\gjb`in \m` h`h]`mn ja Bmjpk 2<' rcd^c dn \gnj m`a`mm`_ oj \n
17) Do dn oc` jigt bmjpk di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` oc\o ^jio\din \gg ja oc` no\o`n ja h\oo`m \o mjjh o`hk`m\opm`)
Agpjmdi`' F2 ' dn \ b\n' \n dn ^cgjmdi`' Cl2 ) =mjhdi`' Br2 ' dn \ gdlpd_ \i_ dj_di`' I2 ' \i_ \no\odi`' At2 ' \m` ]joc
njgd_n) Rc\o `gn` dn i`\o \]jpo Bmjpk 2< dn oc\o do cjpn`n ajpm (4) ja oc` n`q`i (7) _d\ojhd^ ^jhkjpi_n)
M`h`h]`m oc` _d\ojhd^n \m` H2 , N2 , O2 , F2 , Cl2 ' Br2 ' \i_ I2 ) Ijod^` oc\o oc` g\oo`m ajpm \m` Bmjpk ,2
`g`h`ion) Oc` rjm_ c\gjb`i ^jh`n amjh oc` Bm``f h`\idib n\go ajmhdib) Am`i^c ^c`hdnon _dn^jq`m`_
oc\o oc` h\ejmdot ja c\gjb`i djin rdgg ajmh n\gon rc`i ^jh]di`_ rdoc h`o\gn) R` \gg fijr njh` ja oc`n`
\gm`\_t5 LiF, NaCl, KBr, \i_ NaI)
-22
rrr)^f,-)jmb
O\fdib \ gjjf \o Bmjpk 2< di oc` {bpm`' r` ^\i {i_ oc` n\h` k\oo`mi ja ndhdg\m `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin
\n ajpi_ rdoc bmjpk ,<' -<' \i_ 3<) Do dn oc` 17th bmjpk di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` \i_ do ^jio\din jigt {q`
`g`h`ion)
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@g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji
Agpjmdi` (F)
>cgjmdi` (Cl)
=mjhdi` (Br)
Dj_di` (I)
9
17
35
53
<no\odi` (At)
85
1s2 2s2 2p5
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5p5
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
5p6 6s2 4 f 14 5d10 6p5
Rc\o dn oc` b`i`m\g om`i_ ajm oc` `g`h`ion di Bmjpk 2<: Oc`t \gg c\q`' \n oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g
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h\di bmjpk `g`h`ion' \n tjp m`^\gg' \m` `lpdq\g`io oj oc` s + p ]gj^fn ja oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` #jm oc` o`\g \i_
kpmkg` bmjpkn di oc` _d\bm\h \]jq`$)
Oc` Jstb`i A\hdgt C\n 1 @g`^omjin di oc` Jpo`m @i`mbt G`q`g
@g`h`ion @i_dib rdoc s2 p4 = oc` Jstb`i A\hdgt
#Njpm^`5 Md^c\m_ K\mnjin) >>(=T(N<$
Jstb`i \i_ oc` joc`m `g`h`ion di Bmjpk 1< c\q` \ ndhdg\m om`i_ di oc`dm `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin) Jstb`i
dn oc` jigt b\n di oc` bmjpk6 \gg joc`mn \m` di oc` njgd_ no\o` \o mjjh o`hk`m\opm`) Jstb`i r\n {mno i\h`_
]t <iojdi` G\qjdnd`m di oc` g\o` 1700 n ]po m`\ggt oc` kg\i`o c\n c\_ jstb`i \mjpi_ ndi^` kg\ion r`m` {mno
ji oc` `\moc)
O\fdib \ gjjf \o Bmjpk 1< di oc` {bpm` ]`gjr' r` {i_ oc` n\h` k\oo`mi di `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin oc\o r`
ajpi_ rdoc oc` joc`m bmjpkn) Jstb`i \i_ don a\hdgt h`h]`mn \m` di oc` 16th bmjpk di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`)
rrr)^f,-)jmb
-23
Di Bmjpk ,1' oc`m` \m`' \b\di' jigt {q` `g`h`ion)
O\]g` 4)05 @g`^omji >ji{bpm\odjin ajm Bmjpk 1< @g`h`ion
@g`h`io
<ojhd^ Iph]`m
@g`^omji >ji{bpm\odji
Jstb`i (J)
Npgapm (N)
N`g`idph (N`)
O`ggpmdph (O`)
8
16
34
52
Kjgjidph (Kj)
84
1s2 2s2 2p4
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p4
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1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
5p6 6s2 4 f 14 5d10 6p4
Rc`i r` `s\hdi` oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin ja oc` Bmjpk 1< `g`h`ion' r` n`` oc\o \gg ja oc`n` `g`(
h`ion c\q` oc` jpo`m `i`mbt g`q`g `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ja ns2 np4 ) R` rdgg n`` oc\o ocdn ndhdg\m `g`^omji
^ji{bpm\odji bdq`n \gg `g`h`ion di oc` bmjpk ndhdg\m kmjk`mod`n ajm ]ji_dib)
Oc`n` `g`h`ion \m` orj bmjpkn \r\t amjh oc` ij]g` b\n`n \i_ oc` jpo`mhjno `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji dn orj
\r\t amjh ]`dib {gg`_) Npgapm' ajm `s\hkg`' c\n oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 nj do dn di
k`mdj_ 3) Npgapm dn oc` ndsoc `g`h`io di oc` h\di bmjpk `g`h`ion) R` fijr do dn oc` ndsoc `g`h`io \^mjnn
oc` k`mdj_ ja oc` h\di bmjpk `g`h`ion ]`^\pn` oc`m` \m` 6 `g`^omjin di oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g)
Oc` Idomjb`i A\hdgt C\n 0 @g`^omjin di oc` Jpo`m @i`mbt G`q`g
@g`h`ion @i_dib rdoc s2 p3 = oc` Idomjb`i A\hdgt
#Njpm^`5 Md^c\m_ K\mnjin) >>(=T(N<$
Epno \n r` n\r rdoc Bmjpk ,1' Bmjpk 0< c\n \ ndhdg\m j__dot di don bmjpk) Idomjb`i dn oc` jigt b\n di
oc` bmjpk rdoc \gg joc`m h`h]`mn di oc` njgd_ no\o` \o mjjh o`hk`m\opm`) Idomjb`i r\n {mno _dn^jq`m`_
]t oc` N^joodnc ^c`hdno Mpoc`majm_ di oc` g\o` 1700ȱ n) Oc` \dm dn hjnogt h\_` ja idomjb`i) Idomjb`i c\n
kmjk`mod`n oc\o \m` _dz`m`io di njh` r\tn amjh don bmjpk h`h]`mn) <n r` rdgg g`\mi di g\o`m g`nnjin' oc`
`g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm idomjb`i kmjqd_`n oc` \]dgdot oj ajmh q`mt nomjib omdkg` ]ji_n)
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-24
rrr)^f,-)jmb
\gnj jigt {q` `g`h`ion)
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@g`^omji >ji{bpm\odji
Idomjb`i (I)
Kcjnkcjmpn (K)
<mn`id^ (<n)
<iodhjit (N])
7
15
33
51
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83
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1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
5p6 6s2 4 f 14 5d10 6p3
Rc\o dn oc` b`i`m\g om`i_ ajm oc` `g`h`ion di bmjpk 0<: Oc`t \gg c\q`' \n oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji di
oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g' ns2 np3 ' rc`m` n dn oc` k`mdj_ iph]`m) Oc`n` `g`h`ion \m` ocm`` bmjpkn \r\t
amjh oc` ij]g` b\n`n \i_ oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji dn ocm`` \r\t amjh c\qdib \
^jhkg`o`_ jpo`m `i`mbt g`q`g) Di joc`m rjm_n' oc` p np]g`q`g di oc` Bmjpk ,0 `g`h`ion dn c\ga apgg) <mn`id^'
ajm `s\hkg`' c\n oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p3 nj do dn di k`mdj_ 4' oc` {aoc `g`h`io
di oc` h\di bmjpk `g`h`ion) R` fijr do dn oc` {aoc `g`h`io \^mjnn oc` k`mdj_ ja oc` h\di bmjpk `g`h`ion
]`^\pn` oc`m` \m` 5 `g`^omjin di oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g)
G`nnji Nphh\mt
ȸ A\hdgd`n di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` \m` oc` q`mod^\g ^jgphin \i_ \m` \gnj m`a`mm`_ oj \n bmjpkn)
ȸ Bmjpk ,< `g`h`ion \m` oc` \gf\gd h`o\gn \i_ \gg c\q` ji` `g`^omji di oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g
]`^\pn` oc`dm `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji `i_n di s1 )
ȸ Bmjpk -< `g`h`ion \m` oc` \gf\gdi` `\moc h`o\gn \i_ \gg c\q` orj `g`^omjin di oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt
g`q`g ]`^\pn` oc`dm `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji `i_n di s2 )
ȸ Bmjpk 0< `g`h`ion \gg c\q` {q` `g`^omjin di oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g ]`^\pn` oc`dm `g`^omji ^ji(
{bpm\odji `i_n di s2 p3 )
ȸ Bmjpk 1< `g`h`ion \gg c\q` nds `g`^omjin di oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g ]`^\pn` oc`dm `g`^omji ^ji{b(
pm\odji `i_n di s2 p4 )
ȸ Bmjpk 2< `g`h`ion \m` oc` c\gjb`in \i_ \gg c\q` n`q`i `g`^omjin di oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g ]`^\pn`
oc`dm `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji `i_n di s2 p5 )
ȸ Bmjpk 3< `g`h`ion \m` oc` ij]g` b\n`n \i_ \gg c\q` `dbco `g`^omjin di oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g
]`^\pn` oc`dm `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji `i_n di s2 p6 )
ȸ @g`h`ion di bmjpk 3< c\q` oc` hjno no\]g` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji di oc` jpo`mhjno nc`gg ]`^\pn` oc`
np]g`q`gn \m` ^jhkg`o`gt {gg`_ rdoc `g`^omjin)
M`qd`r Lp`nodjin
,) Da \i `g`h`io dn n\d_ oj c\q` \i jpo`mhjno `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji ja ns2 np3 ' do dn di rc\o bmjpk di
oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`:
#\$
#]$
#^$
#_$
Bmjpk
Bmjpk
Bmjpk
Bmjpk
rrr)^f,-)jmb
.<
/<
0<
2<
-3+
-) Rc\o dn oc` b`i`m\g `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji ajm oc` Bmjpk 3< `g`h`ion: #Ijo`5 rc`i r` rdnc oj di_d(
^\o` \i `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji rdocjpo nk`^datdib oc` `s\^o `i`mbt g`q`g' r` pn` oc` g`oo`m ȴnȴ oj m`km`(
n`io \it `i`mbt g`q`g iph]`m) Oc\o dn' ns2 np3 m`km`n`ion \it ja oc` ajggjrdib6 2s2 2p3 , 3s2 3p3 , 4s2 4p3 '
\i_ nj ji)$
#\$
#]$
#^$
#_$
ns2 np6
ns2 np5
ns2 np1
ns2
.) Oc` bmjpk 2 `g`h`ion \m` bdq`i rc\o i\h`:
#\$
#]$
#^$
#_$
\gf\gd h`o\gn
\gf\gdi` `\moc h`o\gn
c\gjb`in
ij]g` b\n`n
/)
Pndib oc` _d\bm\h \]jq`' d_`i(
odat5
#\$ Oc` \gf\gd h`o\g ]t bdqdib oc` g`oo`m oc\o di_d^\o`n rc`m` oc` `g`h`io rjpg_ ]` gj^\o`_ \i_
rmdo` oc` jpo`mhjno `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji)
#]$ Oc` \gf\gdi` `\moc h`o\g ]t bdqdib oc` g`oo`m oc\o di_d^\o`n rc`m` oc` `g`h`io rjpg_ ]` gj^\o`_
\i_ rmdo` oc` jpo`mhjno `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji)
#^$ Oc` ij]g` b\n ]t bdqdib oc` g`oo`m oc\o di_d^\o`n rc`m` oc` `g`h`io rjpg_ ]` gj^\o`_ \i_ rmdo`
oc` jpo`mhjno `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji)
#_$ Oc` c\gjb`i ]t bdqdib oc` g`oo`m oc\o di_d^\o`n rc`m` oc` `g`h`io rjpg_ ]` gj^\o`_ \i_ rmdo`
oc` jpo`mhjno `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji)
#`$ Oc` `g`h`io rdoc \i jpo`mhjno `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji ja s2 p3 ]t bdqdib oc` g`oo`m oc\o di_d^\o`n
rc`m` oc` `g`h`io rjpg_ ]` gj^\o`_)
#a$ Oc` `g`h`io rdoc \i jpo`mhjno `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji ja s2 p1 ]t bdqdib oc` g`oo`m oc\o di_d^\o`n
rc`m` oc` `g`h`io rjpg_ ]` gj^\o`_)
0) Di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`' i\h` oc` `g`h`io rcjn` jpo`mhjno `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji dn ajpi_ ]`gjr)
Rc`m` kjnnd]g`' bdq` oc` i\h` ja oc` bmjpk)
#\$ 5s2
#]$ 4s2 3d10 4p1
#^$ 3s2 3p3
-3,
rrr)^f,-)jmb
#_$
#`$
#a$
#b$
#c$
5s2 4d10 5p2
3s1
1s2
6s2 5d10 6p5
4s2 4p4
Apmoc`m M`\_dib * Npkkg`h`io\g Gdifn
ȸ cook5**`i)rdfdk`_d\)jmb
Qj^\]pg\mt
bmjpk ^jgphin ja oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`)
k`mdj_ Cjmdujio\g mjrn ja oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`)
\gf\gd h`o\gn Bmjpk , di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr))
\gf\gdi` `\moc h`o\gn Bmjpk - di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` (Be, Mg, Ca, S r, Ba, Ra))
ij]g` b\n`n Bmjpk ,3 di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn))
c\gjb`in Bmjpk ,2 di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` (F, Cl, Br, I, At))
h\di bmjpk `g`h`ion @lpdq\g`io oj oc` s+ p ]gj^fn ja oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`' \gnj fijri \n ȴm`km`n`io\odq`
`g`h`ion)ȴ
4)- @g`^omji >ji{bpm\odjin
G`nnji J]e`^odq`n
ȸ >jiq`mo amjh jm]do\g m`km`n`io\odji _d\bm\hn oj `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_`n)
ȸ ?dnodibpdnc ]`or``i jpo`m `i`mbt g`q`g #q\g`i^`$ `g`^omjin \i_ ^jm` `g`^omjin)
ȸ Pn` oc` ncjmo^po h`ocj_ ajm rmdodib `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_`n ajm \ojhn \i_ djin)
Diomj_p^odji
Di oc` g\no n`^odji' r` _`o`mhdi`_ oc\o oc` h`h]`mn ja oc` ^c`hd^\g a\hdgd`n #q`mod^\g ^jgphin ji oc`
k`mdj_d^ o\]g`$ \gg c\q` oc` n\h` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji di oc`dm jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`gn) Di oc` i`so
n`^odji' r` rdgg m`qd`r oc` jm]do\g m`km`n`io\odji ajm `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji \i_ oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji
^j_`) Oc`i r` rdgg g`\mi \ ncjmo^po ajm rmdodib `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_`n)
Ncjmo^po ajm Rmdodib @g`^omji >ji{bpm\odjin
Oc` _d\bm\h ]`gjr m`km`n`ion oc` jm]do\g m`km`n`io\odji _d\bm\h pn`_ di `\mgd`m ^c\ko`mn) Oc` jm]do\g
m`km`n`io\odji _d\bm\h c\n \ a`r _dz`m`io q\md\odjin ]po \gg \m` pn`_ oj _m\r `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin) Hjno
rrr)^f,-)jmb
-3-
ncjr oc` jm]do\gn di bmjpkn' \n gdi`n' ]js`n' jm ^dm^g`n rdoc `\^c jm]do\g c\qdib don jri gdi` #jm ^dm^g`$ rdocdi
`\^c np]g`q`g)
Oc` np]g`q`g 2p c\n . jm]do\gn #2p x , 2py ' \i_ 2pz $ \i_ `\^c ja oc`n` jm]do\gn c\n don jri gdi` #jm ]js$)
G`oȱn ]`bdi ocdn n`^odji rdoc oc` jm]do\g ]js #jm oc` jm]do\g m`km`n`io\odji _d\bm\h$ ajm \ i`pom\g \ojh)
?m\r oc` `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji ajm kjo\nndph pndib oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji _d\bm\h ]`gjr) M`h`h]`m
oc\o kjo\nndph dn `g`h`io iph]`m 19 nj c\n 19 `g`^omjin) @q`mt gdi` di oc` `i`mbt _d\bm\h ]`gjr cjg_n 2
`g`^omjin ja jkkjndo` nkdin)
-3.
rrr)^f,-)jmb
Ijr r` ^\i ndhkgdat ocdn ]t `s^gp_dib \gg ja oc` g`q`gn \i_ np]g`q`gn oc\o \m` ijo di pn` jm _j ijo cjg_
`g`^omjin)
Rmdodib oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_` ajm kjo\nndph' r` rjpg_ b`o5
F : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 .
M`h`h]`m' oc` ij]g` b\n`n \m` oc` `g`h`ion oc\o \m` i`\mgt iji(m`\^odq`' k\mod\ggt _p` oj oc` a\^o oc\o oc`
jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji r\n apgg (ns2 np6 )) Gjjf \o kjo\nndph ji oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`
\i_ oc`i {i_ oc` km`^`_dib ij]g` b\n) ?m\b tjp {ib`m ^jpiodib ]\^fr\m_ amjh kjo\nndph oj oc` i`\m`no
ij]g` b\n) Rc\o _j tjp b`o: <mbji #<m$ dn ^jmm`^o) Ijr' g`oȱn _m\r oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm <mbji
\i_ kg\^` oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm kjo\nndph ]`nd_` do)
rrr)^f,-)jmb
-3/
Rc\o _j tjp ijod^` gjjfdib \o oc` orj _d\bm\hn: Kjo\nndph c\n oc` n\h` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji \n \mbji
+1 `g`^omji) R` ^\i h\f` ocdn kjdio rc`i r` rmdo` `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_`n)
F : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
<m : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Oc`m`ajm`'
F : [<m]4s1 ) vOcdn dn fijri \n oc` ij]g` b\n ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_` ntno`h jm oc` ȳncjmo(^poȴx
G`oȱn omt \ijoc`m) ?m\r \i_ rmdo` oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ja b\ggdph (Ga)) B\ggdph dn iph]`m 31 \i_
oc`m`ajm` c\n 31 `g`^omjin) Do dn \gnj di oc` 4th k`mdj_' oc` ocdm_ `g`h`io di oc` k`mdj_ ja h\di bmjpk
`g`h`ion) Amjh ocdn diajmh\odji' r` fijr oc\o oc` jpo`mhjno `g`^omjin rdgg ]` 4s2 4p1 )
@g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ja B\ggdph (Ga))
Rmdodib oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_` ajm b\ggdph' r` b`o5 Ga : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p1 ) Di iph`md^\g
jm_`m' oc` `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji ajm b\ggdph dn5 Ga : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p1 .
-30
rrr)^f,-)jmb
Ijr' bj ]\^f oj oc` km`qdjpn ij]g` b\n) <b\di' r` {i_ oc` km`qdjpn ij]g` b\n dn \mbji) M`h`h]`m \mbji
c\n `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji ja 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 )
B\ : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p1
<m : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Oc`m`ajm`'
B\ : [<m]4s2 3d10 4p1 .
Ocdn n``hn oj rjmf r`gg ajm i`pom\g \ojhn' rc\o \]jpo djin: M`h`h]`m oc\o \ ^\odji dn ajmh`_ rc`i
`g`^omjin \m` m`hjq`_ amjh \ i`pom\g \ojh \i_ \idjin \m` ajmh`_ rc`i `g`^omjin \m` \__`_ oj \ i`pom\g
\ojh) =po rc`m` _j oc` `g`^omjin b`o \__`_ oj jm m`hjq`_ amjh: Oc` `g`^omjin oc\o \m` diqjgq`_ di
^c`hd^\g m`\^odjin \m` oc` ji`n oc\o \m` di oc` jpo`m nc`gg) Oc`m`ajm`' da `g`^omjin \m` oj ]` m`hjq`_ jm
\__`_' oc`t b`o m`hjq`_ amjh jm \__`_ oj oc` nc`gg rdoc oc` cdbc`no q\gp` ja n)
G`oȱn ijr gjjf \o \i `s\hkg`) ?m\r oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm Fe) Oc`i' rmdo` oc` m`\^odji ajm oc`
ajmh\odji ja Fe2+ )
rrr)^f,-)jmb
-31
Oc` m`\^odji ajm oc` ajmh\odji ja oc` Fe2+ dji dn5 Fe → Fe2+ + 2e− ) Oc`m`ajm` r` c\q` oj m`hjq` 2
`g`^omjin) Amjh rc`m` _j r` m`hjq` oc` orj `g`^omjin: Oc` mpg` dn oj m`hjq` amjh oc` cdbc`no n q\gp`
{mno rcd^c' di ocdn ^\n`' h`\in r` m`hjq` amjh oc` `g`^omjin amjh oc` 4 n np]g`q`g {mno)
A` → Fe2+ + 2e−
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6 → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 + 2e−
M`h`h]`m oc\o rc`i r` rmdo` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_`n pndib ij]g` b\n ^ji{bpm\odjin r` pn` oc`
km`qdjpn ij]g` b\n) Di rmdodib oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_` ajm A` jm Fe2+ ' r` rjpg_ pn` oc` nth]jg
V<mX oj np]nodopo` ajm 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 )
Fe → A`2+ + 2e−
V<mX3d6 4s2 → V<mX3d6 + 2e−
Di \__dodji oj ajmhdib Fe2+ djin' dmji \ojhn \m` \gnj ^\k\]g` ja ajmhdib Fe3+ djin) @som\ no\]dgdot dn b\di`_
]t `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin oc\o c\q` `s\^ogt c\ga({gg`_ d jm]do\gn) Oc` ocdm_ `g`^omji oc\o dn m`hjq`_ amjh
\i dmji \ojh oj ajmh oc` Fe3+ dji dn m`hjq`_ amjh oc` _ jm]do\g bdqdib ocdn dmji dji \ _ jm]do\g oc\o dn
`s\^ogt c\ga({gg`_) Oc` `som\ no\]dgdot ja ocdn ^ji{bpm\odji `skg\din rct dmji ^\i ajmh orj _dz`m`io djin)
A` → Fe3+ + 3e−
V<mX3ds6 4s2 → V<mX3ds5 + 3e−
Ijr rc\o \]jpo i`b\odq` djin' oc` \idjin: M`h`h]`m oc\o i`b\odq` djin \m` ajmh`_ ]t oc` \__dodji ja
`g`^omjin oj oc` `g`^omji ^gjp_) Gjjf \o ]mjhdi`' =m) I`pom\g ]mjhdi` c\n \ojhd^ iph]`m 35 \i_ oc`m`ajm`'
cjg_n 35 `g`^omjin)
-32
rrr)^f,-)jmb
Oc` m`\^odji ajm oc` ajmh\odji ja oc` Br− dji dn5 Br + e− → Br− ) Oc` ]mjhd_` dji dn ajmh`_ ]t oc` \__dodji
ja ji` `g`^omji) Da tjp gjjf \o oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm ]mjhdi`' tjp rdgg ijod^` oc\o oc` 4p np]g`q`g
i``_n ji` hjm` `g`^omji oj {gg oc` np]g`q`g \i_ da ocdn np]g`q`g dn {gg`_' oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm Br− dn
oc` n\h` \n oc\o ja oc` ij]g` b\n fmtkoji #Fm$) Rc`i \__dib `g`^omjin oj ajmh i`b\odq` djin' oc` `g`^omjin
\m` \__`_ oj oc` gjr`no pi{gg`_ n q\gp`)
=m + e− → Br−
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5 + e− → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
JM
=m + e− → Br−
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5 + e− → VFmX
Ijod^` cjr Br− c\n oc` n\h` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji \n Kr) Rc`i ocdn c\kk`in' oc` orj \m` n\d_ oj ]`
dnj`g`^omjid^)
N\hkg` Lp`nodji5 Rmdo` oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_`n ajm oc` ajggjrdib \ojhn jm djin pndib oc` ij]g`
b\n `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ncjmo^po)
#\$ S e
#]$ S r
#^$ O2−
#_$ Ca2+
#`$ Al3+
Njgpodji5
#\$ N`[<m] : 4s2 3d10 4p4
#]$ Nm[Fm] : 5s2
#^$ O2− : [I`]
#_$ Ca2+ : [<m]
rrr)^f,-)jmb
-33
#`$ Al3+ : [I`]
>jm` @g`^omjin
Rc`i r` gjjf \o oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm \it `g`h`io r` ^\i _dnodibpdnc oc\o oc`m` \m` orj _dz`m`io
otk`n ja `g`^omjin) Oc`m` \m` `g`^omjin oc\o rjmf oj _j oc` m`\^odib \i_ oc`m` \m` ocjn` oc\o _jiȱo) Oc`
jpo`m nc`gg `g`^omjin \m` oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \i_ oc`n` \m` oc` `g`^omjin oc\o \m` m`nkjind]g` ajm oc`
m`\^odjin oc\o oc` \ojhn pi_`mbj) Oc` iph]`m ja q\g`i^` `g`^omjin di^m`\n`n \n tjp hjq` \^mjnn oc`
k`mdj_d^ o\]g` ajm oc` h\di bmjpk `g`h`ion)
Di jg_`m k`mdj_d^ o\]g`n' oc` bmjpkn r`m` iph]`m`_ pndib \i < \i_ = bmjpk iph]`mdib ntno`h) Oc`
m`km`n`io\odq` bmjpkn #n \i_ p ]gj^fn$ r`m` iph]`m`_ rdoc < \i_ oc` om\indodji `g`h`ion r`m` iph]`m`_
rdoc =) Oc` o\]g` ji oc` mdbco c\n ]joc iph]`mdib ntno`hn) Oc` < iph]`mdib dn ncjri ajm tjp di oc`
_d\bm\h di m`_6 ocdn dn \gg r` rdgg ]` ^ji^`mi`_ rdoc ajm ocdn g`nnji) Oc` iph]`m ja q\g`i^` `g`^omjin di oc`
< bmjpkn di^m`\n`n \n oc` bmjpk iph]`m di^m`\n`n) Di a\^o' oc` iph]`m ja oc` < bmjpkn dn oc` iph]`m ja
q\g`i^` `g`^omjin) Oc`m`ajm`' da \i `g`h`io dn di bmjpk .<' do c\n 3 q\g`i^` `g`^omjin' da do dn di bmjpk 0<'
do c\n 5 q\g`i^` `g`^omjin)
<gg `g`^omjin joc`m oc\i q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \m` ^\gg`_ ^jm` `g`^omjin) Oc`n` `g`^omjin \m` di dii`m `i`mbt
g`q`gn) Do rjpg_ o\f` \ q`mt g\mb` \hjpio ja `i`mbt oj kpgg \i `g`^omji \r\t amjh oc`n` apgg nc`ggn' c`i^`'
oc`t _j ijo ijmh\ggt o\f` k\mo di \it m`\^odjin) Gjjf \o oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm b\ggdph (Ga)) Do
c\n 3 q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \i_ 28 ^jm` `g`^omjin)
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N\hkg` Lp`nodji5 Cjr h\it ^jm` `g`^omjin \i_ q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \m` di `\^c ja oc` ajggjrdib:
#\$ V
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: >jm` @g`^omjin = 18, Q\g`i^` `g`^omjin = 5
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54
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G`nnji Nphh\mt
ȸ <i jm]do\g ]js _d\bm\h ^\i ]` pn`_ oj _m\r `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin ajm `g`h`ion)
ȸ Oc` ij]g` b\n ^ji{bpm\odji ntno`h dn oc` ncjmoc\i_ h`ocj_ ajm m`km`n`iodib oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\(
odji ja \i `g`h`io)
ȸ Oc` ij]g` b\n nth]jg m`km`n`ion \gg ja' jm hjno ja' oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin)
ȸ Ajm ^\odjin' oc` `g`^omjin \m` m`hjq`_ amjh oc` jpo`mhjno np]g`q`g c\qdib oc` bm`\o`no i q\gp`)
ȸ Ajm \idjin' oc` `g`^omjin \m` \__`_ oj oc` pi{gg`_ `i`mbt g`q`g c\qdib oc` gjr`no i q\gp`)
ȸ Dnj`g`^omjid^ nk`^d`n c\q` oc` n\h` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin)
ȸ Pndib \i jm]do\g ]js _d\bm\h' oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin \i_ oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin ^\i `\ndgt ]` qdnp\gdu`_)
ȸ Oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \m` ocjn` `g`^omjin oc\o \m` di oc` jpo`mhjno nc`gg)
M`qd`r Lp`nodjin
,) Rc\o dn oc` _dz`m`i^` ]`or``i oc` no\i_\m_ `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_` \i_ oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji
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tjp ocdif ocdn dn nj:
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djin:
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0) Rmdo` oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_` ajm kjo\nndph' K)
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2) Cjr h\it ^jm` `g`^omjin \i_ q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \m` di kjo\nndph' K:
3) Rmdo` oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm kjo\nndph' K + )
4) Rmdo` oc` ij]g` b\n `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_` ajm kjo\nndph' K + )
,+) Rdoc rc\o nk`^d`n dn K + dnj`g`^omjid^:
,,) Oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ]`gjr dn ajm rcd^c `g`h`io:
[Fm]4d10 5s2 5p2
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bmjpkn #jm `q`i di ]js`n$ \i_ `\^c jm]do\g c\n don jri gdi` #jm ]js$ rdocdi `\^c np](g`q`g)
dnj`g`^omjid^ C\qdib oc` n\h` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji)
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^jm` `g`^omjin @g`^omjin oc\o j^^pkt `i`mbt g`q`gn ]`gjr oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g)
q\g`i^` `g`^omjin @g`^omjin oc\o j^^pkt oc` jpo`m nc`gg ja oc` \ojh jm dji)
4). G`rdn @g`^omji ?jo ?d\bm\hn
G`nnji J]e`^odq`n
ȸ @skg\di oc` h`\idib ja \i `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h)
ȸ ?m\r `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\hn ajm bdq`i `g`h`ion)
ȸ ?`n^md]` oc` k\oo`min ja `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\hn di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`)
Diomj_p^odji
Ocdn ^c\ko`m rdgg `skgjm` t`o \ijoc`m ncjmoc\i_ h`ocj_ ja m`km`n`iodib oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin) Oc` h`ocj_
`skgjm`_ di ocdn g`nnji rdgg ]` \ qdnp\g m`km`n`io\odji ja oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin) R` rdgg' \n r` j]n`mq`_
di oc` km`qdjpn g`nnji' {idnc oc` g`nnji rdoc \ gjjf \o cjr ocdn qdnp\g m`km`n`io\odji |jrn di \ k\oo`mi
ocmjpbcjpo oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`)
< Ndhkgd{`_ R\t oj Ncjr Q\g`i^` @g`^omjin
<n _`{i`_ `\mgd`m di ocdn ^c\ko`m' ^jm` `g`^omjin \m` \gg oc` `g`^omjin `s^`ko oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \i_ q\g`i^`
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ajm ^c`hd^\g m`\^odjin) C`m` dn oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm nj_dph)
Oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji dn Na : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 ) Oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin \m` 1s2 2s2 2p6 ) Oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omji
dn 3s1 ) Ji` r\t oj m`km`n`io ocdn q\g`i^` `g`^omji' qdnp\ggt' r\n _`q`gjk`_ ]t Bdg]`mo I) G`rdn) Oc`n`
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oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \m` m`nkjind]g` ajm ^c`hd^\g m`\^odjin \i_ oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin \m` ijo diqjgq`_' r`
ncjpg_ pn` \ _d\bm\h oc\o ncjrn epno oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin ajm \i \ojh)
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Oj _m\r \ G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h ajm nj_dph tjp ^\i kd^opm` oc` nth]jg ajm nj_dph di \ ]js rdoc
oc` ]js c\qdib ajpm nd_`n) @\^c nd_` ja oc` ]js m`km`n`ion `doc`m oc` s jm ji` ja oc` ocm`` p jm]do\gn di
oc` jpo`mhjno `i`mbt g`q`g ja oc` \ojh) Oc` {mno \i_ n`^ji_ q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \m` kg\^`_ ji oc` nd_`
m`km`n`iodib oc` s jm]do\g \i_ oc` i`so `g`^omjin \m` kg\^`_ di oc` p jm]do\gn) Epno \n oc` `g`^omjin \m`
kg\^`_ ndibgt ]`ajm` ]`dib _jp]g`_ pk di oc` jm]do\g m`km`n`io\odji' nj oc`t \m` kg\^`_ ji` \o \ odh` di oc`
p jm]do\gn ja \i `g`^omji _jo ajmhpg\) < ndibg` _jo m`km`n`ion ji` q\g`i^` `g`^omji) Ocpn' oc` G`rdn _jo
ajmhpg\ ajm nj_dph dn5
Gjjf \o oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm h\bi`ndph) H\bi`ndph dn `g`h`io ,-)
Oj _m\r oc` G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h r` kd^opm` di jpm hdi_n oc` nth]jg ajm Mg di \ ]js rdoc \gg ja don
^jm` `g`^omjin #d)`)' 1s2 2s2 2p6 $) Oc`i r` kg\^` oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \mjpi_ oc` nd_`n ja oc` ]js rdoc `\^c
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c\q`: >jmm`^o' oc`m` \m` 2 q\g`i^` `g`^omjin' 3s2 )
Oc`m`ajm` oc` G`rdn `g`^omji _jo ajmhpg\ ajm h\bi`ndph dn5
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]` 1s2 2s2 2p6 rcdg` oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin rjpg_ ]` di oc` ocdm_ nc`gg #jm rc`m` n = 3$) Oc`m`ajm`' ^cgjmdi`
c\n 7 q\g`i^` `g`^omjin) Oc` G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h rjpg_ gjjf gdf` oc` ajggjrdib5
Ijod^` oc\o oc` `g`^omjin \m` di bmjpkn ja orj) Ocdif ja oc` ^cgjmdi` di \ ]js \i_ oc` ]js c\n 4 nd_`n)
@\^c nd_` ^\i c\q` 2 `g`^omjin ji do) Oc`m`ajm` oc`m` ^\i ]` \ h\sdhph ja 2 × 4 = 8 `g`^omjin ijmh\ggt
ji \it G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h)
N\hkg` lp`nodji5 Rmdo` oc` G`rdn `g`^omji _jo ajmhpg\ ajm5
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#^$ Kjo\nndph c\n oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji5 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 ' oc`m`ajm` oc`m` \m` 18 ^jm` `g`^omjin \i_
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<gg oc` @g`h`ion di \ >jgphi C\q` oc` N\h` @g`^omji ?jo ?d\(
bm\h
Di oc` km`qdjpn g`nnji' do r\n ncjri oc\o pndib oc` `\mgd`m q`mndji ajm iph]`mdib oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`' r`
^jpg_ n`` \ k\oo`mi ajm {i_dib oc` iph]`m ja q\g`i^` `g`^omjin di `\^c ja oc` bmjpkn di oc` h\di bmjpk
`g`h`ion) Ndi^` oc` G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\hn \m` ]\n`_ ji oc` iph]`m ja q\g`i^` `g`^omjin' do rjpg_
cjg_ omp` oc\o oc` `g`h`ion di oc` n\h` bmjpk rjpg_ c\q` oc` n\h` `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h) Di joc`m rjm_n'
da `q`mt `g`h`io di Bmjpk ,< c\n 1 q\g`i^` `g`^omji' oc`i `q`mt G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h rjpg_ c\q`
ji` ndibg` _jo di oc`dm G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h) O\f` \ gjjf \o oc` o\]g` ]`gjr)
O\]g` 4)25 G`rdn @g`^omji ?jo ?d\bm\hn ajm Bmjpk ,< @g`h`ion
@g`h`io
Ct_mjb`i (C)
Q\g`i^` e−
G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h
1
Gdocdph (Gd)
1
Nj_dph (I\)
1
Kjo\nndph (F)
1
Mp]d_dph (M])
1
>`ndph (>n)
1
Am\i^dph (Am)
1
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Oc` n\h` k\oo`mi cjg_n ajm \gg `g`h`ion di oc` h\di bmjpk) Gjjf \o O\]g` 4)3 ajm oc` G`rdn _jo _d\bm\hn
ajm Bmjpk -< `g`h`ion)
O\]g` 4)35 G`rdn @g`^omji ?jo ?d\bm\hn ajm Bmjpk -< @g`h`ion
@g`h`io
Q\g`i^` e−
=`mtggdph (=`)
2
H\bi`ndph (Hb)
2
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2
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2
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2
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2
G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h
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3
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3
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3
Oc\ggdph (Og)
3
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ȸ < G`rdn @g`^omji ?jo ?d\bm\h dn pn`_ oj qdnp\ggt m`km`n`io jigt oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin)
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ȸ Oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin \m` nth]jgdu`_ pndib oc` nth]jg ja oc` `g`h`io rdoc oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omji _jon
npmmjpi_dib oc` `g`h`io nth]jg)
ȸ Oc` h\sdhph iph]`m ja q\g`i^` `g`^omji _jon di oc` G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h dn 8) Orj `g`^omjin
^\i bj ji` `\^c nd_` #ojk' ]joojh' g`ao' \i_ mdbco$)
ȸ @g`^omjin \m` \__`_ oj oc` `g`^omji _jo ajmhpg\ ]t kg\^dib oc` {mno orj q\g`i^` `g`^omjin di oc` s
jm]do\g' oc`i ji` di `\^c p jm]do\g piodg `\^c p jm]do\g c\n ji` `g`^omji' \i_ oc`i _jp]gdib pk oc`
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ȸ @\^c `g`h`io di \ bmjpk c\n oc` n\h` iph]`m ja q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \i_ oc`m`ajm` c\n oc` n\h` G`rdn
`g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h) #N\h` iph]`m ja _jon' _dz`m`io nth]jg)$
M`qd`r Lp`nodjin
,)
-)
.)
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0)
1)
2)
Rc\o dn oc` \_q\io\b` ja oc` G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h:
Rc\o dn oc` h\sdhph iph]`m ja _jon di \ G`rdnȱn @g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h:
?m\r oc` G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h ajm gdocdph)
?m\r oc` G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h ajm ^\g^dph)
?m\r oc` G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h ajm ]mjhdi`)
?m\r oc` G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h ajm n`g`idph)
Rmdo` oc` G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\hn ajm `\^c ja oc` ajggjrdib) Rc\o j]n`mq\odjin ^\i tjp h\f`
]\n`_ ja oc`n` _d\bm\hn:
#\$
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Jstb`i -( dji
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o\]g` ]`gjr)
O\]g` 4),+5
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Q\g`i^` e−
G`rdn @g`^omji ?jo ?d\bm\h
Jstb`i (J)
Npgapm (N)
N`g`idph (N`)
O`ggpmdph (O`)
Kjgjidph (Kj)
Apmoc`m M`\_dib * Npkkg`h`io\g Gdifn
ȸ cook5**`i)rdfdk`_d\)jmb
Qj^\]pg\mt
G`rdn @g`^omji ?jo ?d\bm\h < ncjmoc\i_ qdnp\g m`km`n`io\odji ja oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin ajm \i `g`(
h`io) #G`rdn `g`^omji _jo _d\bm\h ajm nj_dph rdoc ji` q\g`i^` `g`^omji5
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4)/ >c`hd^\g A\hdgt H`h]`mn C\q` Ndhdg\m Kmjk(
`mod`n
G`nnji J]e`^odq`n
ȸ @skg\di oc` mjg` ja oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin)
ȸ @skg\di oc` mjg` ja q\g`i^` `g`^omjin di _`o`mhdidib ^c`hd^\g kmjk`mod`n)
ȸ @skg\di cjr oc` ^c`hd^\g m`\^odqdot om`i_ di \ ^c`hd^\g a\hdgt dn m`g\o`_ oj \ojhd^ ndu`)
Diomj_p^odji
>jh]didib rc\o r` c\q` g`\mi`_ amjh oc` km`qdjpn g`nnjin' r` ^\i ijr _`o`mhdi` cjr oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin
\i_ oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin m`g\o` oj oc` kmjk`mod`n ja a\hdgd`n di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`) R` c\q` gjjf`_ \o oc`
om`i_ ja oc` iph]`m ja q\g`i^` `g`^omjin rdocdi `\^c bmjpk \i_ ijr r` rdgg `sk\i_ ocdn oj di^gp_` \ gjjf
\o oc` om`i_n oc\o `sdno ]`or``i oc` np]g`q`g ja q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \i_ oc` m`g\odq` \]dgdot ja \i `g`h`io oj
m`\^o di \ ^c`hd^\g m`\^odji) R` rdgg `skgjm` oc` kjnnd]dgdot ja km`_d^odib ^c`hd^\g m`\^odqdot ]\n`_ ji oc`
iph]`m ja q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \i_ oc` np]g`q`g oj rcd^c oc`t ]`gjib) G`oȱn ]`bdi jpm g`nnji rdoc \ m`qd`r ja
oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin \i_ _dn^pnn oc`dm \kkgd^\odji di ^c`hd^\g m`\^odjin) Ajggjrdib ocdn' r` rdgg c\q` \ ndhdg\m
_dn^pnndji \]jpo q\g`i^` `g`^omjin)
>jm` @g`^omjin >\i ]` Dbijm`_ di ?`o`mhdidib \i @g`h`ioȱn
>c`hdnomt
<n g`\mi`_ di \i `\mgd`m g`nnji' oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin \m` oc` dii`m `g`^omjin ajpi_ di oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji
ajm oc` `g`h`io) Oc`n` `g`^omjin {gg pk oc` dii`m np]g`q`gn \i_ \m` ocpn ijo m`nkjind]g` ajm ]ji_dib \i_
\m` ijo diqjgq`_ di ^c`hd^\g m`\^odjin) Oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin \gnj \m` ijo _dm`^ogt m`nkjind]g` ajm _`o`mhdidib
oc` kmjk`mod`n ja oc` `g`h`ion) M`h`h]`m oc\o oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin m`km`n`io \gg ja oc` `g`^omjin `s^`ko ajm
oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin)
Gjjf \o oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm ]`mtggdph (Be))
Be : 1s2 2s2
Oc`m` \m` orj ^jm` `g`^omjin (1s2 ) \i_ orj q\g`i^` `g`^omjin (2s2 ))
Rc`i r` gjjf \o oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm N`g`idph (S e)' r` n`` oc` ajggjrdib)
S e : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p4
Oc`m` \m` 28 ^jm` `g`^omjin (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 ) \i_ nds q\g`i^` `g`^omjin (4s2 4p4 )) <b\di' iji` ja oc`
^jm` `g`^omjin amjh `doc`m ja oc`n` `g`h`ion' jm \it `g`h`io ajm oc\o h\oo`m' rdgg k\mod^dk\o` di ^c`hd^\g
m`\^odjin)
N\hkg` lp`nodji5 Rc\o \m` oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin di `\^c ja oc` ajggjrdib:
#\$ J : 1s2 2s2 2p4
#]$ Di : [Fm]5s2 4d10 5p1
Njgpodji5
#\$ J5 ^jm` `g`^omjin = 1s2 ' oc`m`ajm` oc`m` \m` orj ja oc`h)
rrr)^f,-)jmb
-43
#]$ Di5 di_dph c\n ocm`` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \i_ \gg oc` m`no \m` ^jm` `g`^omjin) Oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin di^gp_`
\gg oc` `g`^omjin di oc` `i`mbt g`q`gn ]`gjr n = 5) #4d10 \m` ^jm` `g`^omjin ndi^` oc`t \m` c`g_ di \ gjr`m
`i`mbt g`q`g)$
Q\g`i^` @g`^omjin ?`o`mhdi` >c`hd^\g Kmjk`mod`n
Oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin' pigdf` oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin' \m` m`nkjind]g` ajm \gg ja oc` ^c`hd^\g m`\^odjin oc\o o\f`
kg\^` ]`or``i `g`h`ion) Oc`t _`o`mhdi` oc` kmjk`mod`n ja oc` `g`h`ion) R` c\q` \gm`\_t g`\mi`_ oc\o
\gg h`o\ggd^ `g`h`ion di oc` h\di bmjpk `g`h`ion \m` \]g` oj gjn` oc`dm q\g`i^` `g`^omjin ndi^` oc` `i`mbt
m`lpdm`h`ion oj _j nj \m` m`g\odq`gt gjr) Oc` iji(h`o\ggd^ `g`h`ion #joc`m oc\i ij]g` b\n`n$ \m` \]g` oj
b\di `g`^omjin m`\_dgt ]`^\pn` ja cdbc `g`^omji \zdidod`n) Ajm `g`h`ion di Bmjpk .' oc` \ojhn rdgg c\q` oj
gjn` ocm`` `g`^omjin oj c\q` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin ndhdg\m oj oc` km`qdjpn ij]g` b\n) Ajm `g`h`ion di bmjpk
1' oc`t rdgg c\q` oj b\di orj `g`^omjin oj c\q` ndhdg\m `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin \n oc`dm i`\m`no ij]g` b\n)
@\mgd`m r` _`o`mhdi`_ oc\o \gg `g`h`ion di oc` n\h` bmjpk c\q` oc` n\h` G`rdn @g`^omji ?jo _d\bm\h)
Rc\o ocdn h`\in dn oc\o \gg `g`h`ion di oc` n\h` bmjpk c\q` oc` n\h` iph]`m ja q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \i_
rdgg m`\^o oc` n\h` r\t oj b\di jm gjn` `g`^omjin rc`i k\mod^dk\odib di m`\^odjin) Oc` iph]`m ja q\g`i^`
`g`^omjin _`o`mhdi`n rc\o otk`n ja ^c`hd^\g kmjk`mod`n oc` `g`h`ion rdgg c\q`)
Rc`i tjp gjjf \o O\]g` 4),,' tjp ^\i n`` oc\o oc` Bmjpk ,< h`o\gn \gg c\q` oc` n\h` iph]`m ja
q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \i_ \gnj c\q` oc` n\h` \kk`\m\i^`) Oc`n` h`o\gn \gnj m`\^o oc` n\h` r\t pi_`m ndhdg\m
^ji_dodjin)
O\]g` 4),,5 @g`^omji >ji{bpm\odji \i_ B`i`m\g <kk`\m\i^` ajm Bmjpk ,< @g`h`ion
@g`h`io
@g`^omji >ji{bpm\odji
<kk`\m\i^`
Gd
I\
F
M]
>n
1s2 2s1
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s1
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
5p6 6s1
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
5p6 6s2 4 f 14 5d10 6s1
Ndgq`mt(rcdo` h`o\g
Njao' ndgq`mt(rcdo` h`o\g
Njao' ndgq`mt(rcdo` h`o\g
Njao' ndgq`mt(rcdo` h`o\g
Njao' ndgq`mt(rcdo` h`o\g rdoc
bjg_ nc``i
: ojj ncjmo gdq`_
Am
R` ^\i n`` oc\o \gg ja oc` `g`h`ion di oc` Bmjpk ,< h`o\gn \gg c\q` ji` q\g`i^` `g`^omji di oc`dm jpo`m
`i`mbt g`q`gn) Ocdn h`\in oc\o oc`t ^\i gjn` ocdn ji` `g`^omji \i_ ]`^jh` dnj`g`^omjid^ rdoc \ ij]g` b\n
^ji{bpm\odji) Ocpn' `g`h`ion di Bmjpk ,< rdgg m`\_dgt gjn` ocdn `g`^omji ]`^\pn` do o\f`n q`mt gjr `i`mbt
oj m`hjq` ocdn ji` jpo`m `g`^omji)
<n oc` \ojhd^ iph]`m di^m`\n`n ajm oc` `g`h`ion di oc` \gf\gd h`o\g a\hdgt bmjpk' oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omji dn
apmoc`m \r\t amjh oc` ip^g`pn) Oc` \oom\^odji ]`or``i oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omji \i_ oc` ip^g`pn _`^m`\n`n \n
oc` \ojhd^ ndu` di^m`\n`n) Oc` apmoc`m oc` `g`^omjin \m` \r\t amjh oc` ip^g`pn' oc` g`nn cjg_ oc` ip^g`pn
c\n ji oc` `g`^omjin) Oc`m`ajm` oc` hjm` m`\_dgt oc` `g`^omjin ^\i ]` m`hjq`_ \i_ oc` a\no`m oc` m`\^odjin
^\i o\f` kg\^`) Nj' oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin rdgg _`o`mhdi` rc\o m`\^odjin rdgg j^^pm \i_ cjr a\no oc`t rdgg
j^^pm ]\n`_ ji oc` iph]`m ja `g`^omjin oc\o \m` di oc` q\g`i^` `i`mbt g`q`g) <gg bmjpk ,< `g`h`ion rdgg
gjn` ji` `g`^omji \i_ ajmh \ 1+ ^\odji)
Gjjfdib \o O\]g` 4),- ajm oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ja oc` Bmjpk -< h`o\gn' r` n`` oc\o oc` jpo`m `i`mbt
g`q`g cjg_n orj `g`^omjin ajm `\^c ja oc` h`o\gn di bmjpk -)
-44
rrr)^f,-)jmb
O\]g` 4),-5 @g`^omji >ji{bpm\odji ajm Bmjpk -< @g`h`ion
@g`h`io
@g`^omjid^ >ji{bpm\odji
=`mtggdph (=`)
H\bi`ndph (Hb)
>\g^dph (>\)
Nomjiodph (Nm)
=\mdph (=\)
M\_dph (M\)
1s2 2s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4 f 14 5d10 6p6 7s2
<n rdoc oc` Bmjpk ,< h`o\gn' oc` bmjpk -< h`o\gn rdgg ajmh ^\odjin ]t gjndib oc` s `g`^omjin' ]po ocdn
odh` oc`t rdgg gjn` orj `g`^omjin) <i_' \n rdoc oc` Bmjpk ,< `g`h`ion' oc` `g`h`ion \m` hjm` m`\^odq` \n
oc` \ojhd^ iph]`m di^m`\n`n ]`^\pn` oc` s `g`^omjin \m` c`g_ apmoc`m \r\t amjh oc` ip^g`pn)
>jind_`m oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin ajm oc` `g`h`ion di a\hdgt 2< #oc` c\gjb`in$)
O\]g` 4),.5 @g`^omji >ji{bpm\odji ajm Bmjpk 2< @g`h`ion
@g`h`io
@g`^omjid^ >ji{bpm\odji
Agpjmdi` (F)
>cgjmdi` (Cl)
=mjhdi` (Br)
Dj_di` (I)
1s2 2s2 2p5
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p5
Oc` `g`h`ion di bmjpk 2< r`m` kg\^`_ di oc` n\h` ^c`hd^\g a\hdgt ]t H`i_`g``q ]`^\pn` oc`t \gg c\q`
ndhdg\m ^c`hdnomt' oc\o dn' oc`t m`\^o rdoc joc`m np]no\i^`n di ndhdg\m r\tn \i_ oc`dm ^jhkjpi_n rdoc
oc` n\h` h`o\gn c\q` ndhdg\m kmjk`mod`n) Ijr r` fijr rct oc`t c\q` ndhdg\m ^c`hd^\g kmjk`mod`n ) ) )
]`^\pn` ^c`hd^\g kmjk`mod`n \m` ^jiomjgg`_ ]t oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \i_ oc`n` `g`h`ion \gg c\q` oc` n\h`
^ji{bpm\odji ja q\g`i^` `g`^omjin)
Oc` om`i_ ajm ^c`hd^\g m`\^odqdot #nk``_ ja m`\^odji$ ajm oc` iji(h`o\g a\hdgd`n dn oc` m`q`mn` ja oc` ndop\odji
di oc` h`o\g a\hdgd`n) Oc` h`o\ggd^ a\hdgd`n gjn` `g`^omjin \i_ oc` g\mb`no \ojhn gjn` oc`dm `g`^omjin hjno
`\ndgt nj oc` g\mb`m oc` \ojh' oc` a\no`m do m`\^on) Di oc` ^\n` ja oc` iji(h`o\gn' np^c \n oc` c\gjb`in' oc`
\ojhn m`\^o ]t o\fdib ji `g`^omjin) Di oc`n` a\hdgd`n' oc` nh\gg`m \ojhn c\q` oc` g\mb`no `g`^omji \zdidot
\i_ oc`m`ajm` o\f` ji `g`^omjin hjm` m`\_dgt) C`i^`' di oc` iji(h`o\gn' oc` nh\gg`m \ojhn rdgg ]` hjm`
m`\^odq`)
G`nnji Nphh\mt
ȸ >jm` `g`^omjin \m` oc` dii`m `g`^omjin oc\o \m` di {gg`_ jm]do\gn \i_ np]g`q`gn)
ȸ >jm` `g`^omjin \m` ijo m`nkjind]g` ajm ^c`hd^\g m`\^odqdot \i_ _j ijo k\mod^dk\o` di ^c`hd^\g m`\^odjin)
ȸ Q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \m` oc` jpo`mhjno `g`^omjin' \m` m`nkjind]g` ajm _`o`mhdidib oc` kmjk`mod`n' \i_ \m`
oc` `g`^omjin oc\o k\mod^dk\o` di ^c`hd^\g m`\^odjin)
ȸ =`^\pn` oc` h`h]`mn ja `\^c bmjpk di oc` h\di bmjpk `g`h`ion c\n oc` n\h` iph]`m ja q\g`i^`
`g`^omjin' oc`m` \m` ndhdg\m kmjk`mod`n \i_ ndhdg\m om`i_n di ^c`hd^\g m`\^odjin ajpi_ di oc` bmjpk)
ȸ Ajm h`o\gn' ^c`hd^\g m`\^odqdot o`i_n oj di^m`\n` rdoc di^m`\n`n di \ojhd^ ndu` ]`^\pn` oc` jpo`mhjno
`g`^omjin #jm oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin$ \m` apmoc`m \r\t amjh oc` ip^g`pn \i_ oc`m`ajm` c\q` g`nn \oom\^odji
ajm oc` ip^g`pn)
rrr)^f,-)jmb
.++
M`qd`r Lp`nodjin
,) Rc\o dn oc` _dz`m`i^` ]`or``i q\g`i^` `g`^omjin \i_ ^jm` `g`^omjin:
-) Rct rjpg_ oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin ]` m`nkjind]g` ajm oc` ^c`hd^\g m`\^odqdot:
.) Rcd^c ja oc` ajggjrdib k\dmn ja `g`h`ion rjpg_ c\q` oc` bm`\o`no ndhdg\mdod`n di o`mhn ja ^c`hd^\g
kmjk`mod`n:
#\$
#]$
#^$
#_$
Ca
Ca
Ca
Ca
\i_
\i_
\i_
\i_
Ca2+
Mg
K
Ar
/) Rc\o dn oc` ^jmm`^o iph]`m ja ^jm` `g`^omjin di oc` kcjnkcjmjpn \ojh:
#\$
#]$
#^$
#_$
3
5
10
15
0) Rc\o dn oc` ^jmm`^o iph]`m ja q\g`i^` `g`^omjin di oc` dj_di` \ojh:
#\$
#]$
#^$
#_$
4
5
6
7
1) Ajm oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin di Bmjpk 1<' rc\o ^ji^gpndjin ^\i tjp _m\r \]jpo oc` om`i_ di ^c`hd^\g
m`\^odqdot:
2) Ajm oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin di Bmjpk 2<' rc\o ^ji^gpndjin ^\i tjp _m\r \]jpo oc` om`i_ di ^c`hd^\g
\^odqdot:
Apmoc`m M`\_dib * Npkkg`h`io\g Gdifn
R`]ndo` rdoc g`nnjin' rjmfnc``on' \i_ lpduu`n ji q\mdjpn cdbc n^cjjg ^c`hdnomt ojkd^n)
ȸ G`nnji .(3 dn ji G`rdn ?jo Nomp^opm`n)
ȸ G`nnji ,(3 dn ji @g`h`io\g I\h`n \i_ Nth]jgn)
ȸ cook5**rrr)ajm_c\hkm`k)jmb*b^pmm\i*ncj*ncj*g`nnjin*g`nnji.,)coh
Qj^\]pg\mt
ij]g` b\n ^jm` Rc`i rjmfdib rdoc ij]g` b\n `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odjin oc` ^jm` `g`^omjin \m` ocjn`
cjpn`_ di oc` ij]g` b\n nth]jgd^ ijo\odji)
4)0 Om\indodji @g`h`ion
G`nnji J]e`^odq`n
ȸ
ȸ
ȸ
ȸ
?`{i` om\indodji h`o\gn)
@skg\di oc` m`g\odjincdk ]`or``i om\indodji h`o\gn \i_ oc` _ np]g`q`gn)
No\o` oc` k`mdj_n oc\o ^jio\di om\indodji h`o\gn)
Rmdo` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin ajm njh` om\indodji h`o\gn)
.+,
rrr)^f,-)jmb
Diomj_p^odji
Oc` h\di bmjpk `g`h`ion \m` \^op\ggt di orj bmjpkn5 oc` s ]gj^f \i_ oc` p ]gj^f) Oc`n` orj' g`oȱn ^\gg oc`h
np] bmjpkn' \m` n`k\m\o`_ di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` ]t \ nk`^d\g bmjpk ja cdbcgt ^jgjmapg ^jhkjpi_n fijri \n
oc` om\indodji h`o\gn) Oc` om\indodji h`o\gn m`km`n`io bmjpkn . ocmjpbc 12 ja oc` _d\bm\h ]`gjr \i_ \m`
ajmh`_ \n `g`^omjin \m` {ggdib di oc` _ jm]do\gn) Ocdn dn rct oc`t \m` m`a`mm`_ oj \n oc` _ ]gj^f) R` rdgg
gjjf \o \gg ja ocdn di oc` g`nnji oc\o ajggjrn) G`oȱn ]`bdi
@g`h`ion Rcjn` <ojhn \m` Adggdib _ Np]g`q`gn
Oc` `g`h`ion di bmjpkn . ocmjpbc ,- \m` ^\gg`_ oc` om\indodji h`o\gn) Njh`odh`n ocdn ]gj^f ja `g`h`ion
\m` m`a`mm`_ oj \n oc` d ]gj^f) Oc`t \m` ^\gg`_ d ]gj^f `g`h`ion ]`^\pn` oc` `g`^omjin ]`dib \__`_ di ocdn
]gj^f ja `g`h`ion \m` ]`dib \__`_ oj oc` _ jm]do\gn) Gjjf \o oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin ajm N^\i_dph (S c$'
Odo\idph (T i)' \i_ Q\i\_dph (V)' oc` {mno ocm`` om\indodji h`o\gn ja oc` {mno mjr di oc` d ]gj^f)
21S c:1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1
22T i:1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2
23V:1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3
Ijod^` oc\o \n oc` \ojhd^ iph]`m di^m`\n`n' oc` iph]`m ja `g`^omjin di oc` _ np]g`q`gn di^m`\n`n \n r`gg)
Ocdn dn rct oc` kcm\n` _ ]gj^f r\n no\mo`_ ajm oc` om\indodji h`o\gn) Oc` om\indodji h`o\gn r`m` bdq`i
oc`dm i\h` ]`^\pn` oc`t c\_ \ kg\^` ]`or``i oc` -< bmjpk #ijr Bmjpk -$ \i_ oc` .< #ijr Bmjpk ,.$ di
oc` h\di bmjpk `g`h`ion) Oc`m`ajm`' di jm_`m oj b`o amjh ^\g^dph oj b\ggdph di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`' tjp c\_
oj om\indodji tjpm r\t ocmjpbc oc` {mno mjr ja oc` d ]gj^f ( N^ → Ui)) Oj b`o amjh nomjiodph oj di_dph'
tjp c\_ oj om\indodji tjpm r\t ocmjpbc oc` n`^ji_ mjr ja oc` _ ]gj^f ( T → >_) )
Ji` dio`m`nodib kjdio \]jpo oc` om\indodji h`o\gn oc\o dn rjmoc h`iodjidib dn oc\o h\it ja oc` ^jhkjpi_n
ja oc`n` h`o\gn \m` cdbcgt ^jgjm`_ \i_ pn`_ di _t`n \i_ k\dio kdbh`ion) <gnj' h`o\ggd^ djin ja om\indodji
`g`h`ion \m` m`nkjind]g` ajm oc` gjq`gt ^jgjmn ja h\it b`hn np^c \n e\_`' opmlpjdn` \i_ \h`octno)
N\hkg` lp`nodji5 Rmdo` oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ^j_` ajm Fe)
Njgpodji5
26Fe:1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
rrr)^f,-)jmb
.+-
Om\indodji H`o\gn J^^pm di K`mdj_n / ȭ 2
<n no\o`_ ]`ajm`' om\indodji h`o\gn \m` \gnj ^\gg`_ oc` _ ]gj^f ]`^\pn` oc`t {gg pk oc` d np]g`q`gn) Oc`m`ajm`'
oc` {mno ocm`` k`mdj_n _j ijo c\q` om\indodji `g`h`ion ]`^\pn` ocjn` `i`mbt g`q`gn _j ijo c\q` d np](nc`ggn)
Oc` om\indodji h`o\gn c\q` \ojhd^ iph]`mn bm`\o`m oc\i 20 ]`^\pn` oc` {mno d `g`^omji \kk`\mn di `g`h`io
-, \ao`m oc` 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, \i_ 4s jm]do\gn \m` {gg`_)
G`nnji Nphh\mt
ȸ Om\indodji h`o\gn \m` ocjn` amjh oc` _ ]gj^f jm ocjn` amjh Bmjpkn . ocmjpbc 12)
ȸ >jhkjpi_n ja om\indodji h`o\gn otkd^\ggt \m` ocjn` oc\o \m` cdbcgt ^jgjm`_)
ȸ Om\indodji h`o\gn \m` ajpi_ di K`mdj_n 4 ocmjpbc 7)
Apmoc`m M`\_dib * Npkkg`h`io\g Gdifn
ȸ cook5**g`\mi`m)jmb*m`njpm^`n*n`md`n1,)cohg
Oc` g`\mi`m)jmb r`]ndo` \ggjrn pn`mn oj qd`r nom`\hdib qd_`jn ja oc` <ii`i]`mb n`md`n ja ^c`hdnomt qd_`jn)
Tjp \m` m`lpdm`_ oj m`bdno`m ]`ajm` tjp ^\i r\o^c oc` qd_`jn ]po oc`m` dn ij ^c\mb`) Oc` r`]ndo` c\n ji`
qd_`j oc\o \kkgt oj ocdn g`nnji) Do dn ^\gg`_ Oc` <ojh \i_ _`\gn rdoc oc` dio`mi\g nomp^opm` ja oc` \ojh)
M`qd`r Lp`nodjin
,)
-)
.)
/)
0)
1)
2)
Rmdo` oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm udm^jidph' Zr)
Cjr h\it q\g`i^` `g`^omjin _j`n udm^jidph' Zr' c\q`:
Rmdo` oc` ij]g` b\n `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji ajm kg\odiph' Pt)
Cjr h\it q\g`i^` `g`^omjin _j`n kg\odiph' Pt' c\q`:
Rct _j oc` _ ]gj^f `g`h`ion jigt no\mo di oc` ajpmoc k`mdj_:
Rc\o _j ^jkk`m' ndgq`m' \i_ bjg_ c\q` di ^jhhji \n a\m \n oc`dm `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji:
Rcd^c ja oc`n` dn oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm id^f`g:
#\$ [Fm]3d8 4s2
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3) Cjr h\it _ `g`^omjin \m` oc`m` di oc` `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji ajm mpoc`idph:
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Rmdo` oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm Dmd_dph' Ir)
Rc\o \m` oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin ajm Dmd_dph' Ir:
Rmdo` oc` ij]g` b\n `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm h`m^pmt' Hg)
Cjr h\it q\g`i^` `g`^omjin _j`n h`m^pmt' Hg' c\q`:
Qj^\]pg\mt
om\indodji h`o\g Bmjpkn . ocmjpbc ,- jm oc` _ ]gj^f ja oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`)
G\]n \i_ ?`hjinom\odjin ajm @g`^omji >ji{bpm\odji
O`\^c`mȱn K\b`n ajm K\m\h\bi`odnh G\]
Diq`nodb\odji \i_ @sk`mdh`io\odji J]e`^odq`n
<ao`m _dn^pnndib oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin oc\o kmj_p^` k\m\h\bi`odnh' oc` nop_`io rdgg diq`nodb\o` oc`
k\m\h\bi`odnh #jm g\^f oc`m`ja$ rdoc n`q`m\g ^jhkjpi_n)
G\] Ijo`n >\knpg`n ajm ocdn g\] ^\i ]` km`(gj\_`_ rdoc oc` h\ib\i`n` n\gon) Ocdn rdgg n\q` odh` rdoc \
g\mb` ^g\nn' \i_ dn n\a`m) MnO2 ^\i no\di oc` nfdi \i_ dn \ hdg_ jsd_dudib \b`io) MnO−4 dn \ nomjib jsd_dudib
\b`io \i_ ^\i ^\pn` ]pmin)
Da tjp c\q` omjp]g` rdoc oc` kmj^`_pm` diqjgqdib oc` ]\g\i^` _p` oj ]\g\i^` n`indodqdot' tjp h\t omt kg\^dib
oc` b`g ^\knpg` jioj \ nhjjoc npma\^` \i_ ]mdib \ nomjib h\bi`o ojr\m_n do) Oc` ^\knpg` h\t `scd]do \i
\oom\^odji' m`kpgndji' jm ij m`\^odji) Oc` k\m\h\bi`odnh ja oc` h\o`md\g h\t ]` b\pb`_ jm_di\ggt)
<inr`mn oj Km`(G\] Lp`nodjin
,) K\m\h\bi`odnh dn \ r`\f \oom\^odji ja \ np]no\i^` ajm \ h\bi`od^ {`g_ _p` oj oc` km`n`i^` ja pik\dm`_
`g`^omjin) Oc` pik\dm`_ `g`^omjin `\^c `s`mo \ r`\f h\bi`od^ {`g_ _p` oj nkdi' \i_ oc` nkdin \m`
\__dodq` rc`i pik\dm`_)
-) K\m\h\bi`odnh dn \ r`\f \oom\^odji ajm \ h\bi`od^ {`g_' rcdg` _d\h\bi`odnh dn \ r`\f m`kpgndji oj
\ h\bi`od^ {`g_ _p` oj jkkjndib `g`^omji nkdin rdocdi \i jm]do\g)
.) Oc` km`n`i^` ja _ np]g`q`g di om\indodji h`o\gn bdq`n idi` jkkjmopidod`n ajm oc` np]g`q`g oj c\q` \i
pik\dm`_ `g`^omji' ijo \^^jpiodib ajm d4 jm d9 kmjhjodji) Ocdn dn hjm` oc\i oc` p np]g`q`g jm oc` n
np]g`q`g)
G\] ( K\m\h\bi`od^ =`c\qdjm ja H\ib\i`n` >jhkjpi_n
=\^fbmjpi_ Diajmh\odji
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Rc`i r` ^jinomp^o `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin ajm oc` \ojhn \i_ djin di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`' ji` ja oc` ^\m_di\g
mpg`n oc\o ^c`hdnon j]n`mq` dn oc` k\dmdib ja `g`^omjin di jm]do\gn rc`i`q`m kjnnd]g`) Np]no\i^`n rdoc
k\dm`_ `g`^omjin _dnkg\t _d\h\bi`odnh' \ kc`ijh`iji oc\o ^\pn`n oc\o h\o`md\g oj ]` ngdbcogt m`k`gg`_ ]t
\ h\bi`od^ {`g_) <ojhn rdoc pik\dm`_ `g`^omjin' fijri \n k\m\h\bi`od^ np]no\i^`n' \m` r`\fgt \oom\^o`_
oj h\bi`od^ {`g_n) Ji` dio`m`nodib `s\hkg` ja \ hjg`^pg` oc\o _dnkg\tn k\m\h\bi`odnh dn oc` jstb`i
_d\ojhd^ hjg`^pg`) Rcdg` \ G`rdn _jo nomp^opm` ^\i ]` ^jinomp^o`_ k\dmdib \gg or`gq` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin
dioj \i jstb`i ȭ jstb`i _jp]g` ]ji_ rdoc orj k\dmn ja iji(]ji_`_ `g`^omjin ji `\^c jstb`i \ojh' oc`
hjg`^pg` _dnkg\tn k\m\h\bi`odnh rc`i kjpm`_ ]`or``i oc` kjg`n ja \ nomjib h\bi`o' \oom\^o`_ oj oc`
h\bi`od^ {`g_)
Km`(G\] Lp`nodjin
,) @skg\di rc\o dn h`\io ]t oc` o`mh k\m\h\bi`od^)
-) @skg\di cjr k\m\h\bi`odnh _dz`mn amjh _d\h\bi`odnh)
.) Rct hdbco k\m\h\bi`od^ om\indodji h`o\g ^jhkjpi_n ]` hjm` km`q\g`io oc\i ocjn` ja h\di bmjpk
`g`h`ion:
Kpmkjn`
Oc` kpmkjn` ja ocdn `sk`mdh`io dn oj _`hjinom\o` oc` `z`^on ja \ h\bi`od^ {`g_ ji \ k\m\h\bi`od^ h\o`md\g)
<kk\m\opn \i_ H\o`md\gn
ȸ
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ȸ
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ȸ
MnO2
Mn2 O3
K MnO4
Notmjaj\h ^pkn
H\bi`on
@hkot b`g ^\knpg`n
N\a`ot Dnnp`n
H\ib\i`n` jsd_` dn \ nomjib jsd_\io \i_ ^\i dmmdo\o` odnnp`n) Kjo\nndph k`mh\ib\i\o` dn \gnj \ kjr`mapg
jsd_dudib \b`io \i_ ^\i dmmdo\o` nfdi Oc` pn` ja `t` kmjo`^odji dn nomjibgt m`^jhh`i_`_)
Kmj^`_pm`
Kg\^` \]jpo 1.0 gram ja `\^c ja oc` h\o`md\gn oj ]` o`no`_ di `hkot b`g ^\knpg`n) Oc` ^\knpg`n \m` oc`i
kg\^`_ ji oc` ]\n` ja \i diq`mo`_ Notmjaj\h ^pk) < n`^ji_ Notmjaj\h ^pk dn oc`i kg\^`_ ]`i`\oc oc` {mno
^pk) Oc` `iodm` \nn`h]gt dn oc`i kg\^`_ ji \ ojk gj\_dib ]\g\i^`) J]o\di oc` h\nn ja oc` ^pk \i_ b`g
^\knpg` \nn`h]gt) Ijr ]mdib oc` h\bi`o oj oc` ^pk*^\knpg` \nn`h]gt \i_ m`\nn`nn oc` h\nn) Ijo` oc`
_`^m`\n` di h\nn \n oc` h\bi`o \oom\^on oc` ^\knpg` ^jio`ion)
O\]g` 4),/5 ?\o\
Rdoc H\bi`o
Rdocjpo H\bi`o
H\nn
ja
oc`
MnO2 *^\knpg`*^pk
\nn`h]gt
H\nn
ja
oc`
Mn2 O3 *^\knpg`*^pk
\nn`h]gt
.+0
rrr)^f,-)jmb
O\]g` 4),/5 #^jiodip`_$
Rdoc H\bi`o
Rdocjpo H\bi`o
H\nn
ja
oc`
K MnO4 *^\knpg`*^pk
\nn`h]gt
Kjno(G\] Lp`nodjin
,) Rcd^c ja oc` n\hkg`n _dnkg\t`_ oc` g\mb`no h\nn _dz`m`i^`:
-) Cjr h\it pik\dm`_ `g`^omjin _j`n H\ib\i`n` kjnn`nn di MnO2 :
Di Mn2 O3 :
Di K MnO4 :
4)1 G\ioc\id_`n \i_ <^odid_`n
G`nnji J]e`^odq`n
ȸ
ȸ
ȸ
ȸ
?`{i` oc` g\ioc\id_`n \i_ \^odid_`n)
Kg\^` oc` g\ioc\id_`n \i_ \^odid_`n di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`)
@skg\di oc` dhkjmo\i^` ja ]joc oc` g\ioc\id_`n \i_ \^odid_`n)
Rmdo` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin ajm g\ioc\id_`n \i_ \^odid_`n)
Diomj_p^odji
Oj ^jhkg`o` jpm gjjf \o oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` oc`m` dn ji` hjm` bmjpk r` c\q` oj ^jind_`m) Ocdn bmjpk cjg_n don
jri pidlp` kjndodji di \it kd^ojmd\g m`km`n`io\odji ja oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`) Oc` orj mjrn oc\o \m` b`i`m\ggt
kg\^`_ pi_`mi`\oc oc` h\di k`mdj_d^ o\]g` \m` ^\gg`_ oc` g\ioc\id_` n`md`n \i_ oc` \^odid_` n`md`n) Oc`n`
orj mjrn \m` kmj_p^`_ rc`i `g`^omjin \m` ]`dib \__`_ oj a jm]do\gn) Oc`m`ajm`' ocdn ]gj^f ja `g`h`ion \m`
m`a`mm`_ oj \n oc` ȴa ]gj^fȴ) Oc` g\ioc\id_`n \m` \gnj j^^\ndji\ggt m`a`mm`_ oj oc` m\m` `\moc `g`h`ion)
Oc` a ]gj^f' \n ncjri di oc` {bpm` ]`gjr' \m` oc` orj mjrn di m`_)
rrr)^f,-)jmb
.+1
G\ioc\id_`n \i_ <^odid_`n \m` @g`h`ion Adggdib oc` a Np]g`q`gn
Oc`m` dn ji` bmjpk oc\o r` c\q` i`bg`^o`_ oj h`iodji ocmjpbcjpo ocdn ^c\ko`m) Ocdn bmjpk ]`gjibn oj \
nk`^d\g bmjpk ajpi_ \ghjno _dnejdio`_' da tjp gdf`' amjh oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`) Oc`t \m` bdq`i oc` i\h`n oc`
G\ioc\id_` N`md`n \i_ oc` <^odid_` N`md`n jm oc` g\ioc\id_`n \i_ oc` \^odid_`n) Oc` g\ioc\id_`n \m`
\i dhkjmo\io bmjpk ja `g`h`ion) Hjno ja oc`h \m` ajmh`_ rc`i pm\idph \i_ kgpojidph pi_`mbj ip^g`\m
m`\^odjin) Oc` `g`h`ion ja oc` g\ioc\id_` n`md`n \m` \gnj fijri \n oc` m\m` `\moc `g`h`ion) =joc oc`
g\ioc\id_`n \i_ oc` \^odid_`n h\f` pk rc\o \m` fijri \n oc` dii`m om\indodji n`md`n) Oc` f ]gj^f dn bdq`i
ocdn i\h` ]`^\pn` da oc` a ]gj^f r`m` kg\^`_ di don kmjk`m iph`md^\g kjndodji di oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`' do rjpg_
]` di oc` om\indodji h`o\gn ]`or``i bmjpkn - \i_ .)
Oc` g\ioc\id_` n`md`n di^gp_`n `g`h`ion amjh iph]`m 58 oj 71' rcd^c dn 14 `g`h`ion) Oc` f np](g`q`g
^jio\din n`q`i jm]do\gn \i_ `\^c jm]do\g rdgg cjg_ orj `g`^omjin) Oc`m`ajm`' do dn kjnnd]g` oj kg\^` 14
`g`^omjin di oc` 4 f np](g`q`g)
Oc` g\ioc\id_` n`md`n {ggn oc` 4 f np]g`q`g \n tjp hjq` amjh ^`mdph (Ce) oj gpo`odph (Lu)) Oc` n\h` cjg_n
ajm oc` \^odid_` n`md`n oc\o mpin amjh \ojhd^ iph]`m 90 ocmjpbc oj iph]`m 103' \b\di 14 `g`h`ion) Ocpn'
\n tjp hjq` amjh ocjmdph (T h) \o `g`h`io iph]`m 90' tjp ]`bdi oj {gg pk oc` 5 f np]g`q`g \i_ ^jiodip`
oj {gg pk oc` 5 f np]g`q`g piodg tjp {idnc oc` \^odid_` n`md`n \o g\rm`i^dph (Lr))
G\ioc\id_`n \i_ <^odid_`n Q\mt di @g`^omji Adggdib Jm_`m
Oc` g\ioc\id_`n \i_ oc` \^odid_`n h\f` pk oc` a ]gj^f ja oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g`) Oc` g\ioc\id_`n \m` oc`
`g`h`ion kmj_p^`_ \n oc` 4 f np]g`q`g dn {gg`_ rdoc `g`^omjin \i_ oc` \^odid_`n \m` ajmh`_ rcdg` {ggdib oc`
5 f np]g`q`g) B`i`m\ggt nk`\fdib' oc` g\ioc\id_`n c\q` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin oc\o ajggjr oc` <pa]\p mpg`)
Oc`m` \m` njh` q\md\odjin' cjr`q`m' di \ a`r ja oc` g\ioc\id_` `g`h`ion) R` rdgg `sk\i_ \ odit kjmodji
ja oc` k`mdj_d^ o\]g` ]`gjr oj ncjr rc\o c\kk`in oj njh` ja oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin di oc` g\ioc\id_`
\i_ \^odid_` n`md`n)
.+2
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Gjjf' ajm `s\hkg`' \o oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm ^`mdph' oc` {mno `g`h`io ja oc` g\ioc\id_` n`md`n)
>`mdph' Ce' dn `g`h`io iph]`m 58)
58Ce: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 5d1 4 f 1
jm
58Ce:VS`X6s2 5d1 4 f 1
Ijr gjjf \o oc` `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji ajm km\n`j_thdph' \i `g`h`io pn`_ di oc` h\fdib ja \dm^m\ao
`ibdi`n ]po \gnj di gdbcodib ajm h\fdib hjqd`n) Km\n`j_thdph' Pr' dn `g`h`io iph]`m 59 \i_ c\n oc`
ajggjrdib `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji)
59Pr: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4 f 3
jm
59Pr:VS`X6s2 4 f 3
Ijod^` oc` d `g`^omji dn ij gjib`m \ k\mo ja oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji) Oc`m` \m` ocm`` g\ioc\id_` h`o\gn
oc\o c\q` kmjk`mod`n ndhdg\m oj oc` d ]gj^f) Oc`n` \m` ^`mdph' C`' gpo`odph' Lu' \i_ b\_jgdidph' Gd) <gg
ja oc`n` h`o\gn ^jio\di \ d `g`^omji di oc`dm `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji) Oc` m`no' gdf` km\n`j_thdph' ndhkgt
{gg oc` 4 f np]g`q`g \n oc` \ojhd^ iph]`m di^m`\n`n)
Pigdf` oc` g\ioc\id_` a\hdgt h`h]`mn' hjno ja oc` \^odid_` n`md`n \m` m\_dj\^odq`) Hjno ja oc` `g`h`ion
di oc` \^odid_` n`md`n c\q` oc` n\h` kmjk`mod`n \n oc` d ]gj^f) H`h]`mn ja oc` \^odid_` n`md`n ^\i gjn`
hpgodkg` iph]`mn ja `g`^omjin oj ajmh \ q\md`ot ja _dz`m`io djin) O\]g` 4),0 ncjrn oc` ij]g` b\n `g`^omji
^ji{bpm\odji ajm oc` `g`h`ion ja oc` \^odid_` n`md`n)
rrr)^f,-)jmb
.+3
O\]g` 4),05 Ij]g` B\n @g`^omji >ji{bpm\odji ajm oc` <^odid_` N`md`n
@g`h`io
@g`^omji >ji{bpm\odji
Ocjmdph (T h)
Kmjo\^odidph (Pa)
Pm\idph (U)
I`kopidph (N p)
Kgpojidph (Pu)
<h`md^dph (Am)
>pmdph (Cm)
=`mf`gdph (Bk)
>\gdajmidph (C f )
@dino`didph (Es)
A`mhdph (Fm)
H`i_`g`qdph (Md)
Ij]`gdph (No)
G\rm`i^dph (Lr)
[Mi]7s2 6d2
[Mi]7s2 5 f 2 6d1
[Mi]7s2 5 f 3 6d1
[Mi]7s2 5 f 4 6d1
[Mi]7s2 5 f 6
[Mi]7s2 5 f 7
[Mi]7s2 5 f 7 6d1
[Mi]7s2 5 f 9
[Mi]7s2 5 f 10
[Mi]7s2 5 f 11
[Mi]7s2 5 f 12
[Mi]7s2 5 f 13
[Mi]7s2 5 f 14
[Mi]7s2 5 f 14 6d1
G`nnji Nphh\mt
ȸ Oc` g\ioc\id_` \i_ \^odid_` n`md`n h\f` pk oc` dii`m om\indodji h`o\gn)
ȸ Oc` g\ioc\id_` n`md`n {gg pk oc` 4 f np]g`q`g \i_ oc` \^odid_` n`md`n {gg pk oc` 5 f np]g`q`g)
ȸ Oc` {mno' hd__g`' \i_ g\no h`h]`m ja oc` g\ioc\id_` n`md`n c\q` kmjk`mod`n ja oc` a ]gj^f \i_ oc` _
]gj^f)
ȸ H\it ja oc` \^odid_` n`md`n c\q` kmjk`mod`n ja ]joc oc` _ ]gj^f \i_ oc` a ]gj^f `g`h`ion)
M`qd`r Lp`nodjin
,) Rct \m` oc` a ]gj^f `g`h`ion m`a`mm`_ oj ]t njh` \n dii`m om\indodji `g`h`ion:
-) Rc\o _j `pmjkdph \i_ \h`md^dph c\q` di ^jhhji \n a\m \n oc`dm `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji:
.) Rc\o dn oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm =`mf`gdph:
#\$
#]$
#^$
#_$
[S`]7s2 5 f 9
[S`]7s2 5 f 9 6d1
[Mi]7s2 5 f 9
[Mi]7s2 5 f 9 6d1
/) Cjr h\it a `g`^omjin \m` oc`m` di oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm `dino`didph:
#\$
#]$
#^$
#_$
0)
1)
2)
3)
4)
0
11
14
25
Rmdo` oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odji ajm Too`m]dph' Yb)
Rc\o \m` oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin ajm Too`m]dph' Yb: Rc\o k`mdj_n \i_ np]g`q`gn \m` oc`t di:
Rmdo` oc` ij]g` b\n `g`^omjid^ ^ji{bpm\odji ajm pm\idph' U)
Rc\o \m` oc` q\g`i^` `g`^omjin ajm pm\idph' U: Rc\o k`mdj_n \i_ np]g`q`gn \m` oc`t di:
Rmdo` oc` `g`^omji ^ji{bpm\odjin ajm i`kopidph \i_ oc`i ajm kgpojidph) Ijr rmdo` \i `skg\i\odji
ajm rc\o n``hn oj ]` c\kk`idib)
.+4
rrr)^f,-)jmb
Apmoc`m M`\_dib * Npkkg`h`io\g Gdifn
ȸ cook5**`i)rdfdk`_d\)jmb*rdfd*BmjpkZiph]`mZjaZg\ioc\id_`nZ\i_Z\^odid_`n
ȸ cook5**`i)rdfdk`_d\)jmb*rdfd*G\ioc\id_`
Qj^\]pg\mt
g\ioc\id_` Oc` m\m` `\moc `g`h`ion ajpi_ di oc` {mno k`mdj_ ja oc` f ]gj^f) Oc`n` `g`h`ion {gg pk oc`
4 f np]g`q`g)
\^odid_` Oc` `g`h`ion ajpi_ di oc` n`^ji_ k`mdj_ ja oc` f ]gj^f) Oc`n` `g`h`ion {gg pk oc` 5 f np]g`q`g)
Dh\b` Njpm^`n
rrr)^f,-)jmb
.,+