Introducing Reformation Education to India and its consequences
Professor Daniel Jeyaraj
Liverpool Hope University, Liverpool, L16 9JD, United Kingdom
Lecture delivered during Reformation-Education-Transformation Conference (18–22 May 2016) held
by the Faculty of Theology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg and the Francke Foundation,
Halle (Saale), Germany
Introduction
In 1991 I completed my Masters in German Studies at Dharward University, Karnataka, India and
wanted to examine the impact of Protestant Reformation on Indian peoples, cultures, languages and
religions. The emphasis of the Protestant Reformers on the centrality of the Bible in their teachings
and Christian practices attracted my attention because I became a Christian by reading the Bible in
Tamil. Hence, I wanted to find out how the Bible was translated into Tamil and what socio-cultural
and religious criteria the translators used to transfer the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek texts of
the Bible into Tamil. This fascinating quest brought me to the Faculty of Theology at Martin Luther
University Halle-Wittenberg and to the rich collections of primary materials in the Mission Archives
of the Francke Foundations. These primary documents were directly concerned with the
introduction of Lutheran Pietist Education to the Tamils in 18th and early 19th century South India.
These documents are written in Tamil, German, Latin, Portuguese, Danish and other major European
languages; they show how Reformation knowledge was transferred from Germany, Denmark, and
England to the Tamils in South India and the Bengalis in North East India and how it got integrated
into the Indian traditional ways of learning and living.
Historical contexts
India excited Europeans for a very long time. Ancient Greeks and Romans traded with Indians,
particularly the Tamils; however their impact on Indian educations seems to have been absent. The
capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 prevented the Europeans to use the Silk Roads for
trade and travel. Portuguese navigators, for example, looked for and found sea routes to India.
Under their Padroado agreement, Portuguese pastors and caregivers went to work among their own
people in India. Independent of these factors, people in early 16th century Europe experienced great
socio-cultural, political and economic upheavals, which scholars of later generations conveniently
called Reformations. Martin Luther’s reform efforts, beginning in 1517, occupied the centre stage.
Soon, Swiss Reformers such as Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin came up with their own ideas and
practices. In 1534, King Henry VIII of England broke away from Roman Catholic Church, established
his own Church of England, and initiated reform of all ecclesial institutions. All these socio-cultural
and political changes required careful indoctrination and orientation of peoples into new directions.
The formation of the Society of Jesus (1534) and the Council of Trent (1545–1563) became two
decisive milestones in European Reformation. European traders became fed up with internal
conflicts and religious wars among the European peoples. They looked beyond Europe to Asia for
new markets, goods and even ideas. They persuaded their rulers to establish East India Companies,
for example, in England (1600), the Netherlands (1602) and Denmark (1618). Once they were in
India and experienced lucrative markets for the benefit of European shareholders, they quickly
acquired colonies and sought to transplant the distinctive marks of their native countries; strangely,
they did not establish educational institutions for Indians. This honour goes to the German Lutheran
Pietist missionaries Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Plütschau, who landed on 9th July 1706 in
the Danish colony of Tranquebar (1619–1845) on the Coromandel Coast of south eastern India.
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These Pietists accomplished, what the successors of European Reformers could not do for nearly 200
years.
Pre-Reformation Education in India
Education in India has a long and complex history. The sheer variety of languages, peoples, cultures,
geographical and climatic conditions required diverse approaches to impart knowledge and skills to
successive generations. The people of Sanskrit and Dravidian traditions had their educational
methods. Their Vedas, Puranas, the epics such as Ramayana and Mahabharata became educational
tools. Their Sixty-Four Arts communicated specialized knowledge in medicine, astronomy,
agriculture, war, trade, and the like. Additionally, the Buddhists and the Jains maintained their own
centres of higher learning (e.g., the Nalanda University in Bihar). Their missionary efforts
rejuvenated older languages such as Tamil and enriched them with new pieces of literature as the
Tamil grammar Tolkappiyam and epics Silapathikaram. All these educational methods were
contextual, sporadic and opportunistic. Not all people had access to them. The people of the three
Varnas, namely the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas (i.e., the social orders of priests, rulers and
traders) had access to knowledge, skills and wealth. The Sudras, i.e., the people of the fourth Varna,
were viewed as a servile group; hence, their access to formal education was highly restricted. But
among the Tamils, the social position of these Sudras was different. They controlled most temples,
large tracts of lands, and constituted a political force. People who did not belong to this four-fold
Varna had little or no access to formal education. They learned to perform the works of their jati
(‘birth group’); those groups that specialized in the maintenance of animals, meat production and
consumption, removing, burying or cremating carcasses were branded as ritually impure and
excluded from social upward mobility. The revival of Tamil bhakti religions from 7th century onward
recognized religious contributions by certain Avarna individuals, but it did not include all peoples of
every social strata. People of other non-polluting jatis specialized in art, architecture, music,
medicine, and other disciplines. None of these educational skills were standardized. No one
supervised their implementation in centres of education such as temples, religious mats, royal
palaces, the veranda of homes, and the Gurukulas. Imitation and memorization became two major
modes of education. Tales, proverbs, riddles, and taboos told the people what they could do and
what they should avoid. There were many pulavars (‘erudite scholars’), pundits, and sastris
(‘scholars,’ e.g., professors); usually, these were men and not women.
Girls and women did not enjoy formal education. The Devadasis (‘servants of deities’) and few
women in palaces or in aristocratic families had formal education in reading, writing, and dancing.
The public perception of the Devadasis as prostitutes, who should not be engaged in monogamous
relationships, and as the Nityasumangali (‘perpetually blessed,’ i.e., free from widowhood) kept the
girls away from any form of formal training in reading, writing, singing and dancing. At the same
time, Indians valued motherhood greatly. Almost all of their male deities have a female counterpart.
The virgin-goddess are normally portrayed courageous, vengeful, blood-thirsty, and fearsome.
Married goddess are domestic. Indians realized the importance of women in religious and domestic
areas; however they did not extend equal rights to women in educational spheres. The preReformation education in India had its own merits and areas for improvement, which Christian
missionaries would attempt to address.
Introduction of Lutheran Education to Indians
The arrival of the above mentioned German Lutheran Pietists in Tranquebar heralded a turning point
in the history of public education in India. These Pietists did not replace what was good in Indian
educational practice, but grafted their own education into it, ennobled and made it more
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mainstream and accessible to common people including girls and women. It all began with the
formation of Jerusalem, the first Tamil Lutheran congregation in 1707. These Tamils, who
courageously embraced the teachings of these German Lutheran Pietists in the midst of multiple
oppositions and hardships, demanded a school for their children. Consequently, with the help of
Ziegenbalg and Plütschau, they constituted a school and sent their daughters and sons as students.
They named these Tamil medium schools Dharmapallikkudam (‘religious schools’). Ziegenbalg was
astonished to find that the Tamils possessed written works on various academic disciplines such as
grammar, metaphysics, medicine, music, alchemy, astronomy, mathematics, ethics and other the
like. He observed how Tamil school teachers communicated knowledge to their children and
concluded that the Tamils would not appreciate the European style of delivering knowledge via long
lectures, but would welcome participatory learning.
Therefore, Ziegenbalg adapted the pedagogical methods which August Hermann Francke had
devised for his Jerusalem, i.e., educational and orphan institutions in Halle (Saale), Germany.
Accordingly, Ziegenbalg used translated portions of the Tamil bible for reading and writing. He and
his colleagues fostered independent thinking and encouraged their students to exegete biblical texts
and articulate them in writing.
Secondly, the students studied the Small and Large Catechisms of Martin Luther, the catechetical
works of Philip Jacob Spener, and the systematic theology of Johann Anastasius Freylinghausen.
Lutheran teachings on the Justification by faith, the Gospel and Law, the Two-Kingdoms, and the
Sacraments of Baptism and Eucharist undergirded other subjects such as mathematics, accountancy,
medicine, astronomy, letter writing, and the like. The students studied what was already available in
Tamil literature, but interpreted them in the light of their understanding of the Bible and German
Lutheran Pietist teachings. This Reformation education enabled and equipped the Tamil students to
evaluate afresh their inherited traditions, sources of knowledge, and their implementation.
Thirdly, it was evident that Ziegenbalg and his successors did not translate into Tamil Martin Luther’s
theological writings with political motives. They knew well that the Tamils did not ask the same
questions or look for the same answers which Martin Luther’s contemporaries were mindful of.
Therefore, Luther’s foundational writings of 1520, namely To the Christian Nobility of the German
Nation, On Christian Liberty, and The Babylonian Captivity of the Church, remained unknown for the
Tamil Lutherans for a long time. Instead, the school curriculum inculcated the spirit of Luther’s
Reformation. For example, Ziegenbalg used his Moral Theology to teach about the freedom and
equality of all Tamils. It was something that was unknown in the caste-ridden Tamil society of his
time. He taught his followers to engage with the Pariahs, not as untouchables, but as children of the
one and same mother. The same God created them; the same Jesus Christ died for them; they
believed in the same Gospel; therefore, they were equal to one another. He found comfort in and
quoted from the anti-caste writings such as Civavakkiyam.
Fourthly, the Reformation education that was introduced in Tranquebar produced the longest prose
text written in the colloquial form of Tamil, namely the Bible. Ziegenbalg got hold of the biblical
manuscripts in Tamil, which the Jesuits had translated earlier, adapted and improved on them.
When he died in February 1719, he left behind Tamil translations of the books of the New
Testament, and from Genesis to Ruth in Old Testament. His successor Benjamin Schultze translated
the remaining books of the Old Testament and published the entire Bible in 1728. Successive
Lutheran scholars like Johann Philipp Fabricius developed the quality of these translations further.
Their choice of words for God, human beings, life, sin, death, resurrection, baptism, Eucharist,
church, and morality echo on the one hand the words and concepts of the Tamil bhakti religions and
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on the other, the Judeo-Christian views. Thus, Reformation education resulted in the synthesis of
ideas and memories of people in cross-cultural contexts.
Fifthly, just as the European Reformers utilized the printing press for disseminating their ideas and
works, the Tamil Lutherans benefited from the first mechanized printing press. The news of
Tranquebar Mission thrilled the Anglican readers of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge
in London, England. In 1710, they procured a printing press and shipped it to Chennai. Ziegenbalg’s
colleague Johann Ernest Gründler received it, brought to Tranquebar in 1712, and made it
functional. It is well known that this press was the first one in India; the Jesuits, under the leadership
of Henrique Henriques used wood cuts to print books such as the Tambiran Vanakkam (‘the Lord’s
Prayer,’ printed in Kochin in 1578) or Adiyar Varalaru (‘History of Saints,’ i.e., Flos Sanctorum, 1586).
By 1712, the Jesuits did not seem to possess any printing press. Hence, the printing press of
Tranquebar became an influential tool to propagate Reformation ideas among the Tamils.
Moreover, the printing tradition that was initiated in Tranquebar had an unbroken history and
revolutionized knowledge dissemination and affordability of printed works.
Sixthly, Reformation education produced a new body of literature that still provide fresh insights
into the life of the Tamils in 18th century Tamil Nadu. 54 German Lutheran Pietists worked in
Tranquebar and surrounding areas from 1706 to 1845. Their letters, diaries, reports, and treatises
are a treasure trove for any researcher. They illustrate cross-cultural adaptations and synthesis of
words, concepts, and meanings. Ziegenbalg’s Genealogy of the Malabarian Gods (1713) quotes long
passages from letters of Tamil scholars. The Halle Reports (1708 – 1772) that contain edited versions
of reports from Tranquebar preserve Tamil cultural memories that cannot be found anywhere else.
Thus, the Reformation Education that was introduced to the Tamils has helped in the transformation
of various sections of the people not only in India, but also in Europe. More Europeans, who read the
mission reports, came to know and appreciate Indians. It is a known fact that German intellectuals
like Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) were
familiar with the Halle Reports.
Seventhly, the Reformation Education that was introduced in Tranquebar influenced the adherents
of Saivism, Vaishnavism and village religions, who were collectively, but incorrectly labelled as
“Hindoos,” to start their own public schools. In 1715, Gründler opened a school for non-Christian
children in Tranquebar. Originally, non-Christians protested against this initiative; they forced those,
who had sent their children to a mission school, to withdraw them. They believed that education
provided to girls went against their cherished tradition. However, in the course of time, nonChristians saw the worth of a public school; hence, by 1721, they had their own schools for their
children and imitated what the Christians had been doing in Tranquebar.
In 1725, Christian public schools came into existence in Chennai. Benjamin Schulze led them. Few
years later, in 1757, John Zacharias Kiernander, a Swede, who had been a Lutheran Pietist missionary
in Cudalore in Tamil country and moved to Kolkata, founded a school and educated students who
spoke Portuguese and possibly also Bengali. Similar Lutheran congregations and schools came up in
key commercial and political centres of South India such as Tanjore (1728, 1772), Trichy (1762), and
Palayamkottai (1785). Indians who enjoyed Reformation education in various mission schools found
employment and moved to different parts of India. At the same time and towards the end of the 18th
century, the missionary practices of Christian Friedrich Schwartz (1726–1798, since 1750 in South
India), the Raja Guru, the educational policies of Christoph Samuel John (1747–1813), who taught
astronomy and botany in Tranquebar, and the lexicographic and botanical works of Johan Philip
Rottler (1749–1836), in whose honour a street in Vepery, Chennai is named, attracted the attention
of the colonial administrators of the English East India Company, who were interested in establishing
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formal educational facilities in India. Thus, the Reformation education that was introduced in
Tranquebar spread to different parts of India and influenced, to some extent, at least few powerful
policy makers.
Consequences for wider India
The beginning of 19th century had further implications for Reformation education in India. In 1792,
William Carey brought in the voices of the British Baptists and added them to educational systems in
India. In 1800 he moved to the Danish colony of Serampore near Kolkata. His interactions with the
learned Indian reformers such as Raja Ram Mohun Roy, the Anglican chaplains in Kolkata (e.g., David
Brown, 1763–1813) and other Anglican leaders such as Claudius Bucannan (1766 -1815) opened new
possibilities for education. As soon as the English East India Company revised its charter in 1913, an
Anglican bishopric was established in Kolkata (1814). Subsequently, Anglican clergy claimed
supremacy and created troubles for Anglican and Baptist missionaries. In the midst of these
challenges, William Carey, his colleagues Joshua Marshman and William Ward, and their Indian
assistants succeeded in translating the Bible into more than 30 languages and thus contributed to
the revival of major languages such as Bengali and Oriya. In 1818, they established a theological
college, which would eventually coordinate theological education of all major Protestant
denominations in India. William Ward was so engaged in Indological studies that he translated parts
of Ramayana into English. The intellectual climate of Kolkata, popularized by the scholars and
publications associated with the Asiatic Society, provided opportunity for far reaching public
discourses on social evils such as Sati (‘true woman,’ i.e., burning of widows on the funeral pyre of
their deceased husbands) and infanticide. Understandably, many prominent ‘Hindu’ leaders rose
against William Carey and his colleagues and blamed them for destroying their age-old practice of
Sati! Carey’s contributions to horticulture, journalism, metallurgy, and the like expanded the scope
of Reformation education in north eastern India.
The reports from the missionaries in Serampore, the goodwill of most respected people like Claudius
Buchannan, and changing opinion of the British public towards overseas Christian missions advanced
the promotion of Reformation education in Kolkata. Particularly, the Scottish Presbyterians sent
Alexander Duff as their educational representative; in 1830, he established the Scottish Church
College; he hoped that modern rational education would dismantle Sanskrit ‘Hinduism’ and open
ways for evangelism. Seven years later, the efforts of John Anderson resulted in the formation of the
Madras Christian College (1837). These two colleges played a definitive role in the establishment of
universities in Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai (1857). Peter Pecival, a British Wesleyan missionary
turned into an Anglican, who would publish a large body of Tamil proverbs (1874), became the first
Registrar of the University of Madras. By this time, English-medium education, introduced largely
due to the lobbying of Indians such as Pachaiyyappa of Chennai, replaced vernacular education.
These Indians were fully aware of and quick to benefit from the Charter of Education (July, 1854),
which, at the request of the British Parliament and under the directorship of Sir Charles Wood,
reviewed the state of public education in India and recommended the introduction of British
educational system to India. This system was largely coloured by the rationalism and individualism of
European Enlightenment. It did not have any significant place for Reformation Education, in which
the Bible, Christian catechisms and theology had a central place.
The First War of Indian Independence (1857), also known as the Sepoy Mutiny or Indian Rebellion
altered the political history of India for a long time. India became part of the British Empire. Queen
Victoria’s Proclamation, first read out in Allahabad on 1 November 1858, promised that her
government would not discriminate anyone on any religious ground. It further assured that her
government would admit for service any Indian, who, without regard for “Race or Creed” “may be
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qualified by their education, ability, and integrity.” At that time, only the Hindus of the upper Varnas
and Jatis met these requirements and occupied key positions in education, police, judiciary, revenue
collection, and military. They bequeathed these positions to their offspring, who continue to hold
these key positions and often work against Christian interests.
Some Christian schools in cities benefited from the Grant-in-aid system of the English East India
Company and embraced English-medium education. But, most European mission agencies moved
into rural areas and served the needs of the poor and needy. Generally, they continued the
principles of Reformation Education, but also added their denominational flavour. Thus, from the
middle of 19th century to Indian Independence in August 1947, multiple types of education remained
popular in India. By this time, European and American missionaries and their Indian partners jointly
founded medical colleges (e.g., in Vellore and Ludhiana), countless hospitals, orphanages, and
vocational training institutions; they served not only the needs of the city dwellers, but also the
inhabitants of rural villages.
Conclusion
Reformation education reached India through the works of the German Lutheran Pietists, who
primarily drew spiritual and pedagogical inspirations from the leaders and friends of the Francke
Foundations in Halle (Saale). At first, they realized their work within the colonial contexts of the
Danish trading company in Tranquebar; gradually, their Tamil associates spread Reformation
education to other parts of India. Together with the German Lutherans they laid a firm foundation
for Protestant forms of Christianity in Indian soil. Nowadays Christians in India constitute about
2.4%; but their educational contribution to India remains out of all proportions. Many Indians still
want to send their children to Christian kindergartens, schools, colleges and universities. They see
these institutions as an epitome of moral and educational values. Indian Initiated mission agencies
such as the Friends Missionary Prayer Band and the Indian Evangelical Mission carry the Reformation
Education to downtrodden people groups (Dalits and Tribal communities in rural villages or hilly
areas). Likewise, when the German Lutheran Pietists started their educational work in Tranquebar in
July 1706, they could not count on any female student. Now, 310 years later, female students
outperform male students in almost all spheres of education and vocational training in India. At that
time, education was parochial, sporadic and haphazard. Now, it is more standardized and
systematized and remains accessible to most number of Indians.
It is gratifying to note that the seeds of Reformation Education that were shown first in Tranquebar
and then in countless other places continue to produce social transformation and ennobles the life
of ordinary Indians; however, the story is not yet complete. Currently, Christian educational
institutions face enormous challenges both from within and without. Schools and colleges that are
linked to Roman Catholic traditions tend to maintain their campuses cleaner than the schools and
colleges associated with the Protestant traditions. It is not always easy to find competent Christian
teachers for appointments. Therefore, in a democratic context, Christian schools have to
accommodate non-Christian staff and this invariably change the way Christian values are expressed
and taught within these schools. Christian schools, as evangelistic means, have had negligible
success; yet their contribution to nation building, raising awareness of socio-cultural inequalities and
working towards bridging the gap between the rich and the poor has been significant. Attracting and
retaining high-calibre staff and students in Christian schools and tending to the needs of the socially
and economically underprivileged require careful allocation of priorities and funds. From without,
Christian schools face stiff competition from schools managed by Hindu mission agencies; they have
not only imitated what Christians had been good at, but also have been improving on them.
Likewise, Christian schools that receive government aid should comply with the curricula of local
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States, the professional and other regulations of the accrediting bodies. In the past, Reformation
education stressed Christian identity and values in public spheres; now, this same stress has come
under intense scrutiny by friends and foes and requires ongoing self-reflection and creative
implementation in local settings.