Forestry
Fact Sheets
Trees
What is a Tree?
A tree is usually a large woody plant with a
distinct trunk giving rise to branches or leaves
at some distance from the ground. Some trees
(such as palm trees) can have trunks that are
not made of wood. Trees are perennials, which
means they continue to grow from one year to
the next.
Trees have three main parts, the roots, the
trunk and the crown.
Roots
Roots anchor the tree into the ground and
can absorb and store water and mineral salts
from the soil. Many trees have a taproot which
grows straight down into the ground. They
also have smaller lateral roots, which spread
out horizontally through the soil. Closer to the
surface are masses of fine hair roots which
absorb water and minerals from the topsoil.
Trunk
The trunk is the stem of the tree and supports
the branches and foliage (the canopy).
Plantation trees are grown and harvested for
their timber. Most of the timber is made up of
dead plant cells. As shown in the illustration,
the trunk of a tree consists of the following
parts:
the outer bark
the inner bark
the wood (sapwood and heartwood)
the pith.
the pith
the wood
the outer
bark
the inner
bark
In pine trees, the outer bark is generally rough
and woody, but in eucalypts it varies greatly
from rough and fibrous to smooth, depending
on the species. The outer bark protects the
inner living cells of the trunk and it may also
protect the tree from damage by insects, frost,
the sun, or fire.
The inner bark and sapwood are made up
of living cells which transport the sugars
produced by the foliage to other parts of the
tree.
The root system of a Blue gum - shows the main tap root.
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 2 of 35
A tree grows new wood around the outside
of the wood it grew in previous years. This
is done by a special layer of cells called the
cambium. The living sapwood and the central
heartwood are where you see the annual
Trees
growth rings of the tree. The age of a tree
can be estimated by counting these rings.
Eucalypts do not have distinct annual growth
rings because they grow all year round,
whereas pine trees often have distinctive
rings that develop during their fast-growing
(summer), slower-growing and dormant
periods (autumn and winter).
The pith is the central core of the trunk.
Branches grow out from the trunk of a tree.
They are actually small stems that, once
formed, stay at the same height above the
ground for the life of the tree. Knots in timber
are the areas from which branches grow.
To get timber without any knots (known as
cleartimber or clearwood), the branches are
cut off when they are small, and the wood
continues to grow evenly over the scar for the
remainder of the tree’s life.
Crown
The crown is the top part of a tree, with
branches, twigs, leaves or needles. The
leaves or needles (the foliage) use energy
from sunlight to make food from water and a
gas in the air called carbon dioxide. During
this process, which is called photosynthesis,
plants produce another gas - oxygen, which
animals need to breathe to live.
Types of Trees
Forest trees are divided into two groups,
evergreen and deciduous. Within these
two groups, trees can be further divided
into softwood trees and hardwood trees.
Deciduous trees (e.g. oak, beech, birch, larch)
shed their leaves in autumn, whilst evergreen
trees (including pine, cedar, cypress, eucalypt)
bear leaves all year round and lose some
leaves continually throughout the year.
Left - Blue gum and right - Radiata pine.
Softwood trees (e.g. pine, cypress and
cedar) have needles and bear cones.
Softwoods generally grow more quickly
than hardwoods and for this reason are
often used in plantations.
Hardwood trees (e.g. eucalypt, poplar,
silky oak and blackwood) have broad, flat
leaves and produce flowers.
Hardwoods do not always have harder
wood than softwoods. For example,
poplar trees are hardwoods but their
wood is softer than that of many pine
trees, which are softwoods.
Find Out More
Wikipedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/tree
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trees_of_Australia
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 3 of 35
What is a Forest?
The term ‘forest’ is used for areas where trees
grow more than two metres tall and shade
more than 20% of the ground.
Trees may be the first things you see when you
visit a forest, but they are only one part of a
complex ecosystem - a community of life forms
which depend on each other to make best use
of available water and nutrients.
Forests are one of the earth’s most important
natural resources. These are just some of the
vital roles they play:
Providing a habitat for all the living things
contained within them. Apart from trees,
a forest is made up of its soil, water, other
plants, insects, reptiles and amphibians,
birds and mammals. Every living thing in
the forest is dependent on other living
things in the forest for its survival.
Providing shelter, food and warmth for
human beings.
Providing employment and useful
products.
Being a precious environment for us to
enjoy.
Ensuring that water, minerals, gases
and trace elements stored in vegetation
and the soil are recycled to maintain soil
fertility.
Forming soil and providing protection from
soil erosion.
Protecting water supplies and improving
water quality. Water is filtered by the
soil and vegetation of the forest, and
sediments and pollutants are removed
before the water runs into rivers or
underground water tables.
Storing carbon and helping to reduce the
effects of global warming.
Native Forests
There are three main groups of forest types
around the world: boreal or softwood forests,
temperate hardwood forests, and tropical and
subtropical hardwood forests.
The types of native forest in Australia vary
according to climate and location.
South Australia’s native forests are part of
the temperate hardwood forests known as
‘dry sclerophyll forests’. The term ‘sclerophyll’
means ‘hard-leaved’ and refers to species that
have developed drought-resistant leaves with
thick cell walls and a cuticle or outer skin. The
main tree species in dry sclerophyll forests are
eucalypts, acacias, she-oaks and banksias.
Biodiversity, Habitat and Interdependence
Biodiversity is the existence of a wide variety
of plant and animal species all living in their
natural habitats. There are three ways of
describing biodiversity:
Plant and animal species living in their natural habitats.
Find Out More
National Forest Education and Awareness Network - www.australianforests.org.au
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 4 of 35
What is a Forest?
1. Ecosystem diversity is biodiversity
within different environments, relating to
factors such as location, climate and the
availability of water and nutrients. South
Australia’s various forests, plantations
and woodlands are examples of different
ecosystems.
2. Species diversity relates to the rich variety
and number of different plants and animals
found in a particular ecosystem. South
Australia’s dry sclerophyll forests support
a great variety of plants and animals.
3. Genetic diversity relates to the amount
of variation found within members of the
same species. For example, humans can
have different coloured eyes, hair, and
skin, and a huge variety of facial features
and body shapes and sizes.
Each native and plantation forest type occurs
in, and creates, a particular habitat, and
different kinds of insects, birds and other
animals move in to make use of the shelter,
food and water that is available in them. Each
of these species fills a niche in the habitat. This
determines how the species behaves and how
it interacts with other organisms. For example,
some insects will fill a niche that cleans debris
off the forest floor. These insects provide food
for forest reptiles, which in turn are eaten by
forest birds. These birds, or their bodies when
they die, then provide food for other insects,
birds and mammals.
Native Forest and Plantation Forest Habitats
Plantation forests provide habitats for a wide
variety of animal life. They form part of a
mosaic across the landscape that helps to
maintain the biodiversity of that landscape.
This mosaic may also include native forests,
farmed land, creeks, rivers and other water
bodies and the native vegetation around them,
as well as corridors of native vegetation along
which animals can travel.
Plantation forests often consist of a single
species of tree, all of the same age. In some
situations, foresters plant mixtures of native
and farmed species. The trees can still be
used for timber but, as an added benefit, the
biodiversity of the forested area is increased.
Close up of a forest insect.
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 5 of 35
Value of Forests
The Value of Forests
We have many reasons to value our forests.
They are a source of timber and other forest
products, such as honey, essential oils, bark
for tanneries, traditional medicines and wild
fruits.
Forests also provide habitat for native animals
and plants, protection for water catchments,
climate modification and opportunities for
education and scientific research, as well as
being pleasant places to visit and relax.
Forest Products
South Australia’s forest plantations currently
provide around 2.32 million cubic metres of
mostly softwood timber. Most of this is used
in SA, with the balance of the timber needed,
mainly hardwoods, coming from interstate or
overseas.
Recreation
Our forests are important areas for community
recreation. People in Adelaide and other major
urban centres rely on nearby natural areas for
outdoor activities. Forests are popular places
to go for a relaxing outing, a picnic or a walk.
Some forest areas have facilities for camping,
bushwalking and horse-riding.
A native forest.
Catchment Protection
Native and plantation forests protect our water
supply by acting as filters to keep streams
and rivers clean and healthy. Forests protect
the ground surface from soil erosion. When it
rains, the fallen leaves, pine needles, grasses
and other small plants on the forest floor help
to slow the rate of water run off and reduce
the risk of soil erosion. The water then either
soaks into the soil or slowly seeps into small
creeks and streams.
Forests also have an important role to play in
preventing dryland salinity. Soil salinisation
occurs when groundwater levels (water tables)
rise, resulting in an accumulation of salts in
the upper layers of the soil.
Forests are great places for a hike.
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 6 of 35
Value of Forests
Climate Modification
Many scientists believe that the clearing of
forests, both locally and globally, is changing
rainfall patterns and causing local conditions
to become drier. Actively-growing forests are
important users of greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide, and producers of the oxygen
which all animals, including humans, breathe.
Forests produce large amounts of oxygen
which goes back into the atmosphere. Forests
could be said to be the lungs of the world.
Education and Research
Schools and other organisations visit our
forests as part of their educational programs.
Native forest areas are used to study biology
and natural resource management, or students
can visit plantation forests to learn about
commercial forestry and forest products.
Foresters also undertake research on topics
such as appropriate fire management practices
and how best to conserve flora and fauna.
Students visiting a forest as part of an
education program.
Find Out More
www.australianforests.org.au
Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry www.daff.gov.au/brs/forest-veg
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 7 of 35
Forests - The Global Scene
On a global scale, deforestation is a key
environmental issue. Deforestation is best
described as a situation where trees are
removed and not replaced, or are harvested
faster than the forest can recover through
natural regeneration.
World Forest Harvesting in
Perspective
Over the period 1950 to 1995, the world’s
timber harvest increased from 1.5 billion
cubic metres per annum to nearly 3.5 billion
cubic metres. In the same period, the world’s
population almost doubled in size, increasing
from 2.6 to 5 billion people. The rate of timber
harvesting was therefore greater than the rate
of population growth for the same period.
World Timber Production
We harvest timber for two main purposes - fuel
and industrial use. Timber harvested for fuel
is generally used to generate heat for cooking,
warmth and light and, in some countries, to
generate electric power. Timber harvested
for industrial purposes includes timber used
in the manufacture of paper products and for
building and construction.
Around six billion hectares of forest have
disappeared during the past three centuries.
Only one-third of the world’s land area is
still covered by forests, but the proportion of
forest land differs considerably from country
to country. The most rapid loss of forest is
occurring in the tropics. It is estimated that
about 25,000 square kilometres of rainforest
is cleared per year in Central America and
the Amazon. On a world scale, approximately
200,000 square kilometres of rainforest is
cleared each year - almost 40 football ovals
every minute!
About a third of timber harvested from
rainforests is used for making paper. The
average person in an industrialised nation
uses 150 kg of paper each year, which is
equivalent to the weight of three small adults!
Sustainable forestry programs are being
sponsored in the ‘developing nations’ of the
world by organisations such as the World Bank
and the International Forestry Federation.
Plantation forestry has a role to play in
supplying our timber needs, while at the same
time helping to protect our natural forests.
The Kyoto Protocol
The continued growth of the world’s
This is an agreement made under the United
population, and the high levels of poverty
Nations Framework Convention on Climate
in some nations, lead to much greater
Change (UNFCCC). Countries that ratify this
destruction of natural forests for farming and
protocol commit to reduce their emissions
fuel than for harvesting for timber. In some
countries, and especially in
the tropics, forests are being
logged so that people can sell
the timber, or use the cleared
land to graze animals or
grow crops for use overseas.
This can result in the loss
of precious environmental
resources, as well as other
problems such as increased
erosion, pollution of water
supplies and disruption to the
local people’s incomes and
ways of life.
Timber is harvested for two main purposes - fuel and industrial use.
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 8 of 35
Forests - The Global Scene
of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and
sulphur hexafluoride, or engage in emissions
trading if they maintain or increase emissions
of these gases.
The Kyoto Protocol now covers more than 160
countries and over 55% of global greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions.
The amounts of clearing or planting of forests
since 1990 are important factors that influence
a country’s ability to meet their greenhouse
gas emissions target.
The Montreal Process
This began as an initiative of the Government
of Canada, which hosted a meeting in Montreal
in September 1993. The goal of the Montreal
meeting was to develop a scientifically
rigorous set of criteria and indicators for the
Conservation and Sustainable Management of
Temperate and Boreal Forests.
Six of the criteria deal with forest conditions,
attributes or functions, and the values or
benefits associated with the environmental,
social and economic goods and services that
forests provide:
1. conservation of biological diversity;
2. maintenance of productive capacity of
forest ecosystems;
3. maintenance of forest ecosystem health
and vitality;
4. conservation and maintenance of soil and
water resources;
5. maintenance of forest contribution to
global carbon cycles; and
6. maintenance and enhancement of longterm multiple socio-economic benefits to
meet the needs of societies.
Twelve countries in the world now participate.
These countries are: Argentina, Australia,
Canada, Chile, China, Japan, South Korea,
Mexico, New Zealand, Russia, USA and
Uruguay.
These countries represent 90% of the world’s
temperate and boreal forests, and 60% of all
the world’s forests.
Find Out More
The Kyoto Protocol - www.climatechange.gov.au/international/kyoto
The Montreal Process - www.rinya.maff.go.jp/mpci
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 9 of 35
Forests in South Australia
Native Forests
South Australia has 10.8 million hectares of
native forest with most being found in the
lower rainfall areas of the State.
These forests grow on private or crown lands,
or are found within National or Conservation
Parks or in Native Forest Reserves and are no
longer used for timber production.
The settlement of South Australia by
Europeans brought with it a large demand
for timber for domestic and commercial
building and construction and a range of
other purposes. Most areas of native forest
were harvested for timber over the period
1840 to 1955 to supply wood for posts, poles,
piles, palings, roofing shingles, domestic and
commercial fuel, mine shaft supports and
building and construction timber.
South Australia’s dependence on timber from
native forests declined from the 1950s. This
has been due to the availability of plantation
wood and the use of other forms of fuel such as
gas, electricity and alternative energy sources.
Building and fencing products can be made
from plantation wood or from other materials.
National and Conservation Parks
More than 4 million hectares of South
Australia’s forests are contained within
National or Conservation Parks and are
managed by the Department for Environment
and Heritage. These include large outback
parks such as Flinders Ranges NP, Gawler
Ranges NP and Ngarkat CP. Many parks
in higher rainfall areas are also forested
including those at Belair NP, Cleland CP and
Deep Creek CP. These contain taller forests
often dominated by Manna gum (Eucalyptus
viminalis), SA blue gum (E. leucoxylon) and
Messmate Stringybark (E. obliqua).
Native Forest Reserves
23,900 hectares of taller forests are also
protected under the Forestry Act 1950 as
Native Forest Reserves. These areas were
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 10 of 35
once used for timber production but are now
managed for conservation.
Most Native Forest Reserves are found in the
South East, Wirrabara, Mt Crawford, Kuitpo
and Second Valley Forest Reserves.
Native Forest Management
General conservation management objectives
for native forests include:
protection of areas from weed invasion,
grazing by domestic or feral animals, and
wildfire
limiting public access to sensitive areas to
protect native flora and fauna
rehabilitation of degraded areas, including
understorey restoration
protection and management of threatened
species
ecosystem management by the use
of prescribed burning in certain
circumstances.
Plantation Forests
In 2006, South Australia had 167,000 hectares
of plantation forests. Of this approximately
123,000 hectares are softwood, mostly
Radiata pine (Pinus radiata). Approximately
42,000 hectares are hardwood, mostly
Tasmanian blue gums.
Smaller areas of forest are planted with Red
gum, Sugar gum, Flooded gum, Swamp Yate,
Sydney blue gum, Spotted gum, Maritime pine
and Cypress.
Over 52% of the plantations are contained
within government forest reserves managed
by ForestrySA. The rest are owned by private
forestry companies or individual landowners.
Forests in South Australia
Stage 1 of a Blue gum plantation forest
Stage 2 of a Blue gum plantation forest
Plantations are forests of trees which
are planted to produce wood. People
who look after plantations are called
foresters. Foresters have to know how to
care for trees so that they will grow with
long, straight trunks which can be cut for
timber.
Plantation forestry is like farming. Trees
are the crop being grown to produce a
product - wood or timber. While our wheat
farmers can grow a crop every year, it
takes 10 to 40 years, and sometimes
longer, for a crop of forest trees to reach
maturity and be ready for harvest.
Forestry plantations are an important part
of the forestry industry in Australia. During
the 19th century, as European settlers
spread out across the country, land was
cleared for farms. Our native forests were
also cut down to supply building and
fencing materials, jetty piles, telegraph
posts and timber to build carts.
South Australia had less native forests
suitable for timber than any of the other
States and first established forest
plantations over 120 years ago.
In South Australia and Western Victoria,
the plantation cycle for Radiata pine is
typically 30 - 40 years and 10 - 15 years
for blue gums.
After harvesting, blue gums can regrow
from their stump. This is known as
coppicing and when managed, replaces
the need to plant seedlings for the next
crop.
See also ‘How Pine Forests are Managed’
- Page 18.
Stage 3 of a Blue gum plantation forest
Find Out More
PIRSA Forestry - www.pir.sa.gov.au/forestry
ForestrySA - www.forestry.sa.gov.au
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 11 of 35
Forests in South Australia
Radiata Pine
Species Profile
1. Scientific name - Pinus radiata
2. Common names - Radiata pine; Monterey
pine; remarkable pine
3. Countries of origin - California, USA and
Mexico (islands off the west coast)
4. Height - 15 - 30m in the wild and up to
60m in cultivation
5. Growing requirements - Propagated from
seed or cuttings. Does best in areas with
warm days and cool nights, relatively
fertile soils and a reasonably high average
annual rainfall. Usually grown at altitudes
of less than 500m. Can tolerate mild
frosts but suffers in snow and drought.
6. Physical features Bark is dark brown,
divided by deep
ridges; foliage is thin
green needles, up to
15cm long, in clusters
of three; brown
winged seeds held in
large cones.
7. Wood - Pale-coloured
sapwood, pinkishbrown heartwood;
relatively even
texture.
5.
6.
4.
7.
8.
9.
1.
2.
3.
Growth Cycle of Radiata Pine
1. Seedlings germinate in warm moist soil (generally in a nursery).
2. Seedlings start to grow rapidly during spring and summer.
3. Trees can grow to 60m in height and half a metre in diameter (at chest height) after 25 to 40
years, depending on climate and soil conditions.
4. Female cones form on the higher branches of mature trees.
5. Minute, yellow, wind-borne pollen grains are released from the male cones and fertilise the
female cones in August.
6. Clusters of small male flowers form at the tips of the lower branches, so they rarely fertilise
female cones on the same tree.
7. Female cones mature, with ripe seeds, 2.5 years after pollination.
8. Mature cones open in hot, dry conditions and release seeds.
9. Each cone scale protects two winged seeds which are released as the cone opens.
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 12 of 35
Forests in South Australia
Tasmanian blue gum
Species Profile
1. Scientific name - Eucalyptus globulus
2. Common names - Tasmanian blue gum
3. Country of origin - Australia
4. Height - 30 - 55m
5. Growing requirements - Propagation
is from seed which germinates readily.
Shows good growth on sunny, frost-free,
lower altitude sites with good quality
soils. Less susceptible to insect attack
than some other eucalypt species. In
very harsh and exposed conditions it can
adopt a shrubby habit.
6. Physical features - The tree has a
rough, greyish bark which is shed from
the upper trunk and branches in long
ribbons. The broad young leaves are
covered with a blue-grey, waxy bloom,
which is the origin of the common name
‘blue gum’. The mature
leaves are narrow,
crescent-shaped and
dark shining green. The
creamy white, scented,
flowers bloom from
winter to early summer.
They are attractive to
the bees that pollinate
them because they
produce copious nectar
that yields a stronglyflavoured honey. The
flowers are followed by
greyish ‘gum nut’ seed
pods. The seeds are shed through valves
which open on the top of the pod.
7. Wood - Blue gum has an open-textured
wood with distinct growth rings.
3.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
4.
2.
Growth Cycle of Blue Gum
1. Seed is surface sown in a sunny position (sometimes in a greenhouse) in late winter/early
spring.
2. The seedlings are transferred into individual pots when the second set of seed leaves has
developed.
3. They are then planted out into their permanent positions in early summer, and may need
some protection from frost during their first winter.
4. The trees grow fast and can reach 55m in height in good conditions.
5. The flower buds are warty and ribbed and have a flattened operculum (lid or cap) with a
central knob.
6. Single cream-coloured flowers grow in the axis of each leaf. They are hermaphrodite (have
both male and female organs).
7. Woody fruits (gum nuts) form on the trees.
8. Numerous small seeds are shed through valves which open on the top of the fruit.
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 13 of 35
Forest Industries
What is Forestry?
Forestry is the science of planting and caring
for trees and the planting and management
of forests. Forests are a valuable source of
income, employment and trade, as well as
places where people can enjoy recreational
activities.
Plantations are usually managed to ensure
that the amount of timber cut each year does
not exceed new tree growth and the rate
of replanting. Plantations are harvested in
a special pattern, depending on the age of
the trees and on how much wood is needed.
Foresters try not to clear and replant huge
areas of land, but instead leave trees of
different ages in their plantations.
South Australia has over 167,000 hectares
of plantations of which 74% is Radiata pine
(Pinus radiata) with most of the remainder
being Tasmanian blue gum (Eucalyptus
globulus).
Eighty-three per cent of all plantations are in
the south east of the state (138,000 ha). When
combined with Western Victoria (160,000 ha)
the area is known as the Green Triangle and is
the second largest plantation area in Australia.
Radiata pine plantation.
The largest forest grower in South Australia is
the government-owned ForestrySA, with nearly
82,000 hectares of mostly pine plantations.
Other major pine growers include Auspine
and Green Triangle Forest Products. Major
blue gum growers include Timbercorp, ITC and
Great Southern Plantations.
The Green Triangle also has sawmilling and
wood processing industries that produce
products including sawn timber, ply wood and
particle board for construction, and woodchips
for paper and bio fuels. In 2005, the Green
Triangle’s timber industries employed more
than 8,700 people both directly and indirectly
and contributed nearly $800 million to the
economy.
Plantation Forests in South Australia & Western Victoria (hectares)
Organisation
Hardwood
(99% Tasmanian
blue gum)
Softwood
(99% Radiata
pine)
460
152
108
591
3,186
5,301
5,040
66,964
Private (Mt Lofty Ranges and Kangaroo
Island)
8,518
5,918
143
14,579
Private (South East)
32,739
37,395
617
70,751
Total for South Australia
Western Victoria
42,568
96,815
123,804
62,390
760
1,424
167,132
160,629
ForestrySA Forest Reserves
Wirrabara and Bundaleer
Mount Crawford
Kuitpo and Second Valley
South East
Source: ‘Australia’s Plantations 2006’ - Dept of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 14 of 35
Mixed
or
other
Total
3,646
5,453
5,148
67,555
Forest Industries
Forests and plantations contribute many things
to society, the economy and the environment.
These include:
Products from trees:
• Trunks - telegraph poles, piers for
wharves and bridges, railway sleepers,
posts for building and agriculture,
timber for housing, furniture and boats,
veneers for furniture and plywood, craft
wood. Offcuts and waste are used for
firewood or pulpwood.
• Leaves - floristry, essential oils,
extracts used for medicinal, cosmetic
and industrial purposes.
• Flowers, fruit and honey - a source of
pollen and nectar for honey-producing
bees, edible foods, seeds and floral
decorations.
Blue gum flowers.
• Large branches - woodchips, pulpwood,
craft wood, firewood and essential oils.
Cellulose for paper, rayon, cellophane,
photographic film, biofuel, cardboard
etc. Lignin for fertilisers, plastics,
ceramics and tanning.
• Bark - oil, dye, tannin, compost and
medicines.
• Saps - used in paints, varnishes, soaps,
oils, waxes, explosives, printing inks,
disinfectants, perfumes, chewing gum,
glues and ointments.
• Stumps - timber veneers, craft work,
boat building and firewood. Can be
distilled or treated to produce pine oil,
resin, turpentine, charcoal and wood
tar.
Recreation - walking, cycling, camping,
horse riding, bushwalking and
photography.
Nature-based tourism - activities such as
walking, rafting, caving and guided tours
in forests. Generates employment, often
in rural communities.
Ecotourism - tries to have as little impact
on the environment as possible. It also
encourages tourists to become more
active in the conservation of the areas
they are visiting and often includes
education on ecology, culture and land
use.
Education - about plants, animals,
forestry, sustainability and the
environment.
Grazing - farmers are sometimes allowed
to graze their stock in well-established
plantation forests (but not in newlyplanted ones because they would probably
eat the seedlings!). This provides food for
the animals and also helps to reduce the
amount of potential fuel for fires on the
forest floor.
Find Out More
National Association of Forest Industries - www.nafi.com.au
Australian Plantation Products and Paper Industry Council - www.a3p.asn.au
Green Traingle Regional Plantation Committee - www.gtplantations.org
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 15 of 35
Products from Timber
Solid Timber Mills
Large solid timber mills deal with mass
production of timber products – such as
flooring, construction grade timber, furniture
components and lining – with lower grade
products marketed for pallets, and waste sold
as wood chips. These mills are designed to
produce large volumes of standard products,
and, as with any mass produced item, the aim
of production is to ensure a standard quality
and performance, low cost, fast production
time and large output.
4. Some boards are then turned on their
edge and split down the middle.
5. Boards are sorted and stored in racks
according to their thickness and length.
6. Racks are moved to an area for pre-drying,
reconditioning and final drying.
7. After final drying, racks are stacked in a
yard until closer to the time of sale.
8. Sometimes boards are cut to size or
dressed (planed, moulded, tongueand-grooved) and packed for individual
customers.
Plywood
Plywood was the first type of ‘engineered
wood’ to be invented. Engineered wood is
manufactured by binding together wood
particles or fibres with strong glues.
Timber used for building materials.
A typical log processing operation includes the
following steps:
1. Logs are cut, using a large bandsaw or
twin circular saws, into manageable sized
pieces.
2. Another saw then cuts the boards into
standard thicknesses (e.g. 16mm, 25mm
or 50mm).
3. The third saw (the ‘edger’) – trims the
heartwood and sapwood off each board.
Plywood is made from thin sheets of wood,
called plies, which are stacked together at
right angles to each other and then bonded
under heat and pressure. It is generally used
in furniture manufacture, construction, boat
building, flooring, panelling and concrete
formwork because it is stronger and less likely to
crack, shrink, twist or warp than natural wood.
Plywood meant for indoor use uses cheaper
urea-formaldehyde glue which has limited
water resistance, while outdoor and marinegrade plywoods are designed to withstand rot
and are made with a water-resistant phenolformaldehyde glue.
Veneer
Firewood and wood chips.
When veneer logs arrive at the mill they are
graded, cut into standard lengths, and graded
again. They are then cut into slices called
flitches, using special laser-guided saws. The
flitches can have different patterns, depending
on how they are placed in the saw.
Find Out More
Forest and Wood Products Research & Development Corporation - www.timber.org.au
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 16 of 35
Products from Timber
The flitches are then heated in large vats
of water to make them easier to slice and
stop them rolling up into tight balls. They
are ‘grooved’ with a chainsaw, to stop them
ripping during handling, and then sliced into
leaves that are only 0.6mm thick.
The leaves are dried, stacked, cooled, graded,
trimmed and either sold as they are for further
processing, or glued together for uses such as
flooring and furniture.
Pulp, Paper and Particleboard
Indoor and outdoor furniture.
The production of these items is often carried
out simultaneously by large companies which
obtain supplies from their own plantations,
other forests and sawmills, or from overseas.
Preserved Timber Products
Timber can be processed into pulp either
chemically or mechanically. The wood fibres
have to be separated from each other and then
re-formed into ‘mats’ of various thicknesses,
with additives such as bleaching agents,
glues, colouring pigments, preservatives or
fire retardants.
Softwoods are more prone to decay and
rot than hardwoods, but they also absorb
preservatives more easily. More recently the
less toxic arsenic-free treatment (tanalith) is
used to preserve timber.
Timber is preserved to help ensure that it can
withstand rain, frost, sun, decay and fungal
and insect attack when used outside.
Preserved timber is used for framing, flooring,
weatherboards, decking, window frames,
fences, landscaping, playgrounds, power
poles and boats.
Other Uses for Wood
Timber can also be used for pallets,
packaging, craft items, toy and instrument
making and furniture production.
Timber is also made into artworks, packing
cases, wine barrels, cellulose batts for
insulation, cardboard, firewood, mulch, fibre
adhesives, packaging and pet litter.
Books and packaging, including cellophane.
High-quality printing paper is produced by
processing eucalypt, radiata pine, or imported
hardwood pulp, while newsprint combines
radiata and eucalypt pulp with recycled fibres.
Particleboard is a reconstituted product made
by coating wood particles in resin and forming
them into sheets under heat and pressure.
Wood used as fuel to generate electricity.
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 17 of 35
How Pine Forests are Managed
Plantation Forest Cycle (Radiata Pine)
Seed collection - Mature pine cones are
harvested from the seed orchards and when
they open, the seed is collected. Seed orchards
produce seed of a particular genetic make-up,
using special breeding programs based on
research results.
Propagation - Young pine trees are raised in
tree nurseries either from seed or from cuttings
taken from trees with good genes for growing
timber.
Breeding programs have enabled foresters
to produce superior trees on the basis of
growth rate, stem form and wood quality.
Characteristics such as fast growth rate, stem
straightness, small branches, few knots and
disease resistance are achieved by breeding
from high-quality parent trees.
Pine trees can also be propagated from
cuttings. Cuttings are taken from near the end
of a branch and when placed in a nursery bed
will produce roots and develop into a new plant
which is genetically identical to the parent
plant. This is known as vegetative propagation.
Genetically-superior trees are often kept just as
a source of cuttings.
and diameter, with the same wood properties.
The main disadvantage of using cloned plants
is the lack of genetic variability within a forest,
making it more susceptible to disease or insect
attack.
Seedlings or cuttings are grown in a nursery
for 9 to 12 months before being planted out.
Land preparation - The soil is cultivated
usually either by ripping to about 600 mm,
mound ploughing or spot mounding. Foresters
are trying to use low-residue methods of
logging so that the leftover branches from
previous plantings can be mulched rather than
windrowed (bulldozed into heaps and burnt).
Planting - Seedlings and rooted cuttings are
lifted from their nursery beds and taken to the
forest site for planting out. Depending on site
conditions, seedlings are either planted by
hand or machinery. Approximately 1,600 trees
are planted per hectare. Young trees are kept
free of weeds for the first couple of seasons
to minimise competition for water, light and
nutrients, and they are protected from grazing
by animals.
Another type of vegetative propagation is
cloning.
A clone is one of a group of offspring which
are identical. Each individual has the same
genes as the original plant from which the
clone was made. Clones can be created using
cuttings, but more commonly it is done in
a laboratory using tissue culture. All tissue
culture propagation is carried out under sterile
conditions. The original seed embryo can yield
up to 100,000 plantlets.
The advantage of growing forests from clones
developed from high-quality radiata pine trees
is that the trees will be more uniform in height
Find Out More
www.pir.sa.gov.au/forestry/publications_index
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 18 of 35
Bark being stripped from a tree.
How Pine Forests are Managed
processing. ForestrySA practises low-residue
logging, which uses larger leftover timber for
woodchips and other products and mulches
the smaller branches.
Replanting - The area is now prepared for
replanting and the cycle begins again.
Forest Protection
An important part of forest management is
protecting the forest asset from insect attack,
disease and fire damage. (see Forest Pests and
Diseases).
Tools and equipment used by foresters.
Pruning - Pruning improves the quality and
value of wood. In some plantations, the lower
branches are pruned from trees when young to
produce clearwood which is free of knots and
is used for furniture, veneer and plywood.
Thinning - Trees are initially planted quite close
together to encourage them to grow tall and
straight as they compete for light. Thinning
involves removing some of the poorer-quality
trees to give more space to the remaining
trees. The culled logs from the first thinning
are often treated with preservatives and
used as fence posts or other outdoor timber,
or can be pulped to make paper. Thinnings
occur about every five to ten years, until the
plantation is fully mature and the trees are cut
and replanted.
What is Sustainable Forest Management?
Forest managers aim to ensure that forests
are used sustainably. Sustainable use means
finding a balance between meeting our present
needs for resources while conserving natural
resources and protecting the environment
for the benefit of future generations. In
plantation forestry this involves balancing
timber harvesting and replanting to ensure a
continuing supply of wood.
Forest land is being used sustainably if all
plant and animal species occurring within
forests and their habitats are being conserved
and protected, and if the forests continue to
protect our soil, water and air resources.
Harvesting - Mature trees are harvested for
large diameter sawlogs at 30 to 50 years
of age, depending on site conditions and
growth rate. Trees for other uses, such as
pulpwood or smaller logs, are harvested
earlier, at 30 to 35 years. The logs are removed
from the forest and taken to a sawmill for
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 19 of 35
Water and Landscape
Forests are an important part of our biological
wealth. Humans harvest resources such as
wood from forests but just as important are
the habitat they provide and the role they play
in improving the quality of our air and water.
Forests help protect soil from erosion and filter
rainwater that flows off the land into creeks,
rivers and lakes. The tree canopies break the
fall of rain and the undergrowth and litter on
the soil surface slow the surface run-off after
rain. The risk of soil erosion and siltation of
streams is reduced if water soaks gently into
the soil and is gradually released into creeks.
Foresters are able to protect water catchments
by the way in which they manage their forests
and plantations.
What is a Catchment?
A catchment is an area of land that drains
runoff water into the gullies, creeks and
rivers that take it to the sea or an inland
lake. Catchments can vary in size from small
areas which drain into a local creek, to
the huge Murray-Darling Basin catchment
which includes many smaller
subcatchments.
Forest Landcare
Good land and water management mean that
forest plantations can be maintained in an
environmentally-sustainable manner.
Sound management of forested land is an
important part of catchment management,
particularly in improving the quality of
water run-off and allowing recharging of
groundwater reserves.
Good land management should ensure that
plantation forestry is sustainable, and will take
into account erosion control, water quality,
soil fertility and structure, native flora and
fauna, pests and diseases, and landscape and
heritage values.
A forest management plan is developed which
involves mapping and assessing soil types,
mapping watercourses and documenting
natural, social and recreational values.
This process identifies land capability - the
suitability and sustainability of sites for
particular uses. The plan defines how the
land is to be managed to cause minimal
Many different environments
and land uses are found within
a catchment. All these are linked
by the water that drains through
them. Catchment management
aims to protect the quality of
water resources by balancing
environmental values with human
activities.
For catchment management
to be successful, it needs to
involve landowners, government,
community groups and Natural
Resource Management Boards.
Catchment management
programs need medium to longterm planning that looks ahead
for at least five to ten years.
This catchment shows a river running through a forest
alongside agricultural activities.
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 20 of 35
Water and Landscape
environmental damage. It also includes
plantation design, including firebreaks,
tracks and roads, and planning for harvesting
operations.
Plantation sites are assessed for factors such
as:
potential risk of soil erosion (by wind and
water)
soil drainage, texture and depth
degree of rockiness
soil fertility
slope
A growing forest, whether native or planted,
will reduce the risk of soil erosion. Most
plantation forests have retained native forest
in environmentally-sensitive areas, such as
steep hillsides, along watercourses and around
swamps.
Plantation planning takes into account site
preparation (e.g. soil cultivation methods and
weed control), access tracks, harvesting and
other activities which could result in increased
risk of soil erosion or water pollution.
Planting and harvesting are the stages which
pose the greatest risk to water quality in the
catchment. Areas to be planted are cultivated
only along the planting lines (rather than
cleared completely) to leave as many plants as
possible to stabilise the soil. Wind and water
erosion are usually only a problem until the
trees grow and protect the site.
The use of chemicals - herbicides, pesticides
and fertilisers - is kept to a minimum in forest
plantations to limit the risk of soil and water
pollution, and to reduce costs. Chemicals are
used only for appropriate purposes and at
recommended rates.
Harvesting operations - extraction, loading and
haulage of logs are planned to have minimum
soil disturbance and impact on water run-off.
Some of the factors that are taken into account
include the weight of the loaded vehicle,
movement of machinery, and planning of
tracks through the plantation to minimise the
risk of environmental impact, in particular soil
compaction and water run-off. Operations are
halted when the soil is waterlogged or if water
is running along forest tracks. Tracks are kept
in good repair and are restored to their original
condition when harvesting is finished.
Plantations and Groundwater
Recent CSIRO research has analysed the
competing claims of forest plantations,
irrigators and householders for groundwater.
Groundwater is the source of domestic water
supplies for many areas of South Australia and
is also vital for irrigated agriculture.
Although not an irrigated crop, researchers
found that plantations were efficient users
of water and prevented nearly all rainwater
from reaching the groundwater. Rain falling
on shallow-rooted annual crops and pastures
is much more likely to leak past the root zone
and enter the groundwater. If the water table
is less than about five metres from the surface
and is accessible to the tree roots, plantations
may actually use groundwater. In most cases,
actively growing plantations utilise more
rainfall than native forests or grasslands.
The forest industry is working with the
Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity
Conservation and CSIRO to monitor the water
use of plantations.
The forest industry has a long term view of
sustainability and seeks to balance its water
needs with those of irrigation, domestic water
supply and the environment.
Find Out More
www.csiro.au (Search for water, forests, plantations, etc)
SA Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation - www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 21 of 35
Fire
Wildfire
Wildfire is the greatest threat to plantations.
Foresters undertake programs to reduce the
amount of flammable material in and around
plantations. This is done by clearing dense
undergrowth by the use of slashing, spraying,
or grazing. Such measures can prevent small
fires from becoming full-scale forest fires.
Many animals may be killed directly as a result
of the fire through burning or suffocation, or
indirectly through loss of shelter and food
sources. Some small animals suffer not only
from the effects of wildfire, but also from
increased predation by birds, foxes and other
animals because there is less vegetation in
which to shelter. Populations of native animals
can recolonise from nearby unburnt areas as
the vegetation recovers.
A matter of months after a fire the native forest
will have started to regenerate. New shoots
will be appearing from burnt and blackened
trunks and branches, and young seedlings will
have started to grow.
If fires occur more often than once every five to
seven years, some shrubby plant species may
disappear because it takes them up to seven
years to be mature enough to produce seeds.
Wildfire is the greatest threat to plantations.
Firebreaks are maintained along forest
boundaries and forest roads and tracks. These
breaks can help stop small fires from jumping
between sections of the forest.
Losses due to fire in South Australia’s
plantations are usually less than one per
cent per year. The most significant losses to
date were in the Ash Wednesday wildfires of
February 1983 when 19,734 ha of plantation
forests were burnt in the South East and the
Mount Lofty Ranges. However, over half the
timber was salvaged and stored under water
or did not deteriorate significantly and were
successfully processed for wood products.
Fire and Native Forests
Fire has been a significant factor in the ecology
of Australia’s native forests. Most plant species
have survival mechanisms which allow them to
either recover or regenerate after wildfire.
Find Out More
Many Australian plant species have features
that allow them to live through fire, including:
Lignotubers – large underground swollen
roots that store food and contain a mass
of dormant buds. If the tree is damaged,
new shoots rapidly grow from these buds,
enabling the plant to survive.
Woody fruits and cones protect their seeds
during fires (e.g. banksias and hakeas).
Epicormic buds on the tree’s branches and
trunk which sprout when triggered by a
stress such as a wildfire which severely
damages the crown (e.g. eucalypts).
Hard seed coats that require heat or
smoke to break dormancy (e.g. acacias).
Thick bark which acts as insulation,
allowing the tree to survive moderate fires
(e.g. some eucalypts).
Foresters carry out controlled burns in native
forests to reduce the risk of wildfires, and
stimulate new growth.
Association for Fire Ecology - www.fireecology.net SA Country Fire Service - www.cfs.org.au
Victorian Country Fire Authority - www.cfa.vic.gov.au
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 22 of 35
Forest Pests and Diseases
Pests & Diseases of Radiata Pine
Radiata pine, being an introduced species,
has relatively few serious insect pests and
diseases. Plantations are monitored regularly
for signs of insect damage or disease and
appropriate action is taken if a pest or disease
is detected. In addition, strict quarantine
regulations exist to control the entry of new
diseases or forest pests into Australia.
Despite this, several pests and diseases have
been accidentally introduced into Australia and
have become established in pine plantations.
Major insect pests include:
Sirex Wood Wasp (Sirex noctilio)
The Sirex wood wasp is a major pest of pine
trees. It is present in radiata pine plantations
throughout all pine growing areas in south
eastern Australia. Sirex has caused millions
of dollars worth of damage and many millions
have been spent on controlling it.
The female wasp bores holes into the tree and
lays her eggs into the wood. At the same time,
she inserts a toxic mucus and a pathogenic
fungus (Amylostereum areolatum) into the
wood. The eggs hatch and the larvae tunnel
through the wood, feeding on the fungus which
grows and spreads throughout the tree. The
mucus and fungus block the flow of water and
nutrients and kill the tree. The larvae pupate
inside the tree and the adult wasp chews its
way out through circular holes in the trunk.
Biological control programs, involving the
release of several wasp parasitoids and
a nematode have been very successful in
keeping this pest under control. The nematode,
Beddingia siridicola, is inoculated into trap
trees and naturally-infested Sirex trees. It
invades the Sirex larvae and the resulting Sirex
adults are rendered sterile.
Bark Beetle
Bark Beetles (Ips grandicollis)
Bark beetles occur in most pine plantations,
where they usually attack timber and branches
left behind by logging operations. They may
also attack dead trees or trees that have been
weakened by drought or stressed in some way.
In long dry summers, they may attack and kill
living trees. The male chews a tunnel through
the bark into the cambium of the tree and this
is where the female lays her eggs. The eggs
hatch and the larvae feed on the cambium
tissue. The adult Bark Beetle carries a fungus
(Ceratocystis ips) which grows in the sapwood
resulting in a blue stain in the wood. This
causes downgrading of the timber quality.
Bark beetles can be partially controlled by
clearing up residues after trees have been
felled. A biological control program, using
wasp parasitoids introduced into Australia, has
been used to control these pests.
Monterey Pine Aphid (Essigella
californica)
A more recent introduction into Australia is the
Monterey Pine Aphid (Essigella californica).
This is now widespread throughout Australia.
It is a sap-sucking insect and is associated
with mild to severe defoliation. It is one of the
Find Out More
PIRSA Forestry - www.pir.sa.gov.au/forestry/programs/forest_health
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 23 of 35
Forest Pests and Diseases
causes of premature defoliation in pines (other
causes include drought and disease). All ages
of trees are affected and thinned forests seem
to be more susceptible. Some trees are also
thought to be genetically more vulnerable.
The aphids attack the older needles first and
this often results in tufts of the current year’s
needles being left on the tips of the branches.
A biological control program involving the
importation of a wasp parasitoid from North
America is currently underway.
Pests and Diseases of Hardwoods
Eucalypts, being native to Australia, have
evolved in association with a wide range of
insects. In general this association is one
in which trees and insects live together in a
balanced relationship and only rarely do the
insects build up to such numbers that they
damage the trees. In plantations, where usually
only one species of tree is present, the balance
is much more delicate and outbreaks of insect
‘pests’ frequently occur. While there will always
be some damage, it is only when this damage
reaches an unacceptable level that a decision
has to be made about whether to take action to
control the insect concerned.
The aim is not to eradicate every individual
pest insect but to keep pest insect population
numbers down to a level where significant
damage does not occur. For practical purposes,
this level depends not only on the insect
concerned, but also on the size of the trees,
the part of the tree attacked, the duration and
intensity of the attack and the time of year the
attack occurs. If the damage is likely to cause
considerable loss of growth, or perhaps death
of trees, action is required to control the pest.
Plantation trees are particularly vulnerable
during the first two or three years after planting.
Of the thousands of insects that feed on native
trees, only a few have come to be regarded as
pests. These include: wingless grasshoppers,
spitfires (sawflies), autumn gum moth larvae,
chrysomelid beetles, cockchafer and spring
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 24 of 35
Eucalypt Weevil
beetles, borers such as longicorn beetles,
scale insects, psyllids and lerps. Damage may
be to leaves (leaf skeletonising, chewed leaves),
stems, roots or wood.
Several diseases cause spots and lesions
on leaves which lead to premature leaf drop,
dieback of twigs or branches and occasionally,
death of the tree. Severe infections weaken
plants and make them more susceptible to
attack by insects such as borers.
Phytophthora (Phytophthora cinnamomi)
Phytophthora causes dieback of many native
and introduced plants, including ornamentals,
vines, fruits and vegetables, as well as forestry
trees. It is listed as a key threatening process to
Australian native species. A ‘Threat Abatement
Plan for Dieback caused by Phytophthora
cinnamomi’ has been developed at the national
level, and South Australia has developed
management guidelines to prevent the spread
and minimise the effect of this disease on the
environment. Phytophthora has been found in
plantations in the central and southern Mount
Lofty Ranges. Forestry practices (e.g. avoiding
moving infected soil from one plantation
to another via vehicles and equipment) are
important in preventing the spread of this
pathogen.
Forest Pests and Diseases
General Insect Control Measures
The control measures applied depend on the
insect involved, as well as the extent of the
infestation, and such factors as the age of
the tree, etc. Many insect problems are only
identified after severe damage has occurred
and by this time it is often too late for control
measures to be effective. Control measures
include:
Cultural control - selecting species that are
suitable for the site, growing several species
of trees and not planting them too close
together. A diverse range of plant species
provides food and habitat for beneficial insects
and insectivorous birds. Trees growing in
unsuitable conditions may survive but will be
under stress and are far more susceptible to
attack by insects than healthy trees.
chemicals to use against sap-sucking insects.
All insecticides should be used with care as
they may also kill natural insect predators and
can be dangerous to people. It is important to
identify what insect is present and the damage
it is causing before using chemical control. It
is also very important to only use chemicals
that are registered for use against the pest that
is being controlled, and to apply the chemical
as per the label directions. Directions for use
must be strictly followed and adequate safety
precautions need to taken when handling and
using chemicals.
Integrated pest management (IPM) - is a
combination of all the above methods of control
and is the key to responsible management of
insect pests and diseases.
Natural or biological control - control of pests
by the use of parasitoids, predators and
pathogens. Parasitoids include wasps and
flies. Predators include birds, spiders and other
insects such as ladybird beetles, hoverflies,
lacewings and assassin bugs. Pathogens
include fungi, viruses and bacteria.
Physical or mechanical control - removing
pests by hand and then destroying them. If
scale is a problem, adhesive bands can be
placed around the trunk of the tree to catch
ants feeding on the honeydew. Ants prevent
predators attacking the scale, so if they are
kept away, predators can then have access to
the scale.
Chemical control - it may sometimes be
necessary to use chemicals to control insect
pests. The type of chemical used and the
timing of its application is critical. Insecticides
should only be used when damage levels
become unacceptable. Chemicals can be
contact or stomach poisons (which kill on
contact or when ingested) or can be systemic
(i.e. they are taken up by the plant, and insects
subsequently feeding on the plant are killed).
Systemic insecticides are the most effective
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 25 of 35
Farm Forestry
Another type of forestry is called Farm
Forestry (or Agroforestry). It combines
timber growing and agricultural
production on the same land.
Two main types of farm forestry are
practised in Australia:
Strategically-placed timber
plantations on farms.
Strategically-placed shelter belts
on farms, managed to produce
timber products while providing
shelter for agricultural crops and
animals.
Radiata pine (Pinus radiata) has
traditionally been the main species
used for farm forestry. Nowadays,
there is growing interest in planting
eucalypt, acacia, sheoak and cypress
trees.
Farm forestry allows for a combination of timber growing and
other agricultural activities to be conducted on the same land.
A range of products may be produced
from farm forestry plantations and shelter
belts, depending upon what tree species are
used, and how the trees are managed.
PIRSA Forestry promotes farm forestry. Staff
are available to visit farms to provide advice on
what trees to plant, and where to plant them.
Sawlogs and veneer logs are the most valuable
farm forestry products, but landholders need
to wait for over twenty years before sawlogs or
veneer logs are ready for harvest.
Landowners and private investors are also
encouraged to grow radiata pine plantations to
supply the well-established softwood industry
in South Australia.
Woodchips (for pulp and paper production)
may also be produced. Trees grown
specifically for woodchips can be harvested
after about ten years. Tasmanian blue gum
(Eucalyptus globulus) is grown for woodchips
in South Australia.
The main objective of farm forestry is to
increase the total productivity of the land by
producing timber products, while helping to
control erosion, reduce salinity and provide
shelter for livestock and windbreaks for crops.
Find Out More
Primary Industries and Resources South Australia - www.pir.sa.gov.au/forestry
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 26 of 35
The History of Forestry in South Australia
Aboriginal People
Aboriginal people have been managing native
forests in Australia for at least 50,000 years
in order to provide themselves with food and
shelter. By harvesting plants and animals and
by burning regularly, the nature of Australia’s
forests was transformed from a dense forest
to an open woodland. The forest environment
eventually reached a balance where the
Aboriginal people were able to meet their
needs in a sustainable fashion.
The Early Years
In the early decades of European settlement
in South Australia, large areas of land were
cleared for farming and livestock grazing.
Timber cutters worked in the forests of the
Mount Lofty and Lower Flinders Ranges
cutting native trees such as stringy bark,
blue gum and red gum to supply timber for
the developing colony. Timber was used
for building construction, roofing, fencing,
jetty piles and decking, and later, for railway
sleepers, telegraph poles and supports for
mine shafts and tunnels.
By 1875 however, the government was
becoming concerned about the rapidly
diminishing native timber due to over cutting.
This prompted the formation of the Forest
Board and later in 1882, the Woods and Forest
Harvesting a tree in the early days.
Department. Their task was to control the
cutting of native timber and to investigate the
practicality of plantation forestry.
Two Men of Vision
The early decades of the Woods and Forests
Department were directed by two men of vision
- John Ednie Brown and Walter Gill. The area of
forestry plantations increased greatly under
their guidance. J.E.Brown was a great advocate
for planting trees in farming districts as he was
“firm in his conviction that rainfall followed
tree growth”, a view that was not supported by
some members of the Forest Board.
Brown promoted tree planting in railway yards
and reservoir reserves and the remnants of
these plantings can still be seen in Adelaide
and rural areas. He also introduced Arbor
Day to South Australian schools with the first
celebrations held on 20 June 1889. Brown
resigned in 1890 to become the Director
General of Forests in New South Wales.
The next Conservator was Walter Gill, who
held the position until 1923. Gill was a
nurseryman and pastoralist who had managed
the Wirrabara Forest Nursery from 1886. He
quickly proved the value of radiata pine (or
remarkable pine as it was then known) from an
economic standpoint, by producing thousands
of pine fruit boxes at Wirrabara Forest. Gill was
also a skilful photographer and many of the
early photographic records of forestry in South
Australia are the result of his efforts.
Early Nurseries and Plantations
Forest nurseries were started at Wirrabara and
Bundaleer in the mid-north and near Mount
Gambier in the south-east. The first forest
plantation was established at Bundaleer in
1876 and included a large number of different
tree species planted on a trial basis. The early
plantings were mainly of native eucalypts,
hardwoods from Europe and various conifers
from Europe and North America. Only some
of these species grew well enough to be
considered for commercial planting.
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 27 of 35
The History of Forestry in South Australia
The Remarkable Pine
One of the most successful species was
radiata pine, also known as remarkable pine, a
native of the Monterey Peninsula in California.
Various legends exist as to how this tree came
to Australia – as ballast in colliers backloading
from California, or as seeds or plants brought
home by miners returning from the Californian
goldfields. An avenue of Pinus radiata had
been planted at the Adelaide Botanic Garden
in about 1866.
The earliest plantations in the south-east were
at Mount Muirhead, near Millicent; Mount
McIntyre, near Mount Burr; and the Cave
Range Forest Reserve, near Naracoorte.
enabled radiata pine to be used for building
and construction purposes.
World War II provided another boost for the use
of locally-produced timber. Imports were both
uncertain and expensive and it became evident
that locally-grown radiata pine could meet the
state’s demands.
In the 1950s pilot trials investigated the
preservation of radiata pine timber using
creosote oil or copper-chromium-arsenic salts.
Small logs began to be used for particle board
in 1957. Pressure-preservative-treated timber
for electricity and communication poles was
introduced in the 1960s.
By 1918, the Government had reserved
111,909 acres (45,290 ha) of land for forestry.
By 1900 the number of species being planted
had been reduced to about half a dozen - sugar
gum and five pine species: radiata, Aleppo,
pinaster, Corsican and Canary Island. Of
these, the performance of radiata pine was
outstanding on most soils and sites within the
higher rainfall areas of South Australia.
Years of Expansion
Plantations continued to expand in the 1920s
and 1930s. During this period, private forestry
companies commenced operations as growers
and timber millers.
The Woods and Forests Department started
milling plantation softwood at Wirrabara in
1902.
Radiata pine was slow to be accepted, mainly
because of the ready supply of high-grade,
mature Baltic pine and Oregon timbers from
the old-growth forests of North America
and Europe. This situation changed with the
introduction of seasoning kilns which used
hot air and steam to dry the timber. Drying
Find Out More
www.forestry.sa.gov.au/history.stm
www.pir.sa.gov.au/aghistory
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 28 of 35
Early forester accommodation.
Laminated Veneer Lumber technology was
introduced in 1986 enabling construction
beams to be manufactured to any lengths from
smaller trees.
Large scale commercial plantings of Tasmanian
blue gums commenced in the mid 1990s, to
supply woodchips for the manufacture of paper
products. By 2006, over 42,000 had been
established.
The History of Forestry in South Australia
SA Forestry Timeline
1870
Concerns raised in SA Parliament about over-harvesting of the colony’s native forests
1875
Forest Board appointed by SA Government to begin plantation-based forestry
1876
First forests planted at Bundaleer, Wirrabara and Mount Gambier
1900 Radiata pine identified as the most valuable plantation timber tree for SA
1902
First government sawmill opens at Wirrabara
1907
Large-scale planting commences in South East
1925
Private sector interest in forestry grows during the mid 1920s
1928 CSIRO perfects techniques to make paper from pine
1931
Unemployment relief camps set up and the forestry workforce doubles
1939
Veneer mill opens at Mount Gambier
1941
First pulp mill in SA opens near Millicent
1957
Mount Gambier State Sawmill opens – then the largest in the southern hemisphere
1959
First wood preservation plant opens in Mount Gambier
1960 Apcel open large pulp mill at Snuggery
1960 Panelboard particleboard plant opens at Mount Gambier
1968 First chipping of log residues
1983 Ash Wednesday fires burn vast areas of forests in the Mount Lofty Ranges and South
East. Replanting is completed by the early 1990s.
1986 Laminated Veneer Lumber technology introduced enabling construction beams to be
manufactured to any length
1998 Large scale planting of Tasmanian blue gums commences to supply chip for the
manufacture of paper products
2006 Plantations cover 167,132 ha of SA (including over 42,000 ha of blue gums) and
support a $700 million timber growing and processing industry employing more than
7,600 people
References
Wakefield companion to South Australia’s History - Wakefield Press 2001 (Article by Robinson and
Johnston).
‘A Hundred Years of Forestry’ - W&F Department 1975.
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 29 of 35
Having Fun in Forests
South Australia’s forest reserves are important
places for a variety of community activities
and ForestrySA has a policy of providing
recreational facilities and encouraging public
use of the State’s forests.
Visitors are welcome to enjoy activities such as
camping, picnicking, walking, hiking, horse and
bike riding, caving, orienteering, bird-watching
and gold fossicking. A number of major events,
such as dog sled races, horse endurance rides,
car rallies, field days and music events, are
held in forest reserves each year.
The most popular forest reserves in South
Australia are Mount Crawford, Kuitpo,
Bundaleer, Wirrabara, and to a lesser extent,
Second Valley and the South East forests.
Surveys show that the Adelaide Hills forests of
Mount Crawford and Kuitpo have over 200,000
visitors per year.
Permits are required for some activities, such
as camping, horse riding, fossicking and
firewood collection. Visitors should be mindful
of other people using the forests. As off-road
vehicles can damage the forest environment,
vehicle access is restricted to designated roads
and tracks. All other tracks are for forestry
use only. Exercising of dogs in forest reserves
is permitted, providing the animals are under
control at all times. Domestic animals are not
permitted in Native Forest Reserves.
and you can go gold fossicking in the Watts
Gully area. The Heysen Trail passes through
both forests and a number of forest huts can
be hired.
Bundaleer and Wirrabara Forests
Bundaleer and Wirrabara Forests are ideal
places for picnicking, camping and walking.
Both forests include secluded creek lines and
hilly range country. A variety of walks are
available, of varying lengths and difficulty.
Both the Heysen and Mawson trails traverse
the Bundaleer Forest. Both forests have a
number of historic sites, including the old
nursery, charcoal burning pits and arboretum
at Wirrabara, and the trial species plantings at
Bundaleer.
South East Forests
The South East forests are primarily for wood
production but they have many attractive
places for picnicking, walking, cycling and
horseriding.
Other Forests
Many National and Conservation Parks have
forests that are open to visitors, but private
forests are on private land and can therefore
only be visited if you have permission from the
landholder.
Access to forest reserves may be restricted
during the Fire Danger Season, so visitors
need to check with the Forest Ranger before
their visit.
Mount Crawford and Kuitpo Forests
These forests are great for picnicking,
camping, forest walks and hiking. The Mawson
Trail passes through Mount Crawford Forest
Forests are a great place to go camping.
Find Out More
Forest Reserves - www.forestry.sa.gov.au
National and Conservation Parks - www.environment.sa.gov.au
Other forest owners - www.pir.sa.gov.au/forestry/useful_links
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 30 of 35
Getting Involved
Getting Involved
There are a number of ways in which you can
help preserve South Australia’s precious
native forests.
How Can You Help?
You can be involved in any of the following
activities:
flora and fauna monitoring
seed collection and revegetation
control of pine regrowth and weed species
in conservation areas
construction of nest boxes and visitor
furniture
removal of rubbish from conservation
areas
maintaining heritage buildings and sites
maintaining walking trails and information
signs and providing services at
information centres.
A seedling being planted.
Friends of the Forests
Friends of the Forests is a volunteer
organisation established by ForestrySA
to enable volunteers to assist in a range
of projects to help protect and improve
conservation areas, heritage sites and visitor
facilities in Forest Reserves.
Friends of Parks
The Department for Environment and Heritage
supports a wide range of volunteer programs
including local park management, Waterwatch
and Frog Census. Activities occur across South
Australia.
Find Out More
Friends of the Forest - www.forestry.sa.gov.au/pdf/volunteers.pdf
Friends of Parks - www.communitywebs.org/FriendsofParks
Waterwatch - www.sa.waterwatch.org.au
Frog Census - www.epa.sa.gov.au/frogcensus
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 31 of 35
Working in Forests
Plantation forestry is a strongly growing and
sustainable part of South Australia’s economy.
Forestry and forest products industries employ
about 9,000 South Australians. Australia-wide,
forest-based industries employ about 83,000
people.
Employment opportunities within the
forestry sector can be grouped into two main
categories - general and professional:
1) General: Forest Construction Worker,
Log Measurer, Forest Technician, Clerical
Officer. These positions generally do not
need any special qualifications, although
some previous work experience, and/or
being able to use forestry equipment,
would be an advantage. Training for these
positions is provided on the job.
2) Professional: Foresters, Forest Rangers or
Researchers usually need a certificate or
degree from a College of TAFE or University.
Many companies give preference to
members of an industry association (e.g.
Institute of Foresters of Australia).
3) Traineeships: Traineeships are sometimes
available that allow trainees to gain
experience and knowledge while they are
working.
Raising seedlings and tending young trees
in a forest nursery.
Planting of trees.
Applying herbicides and fertilisers (by
hand or knapsack spray).
Pruning trees (using pruners or
chainsaws).
Fire watching and fire fighting.
Maintenance jobs (e.g. fencing, road
maintenance).
Tree selection for thinning operations and
measurement of logs.
Forestry Technicians - responsible for the
data collection used in the management of
forest resources. Duties include:
Setting up field trials and experiments.
Collecting and preliminary processing of
data from trials and experiments.
Measuring trees for the forest data
inventory.
Fire control duties.
Monitoring pest and disease outbreaks.
Supervision of other technicians and
forest workers.
Forestry-based industries are equal
opportunity employers. Positions are open to
all, regardless of gender, race, beliefs or age
(although there are minimum age restrictions
for some traineeships).
Some examples of forestry jobs:
Forest Maintenance Workers - carry out
the general duties associated with the
establishment, maintenance, tending and
protection of forests. The work calls for the
operation of a wide range of machinery and
vehicles, as well as manual skills. Duties
include:
Regeneration and noxious weed control.
Preparing sites for planting.
A forester recording important information.
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 32 of 35
Working in Forests
Entry requirements for these positions include
a minimum of four years secondary education,
with some science and mathematics units.
Foresters - establish and manage forests to
ensure a continuing supply of forest products.
Their duties include:
Formulating forest working plans.
Conducting research.
Developing and managing forest fire
control.
Organising and controlling harvest
operations.
Ensuring that forest management is
sustainable.
Advising government and private owners
on forest policy and practice.
Management and supervision of staff.
A university degree in forestry (or equivalent)
is required. The Bachelor of Science (Forestry)
is offered by various universities, including the
Australian National University, Canberra and
Southern Cross University.
Forest Rangers - assist in the management
of plantation and native forest reserves.
A university degree in forestry or natural
resource management (or equivalent) is
required. Their duties include:
A forester inspecting a log.
The University of Adelaide and the University
of South Australia offer courses in natural
resource management.
Managing recreational activities in
forests.
Conducting law enforcement.
Providing education and information
about forestry to the public.
Organising and controlling recreation
facility construction and maintenance.
Protection and rehabilitation of native
forests.
Find Out More
National Forest Education and Awareness Network www.australianforests.org.au/forestindustries/careers.htm
- Forestry Fact Sheets - Pg 33 of 35