ARTICLE IN PRESS
Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
Non-glacial paleoenvironments and the extent of Weichselian ice
sheets on Severnaya Zemlya, Russian High Arctic
Alexandra Raaba,*, Martin Mellesb, Glenn W. Bergerc, Birgit Hagedornd,
Hans-Wolfgang Hubbertene
a
Institute of Geography, University of Regensburg, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany
Institute for Geophysics and Geology, University of Leipzig, TalstraX e 35, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany
c
Desert Research Institute, Earth and Ecosystem Sciences, 2215 Reggio Parkway, Reno, NV 89512-1095, USA
d
Quaternary Research Center, University of Washington, Johnson Hall 19, Box 351360, Seattle, WA 98195-1360, USA
e
Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Research Unit Potsdam, Telegrafenberg A43, D-14473 Potsdam, Germany
b
Received 15 September 2002; accepted 19 April 2003
Abstract
The extent of the Barents-Kara Sea ice sheet (northern Europe and Russia) during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), in Marine
Isotope Stage (MIS) 2 is controversial, especially along the southern and northeastern (Russian High Arctic) margins. We conducted
a multi-disciplinary study of various organic and mineral fractions, obtaining chronologies with 14C and luminescence dating
methods on a 10.5 m long core from Changeable Lake (4 km from the Vavilov Ice Cap) on Severnaya Zemlya. The numeric ages
indicate that the last glaciation at this site occurred during or prior to MIS 5d-4 (Early Middle Weichselian). Deglaciation was
followed by a marine transgression which affected the Changeable Lake basin. After the regression the basin dried up. In late Middle
Weichselian time (ca 25–40 ka), reworked marine sediments were deposited in a saline water body. During the Late Weichselian
(MIS 2), the basin was not affected by glaciation, and lacustrine sediments were formed which reflect cold and arid climate
conditions. During the termination of the Pleistocene and into the Holocene, warmer and wetter climate conditions than before led
to a higher sediment input. Thus, our chronology demonstrates that the northeastern margin of the LGM Barents-Kara Sea ice
sheet did not reach the Changeable Lake basin. This result supports a modest model of the LGM ice sheet in northern Europe
determined from numeric ice sheet modelling and geological investigations.
r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Knowledge of the geographic extent and thickness of
continental ice sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum
(LGM) is important for modelling of past climates and
sea level (e.g., Peltier, 1994). However, the Russian High
Arctic remains the last continental area, where the LGM
is uncertain (Clark and Mix, 2002). For the Russian
High Arctic, both maximalist (Denton and Hughes,
1981; Grosswald, 1998; Grosswald and Hughes, 2002)
and minimalist (e.g., Velichko et al., 1997; Svendsen
et al., 1999; Gaultieri et al., 2000; Mangerud et al., 2002)
ice-extent estimates have been argued, with some
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-941-943-1572; fax: +49-941-9435032.
E-mail address: [email protected]
(A. Raab).
0277-3791/03/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00139-2
intermediate estimates selected through numerical ice
sheet and solid earth modelling (e.g., Peltier, 1994;
Siegert and Marsiat, 2001; Siegert et al., 2001; Charbit
et al., 2002).
In northern Europe and northwestern Russia, the
extent of the Barents-Kara Sea ice sheet during the
LGM has remained uncertain. This is largely because of
disagreement over the age of recognized ice-margin
deposits. Mangerud et al. (2002) have reviewed the
glacial geology in northwestern Russia and their
interpretation strongly support a minimalist estimate
for the LGM extent of the Barents-Kara Sea ice sheet.
Much of the critical evidence comes from luminescence
ages for sand-sized quartz in discontinuous, subaerial
deposits of non-glacial sediments from the Pechora
Lowland (e.g., former beaches, exposed fluvial terraces).
These age estimates range stratigraphically from ca 100
to 20 ka. Finite and lower-limit (‘‘infinite’’) radiocarbon
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A. Raab et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
(14C) ages from related material support these quartz
luminescence age estimates. However, good records of
continuous sedimentation related to this controversy
have not been reported before.
The Taymyr Peninsula (Fig. 1) lies at the northeastern
boundary of the minimalist estimates of the BarentsKara Sea ice sheet (e.g., Svendsen et al., 1999;
Alexanderson et al., 2002; Mangerud et al., 2002). In
this paper we present geological, paleoenvironmental
and geochronological evidence from a 10.5 m long
sediment core from Changeable Lake (Severnaya
Zemlya Archipelago, north of the Taymyr Peninsula)
that provides the first well-dated support from a
continuous sediment record for ice free conditions at
the LGM. We employed a multi-disciplinary approach
to obtain information not only on the glacial history,
but also on past climate and sea-level changes that may
have affected ice expansion and decay.
2. Regional context
In order to use a uniform stratigraphical nomenclature, we follow that proposed by Mangerud (1989):
Early Weichselian (MIS 5d-5a; 117–74 ka); Middle
Weichselian (MIS 4-3, 74–25 ka); Late Weichselian
(MIS 2, 25–10 ka), as suggested by the QUEEN
scientific community (Svendsen et al., 1999).
As summarized by Mangerud et al. (2002) and others
(Thiede et al., 2001), the results of recent field studies
preclude the existence of a large Panarctic Ice Sheet
during the Late Weichselian. Instead, Asian Arctic
glaciation during the Late Weichselian (MIS 2) is
considered to have been restricted to Europe and
Western Siberia, with alpine-valley glaciation in northeastern Siberia (Gaultieri et al., 2000).
In Europe and Western Siberia, glaciation was
somewhat larger during Early/Middle Weichselian times
(MIS 5d-4), than during the LGM when it expanded
.
onto most of the Taymyr Peninsula (Moller
et al., 1999;
Svendsen et al., 1999; Mangerud et al., 2001; Andreev
et al., 2002; Alexanderson et al., 2002) (Fig. 2).
Geomorphological investigations and absolute age
determination (14C, quartz luminescence) of the North
Taymyr ice-marginal zone (NTZ) by Alexanderson et al.
(2001, 2002) indicate that at most a relatively thin Late
Weichselian Kara Ice Sheet had advanced onto only the
northwestern part of the Taymyr Peninsula between 20
and 12 ka. This makes a restricted glaciation on the
Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, as proposed by Makeyev and Bolshiyanov (1986) and Bolshiyanov and
Makeyev (1995), questionable. According to numerical
ice sheet modelling by Siegert, M.J. et al. (1999a, 2001),
and Siegert and Marsiat (2001) a restricted glaciation of
the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago could have occurred
only if the precipitation across the Kara Sea was
suppressed by a polar desert environment.
3. Study site
The Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago is a key area for
the understanding of the Late Quaternary palaeoenvironmental history in the Russian High Arctic. This
region is extremely sensitive to environmental changes,
due to its geographical position both in the high
latitudes and in the transition zone from West Siberian
marine to East Siberian continental climate (Ebel et al.,
1999; Hahne and Melles, 1999; Harwart et al., 1999).
The archipelago is situated in northern Siberia (78–
81 N, 96–106 E), between the Kara Sea to the west and
the Laptev Sea to the east (Fig. 1). The archipelago
consists of more than 30 islands, with the largest being
October Revolution Island, and is the easternmost area
affected by modern glaciation. For instance, the Vavilov
Ice Cap near to Changeable Lake covers 1820 km2 and
rises up to 728 m a.s.l.
The climatic conditions on the Severnaya Zemlya
Archipelago are extremely severe due to the combination of low air temperature (annual mean: 13 to
14 C) and strong winds. The ablation season has
especially changeable weather conditions. Summer
temperatures can rise up to 10–15 C, and snow storms
can also occur in this season, being similar in magnitude
to those in winter (Vaikm.ae et al., 1988). The annual
precipitation on October Revolution Island varies
between 240 and 400 mm, with about 70% falling as
snow. The amount of precipitation depends on the
distance from both the sea and the Vavilov Ice Dome,
which functions as an orographical barrier for air
masses from southwest, causing precipitation to be
highest on the ice cap (Andreev et al., 1997).
The vegetation on the archipelago is typical of polar
desert/high arctic tundra: mosses and lichen dominate,
whereas flowering plants are rare. A larger diversity in
plant species occurs on river terraces in the central parts
of the islands and on climatically favoured sites with
peat growth (Alexandrova, 1988; Andreev et al., 1997).
The Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago belongs to the
Taymyr-Severnaya Zemlya fold area. October Revolution Island consists of Paleozoic highly fractured
sedimentary carbonaceous rocks with Ordovician and
lower Silurian rocks overlain by Quaternary marine
sediments (Bolshiyanov, 1985). The geomorphology of
October Revolution Island is characterized by U-shaped
valleys, cold based glaciers and outwash plains (Makeyev and Bolshiyanov, 1986). Periglacial processes
have produced patterned ground, arctic soils and limited
chemical weathering (Pfeiffer et al., 1996).
Changeable Lake (79 070 N, 95 070 E) is located on
southwestern October Revolution Island, 4 km to the
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2269
Fig. 1. Location of the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago in the Russian High Arctic (Inlet), and map of the archipelago with the Changeable Lake
situated on southwestern October Revolution Island.
southwest of the Vavilov glacier edge (Fig. 1). The lake
lies in an oblong, SSW to NNE trending depression
(Fig. 3a), which penetrates below the Vavilov Ice Dome
and is believed to be an old karst form, developed in
calcareous and gypsiferous bedrock (Bolshiyanov,
1985). Changeable Lake consists of several basins,
divided by sills (Fig. 3b). The lake is 10 km2 large and
at its maximum 18 m deep. The modern lake level is
situated about 6 m a.s.l. This hydrologically open,
hardwater lake is predominantly fed by glacial meltwater (July–September) from the north across an
outwash plain. The outlet is at the south via an o40 m
deep canyon, which leads to the Kara Sea (Bolshiyanov,
1985). The lake has an ice cover most of the year.
4. Methods
4.1. Coring
Sediment coring in Changeable Lake was conducted
in two different basins (Fig. 3b). The cores where
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80˚ N
70˚ N
60˚ N
50˚ N
80˚ N
A. Raab et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
2270
Arctic Ocean
Isles
British
Se
ve
r
Svalbard
10˚ W
Norwegian
Sea
Fran
z Jo
seph
Land
Barents
Sea
ia
Scandinav
Nor th
Sea
a
mly
Ba l ti c
Sea
K a ra
Sea
Yamal
Peninsula
Ridge
em
lya
y
Ta
my
rL
l
ow
an
140˚ E
Le
na
Mt
B
n
L a p t ev
Sea
s.
ga
an
yrr
˚N
70
d
130˚ E
ircle
tic C
?
Arc
Putorana
Plateau
Cen
West
Ob
Sea
U
ral
Mo
Moscow
un
Adria
tic
?
Yenissei
Timan
Sib
eria
120˚ E
tral
pl
n U
and
s
60˚
N
Siberian
tai
40
?
e
aZ
vay
No
0˚
10˚ E
na
ya
Z
ria
ibe
w S ds
Ne Islan
ns
˚N
Plain
20˚ E
ck
la
B
110˚ E
ea
S
50˚ N
n
ea
an
rr
ite
Caspian Sea
ed
M
ea
S
30˚ E
40˚ E
50˚ E
Late Weichselian glacial maximum
- according to various sources
- according to Svendsen et al. (1999)
Aral
Sea
60˚ E
Early / Middle Weichselian glacial maximum
- according to Svendsen et al. (1999)
Quaternary glaciation limit (asynchronous)
- according to various sources
70˚ E
80˚ E
90˚ E
100˚ E
Fig. 2. Quaternary glaciation limit, Early/Middle Weichselian and Late Weichselian glacial maximum ice sheet limits for northern Eurasia, derived
from geological data after Svendsen et al. (1999).
recovered through holes in the ice cover using a
percussion piston corer that consists of steel tubes and
inner PVC liners of 6 cm diameter (Melles et al., 1994).
The sediment record was obtained by coring of
succeeding and partly overlapping up to 3 m long
sections. At sites PG1238 and PG1239 (Fig. 3b), coring
yielded complete sediment successions of 10.5 and
12.7 m lengths, respectively (Fig. 4). Their final depths
were determined by correlation of the overlapping core
sections.
4.2. Laboratory methods
Prior to the opening of the cores, measurements of the
magnetic susceptibility, p-wave velocity (Vp) and
gamma-ray density (GRD) were conducted at intervals
of 1 cm (Multi-Sensor Core Logger MSCL 14, Geotek
corp.) as described by Weber et al. (1997).
The cores were split along their axis into two halves.
Following a photodocumentation and sediment description, smear slides were taken for a first microscopical
investigation of sample characteristics and diatom
content. Subsequently, one core half was subsampled
continuously in 2 cm segments. The subsamples were
freeze-dried and the water content per wet bulk sediment
was calculated from the difference of the wet and the dry
sample. Further sedimentological, mineralogical, geochemical, biogeochemical, geochronological and microfossil analyses were conducted only on core PG1238
which, according to the analyses described above, shows
a comparable sediment succession to that of core
PG1239 (Fig. 4).
Grain-size analyses were carried out on a laser particle
analyser (Galai-CIS) after sample dispersion with
ammonia. The total carbon (TC wt%), total nitrogen
(TN wt%) and total sulphur (TS wt%) contents were
determined with an automatic CNS 932 Mikro analyser
(Leco corp.). The total organic-origin carbon (TOC
wt%) content was measured on corresponding samples
after HCl (10%) acid digestion to remove the carbonate
on a CS-Analyser Metalyt (Eltra corp.). The total
inorganic-origin carbon (TIC wt%) was calculated from
the difference of TC (wt%) and TOC (wt%).
The bulk mineralogy was analysed by X-ray diffraction (Philips PW3020) on powder samples with corundum as standard (5:1) for semi-quantitative analysis
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A. Raab et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
2271
Fig. 3. (A) Sketch map of the Changeable Lake surrounding showing the Changeable Lake depression that penetrates below the Vavilov Ice Cap, the
location of marine sediments in the northeastern catchment and the bed dip inclination of basement rocks (crossed arrows) (Bolshiyanov and
Makeyev, 1995). (B) Bathymetrical map of Changeable Lake showing several basins divided by sills (Bolshiyanov and Makeyev, 1995) and the coring
sites PG1238 and PG1239 in two different basins.
as described by Vogt (1997). The evaluation of the X-ray
spectra was made with the MacDiff 3.3.1 PPC-software
(rby R. Petschik). The results are presented in peak
intensity ratios: Imineral /Icorundum(0 3 0).
The bulk geochemistry was determined by X-ray
fluorescence analysis (SRS 3000, Siemens) on fused glass
beads of lithium tetraborate (6:1). The major element
and trace element concentrations were normalized to
titanum (element/titanum ratio).
Water-soluble cations and anions were extracted by a
method modified from Gerasimov and Glazovskaya
(1965). One gram of sample was mixed with 25 ml
distilled, deionized water, shaken for 3 min, and finally
filtered through a 45 mm mesh sieve. Prior to the
measurement of element concentrations, electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of the water extracts were
determined. Cations were analysed with an Inductively
Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer
(ICP-OES, Perkins Elmer) and anions with an Ion
Chromatograph (IC2001, Eppendorf, Biotronik). For
all chemical analyses international standards (NBS,
SRM) were used to check the analytical precision.
Analytical errors are below 5% for major ions and
anions, and below 10% for trace elements.
14
C dating was conducted by accelerator mass
spectrometry (AMS) on different organic fractions.
Humic acids were extracted by the standard AAAmethod (acid-alkali-acid). One pollen sample was
extracted by a modified method according to Brown
et al. (1989, 1992). This sample was pretreated with the
AAA-method. The silica portion was removed by heavy
liquid (ZnCl2, 2.0 g/cm3) separation and treatment with
HF acid, and 14C dating was carried out on the
pretreated and sieved 20–100 mm pollen fraction. Undetermined insect fragments, undetermined organic
matter and mixed benthic foraminifera were extracted
by wet-sieving (>63 mm), followed by hand-picking
from the dry sample under a stereo microscope. The 14C
dating was carried out at the University of ErlangenNurnberg
.
(Erl) and at the Leibniz Laboratory in Kiel
(Kia). All 14C ages are uncalibrated, and therefore
reported here as ‘‘BP’’. Calibration would not affect our
conclusions.
Infrared-stimulated luminescence (IRSL), multi-aliquot dating (e.g., Aitken, 1998; Berger and Doran, 2001)
was conducted on the polymineral fine-silt fraction, and
blue-photon-stimulated-luminescence (B-PSL) dating of
sand-size (90–180 mm) quartz was carried out by the
single-aliquot-regenerative-dose (SAR) method (e.g.,
Murray and Wintle, 2000). Details of these methods
and results (dose-rate and luminescence data) as well as
full age-interpretation of the results will be published
elsewhere. In order to obtain the required sample size of
2 g quartz for the SAR method, we isolated the sand
from 9.5 and 10.5 cm thick segments by wet sieving.
Further treatment and dating was carried out at the
Nordic Laboratory for Luminescence Dating, Ris^
National Laboratory, in Roskilde (Denmark). Eight
IRSL ages were obtained from feldspar grains in the
fine-silt fraction (4–11 mm) from 2.5 cm thick segments.
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The samples were prepared and dated at the Desert
Research Institute, Reno (USA) by Berger.
4.3. Statistical analysis
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out on
the data of selected water-soluble elements, electrical
conductivity, pH and on selected major and trace
elements. The F-test clearly showed that the differences
in the element composition between individual facies
(see below) are significant. The multiple comparison of
the averages using the LSD-test statistics showed
significant differences also between the facies at a
confidence level a ¼ 0:05 (Tables 1 and 2).
of the microfossils, which argues against their redeposition, and on the foraminifera assemblage that represents
a typical arctic shelf fauna indicating full marine
conditions. Therefore, the lack of stratification of the
sediment is probably caused by bioturbation due to a
rich marine endobenthic fauna. Further support for a
marine origin of the sediment is provided by the
maximum in pyrite concentrations (Fig. 6), occurring
as framboids and inside foraminifera shells. Marine
conditions are indicated also by the composition of the
water-soluble elements (Table 1), particularly the contents in Cl and SO2
4 which reflect the ion concentration of the interstitial water and easy soluble salt
precipitates. Diatoms are absent in the entire core.
5.3. Drying-up facies
5. Facies classification and interpretation
Six facies can be distinguished in the Changeable
Lake sediment cores: (1) a glacigenic facies, (2) an in situ
marine facies, (3) a drying-up facies, (4) a reworked
marine facies, (5) a saline facies and (6) a freshwater
facies (Fig. 4). Since both cores show the same facies
succession, local sedimentation effects in the lake are
neglegible. Thus, the results from core PG1238, presented and discussed in this paper, are considered
representative of the evolution of the entire Changeable
Lake and its surroundings.
The drying-up facies (9.90–9.88 m) is represented by a
2 cm thick layer of calciferous, sulphur-containing
sediment. It is characterized by distinct maxima in Ba/
Ti, Sr/Ti, Co/Ti, Mo/Ti and Fe/Ti element ratios (Table
1), indicating the presence of gypsum. The geochemical
composition of the facies hints at a period when the lake
basin was isolated from the sea and dried up. Missing
relict sediments and sediment sorting suggest that the
gypsum is unlikely to have been reworked into the lake
from the catchment area.
5.4. Reworked marine facies
5.1. Glacigenic facies
The glacigenic facies at the base of the sediment core
(10.43–10.13 m) is characterized by a greyish, consolidated and massive diamicton that has a larger grain-size
median and a higher gamma-ray density (GRD) than
the overlaying sediments (Figs. 4 and 5). The diamicton
is interpreted as till. It has a sharp upper boundary and
consists of debris from red-coloured Devonian sandstone. The occurrence of low amounts of TOC and TN
indicate that older organic material is incorporated.
Single Quaternary foraminifera and high TIC contents
hint at the incorporation of carbonaceous rocks and
Quaternary marine sediments.
The reworked marine facies (9.88–8.50 m) is in
contrast to the in situ marine facies well laminated.
The laminae (thickness 0.1–1 cm) are defined by sediment colour (olive-green) and grain-size (silt/clay)
variations. They suggest variable sediment supply from
the catchment area and the absence of bioturbating
marine fauna. Pyrite is abundant (Fig. 6). The watersoluble element composition shows high concentrations
in Na+, Cl and SO2
(Table 1), and the electrical
4
conductivity of the water extracts, being twice as high as
in the in situ marine facies suggests formation during the
establishment of a saline water body in the formerly
dried-up lake basin.
5.2. In situ marine facies
5.5. Saline facies
The in situ marine facies (10.13–9.90 m) is built up by
an olive-green coloured, fine grained (clay/silt) and
massive sediment (Fig. 5). Benthic foraminifera from
several taxa (e.g., Amonia, Astrononion, Cassidulina,
Cibicides, Elphidiella, Fursenkoina, Islandiella, Lagena,
Lobulatulus, Melonis, Nonionella, Triloculina; A. Mackensen, pers. comm., 1998) are abundant, and single
ostracodes and fragments of mussel shells are present.
The interpretation of this facies as being of in situ
marine origin is based mainly on the good preservation
The saline facies (8.50–7.85 m) is a black clay/silt
fraction which shows a distinct and variable lamination
(1–5 mm thicknesses) (Fig. 5). These suggest sediment
formation in anoxic bottom water, possibly due to a
density stratification of the water column in consequence of a high salt concentration and/or a perennial
lake-ice cover, both of which preclude water mixing. A
high salt concentration is indicated by a high electrical
conductivity reflecting extraordinary high concentrations of the cations Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+, Sr2+, Ba2
Table 1
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the data of water-soluble elements, electrical conductivity and pH as well as on the data of bulk geochemistry of sediment core PG1238
Water-soluble elements, electrical conductivity and pH
Facies
EC
(mS/cm)
Saline f.
(n ¼ 3)
Reworked marine f.
(n ¼ 4)
In situ marine f.
(n ¼ 1)
Average
Stdn. error
Average
Stdn. error
Average
Stdn. error
Average
Stdn. error
Bulk geochemistry
Facies
10.82
2.50
28.60
1.67
30.46
2.05
19.70
0.00
12.41
4.02
303.90
36.61
21.43
1.90
13.80
0.00
Cr/Ti
Ni/Ti
Sr/Ti
K+
(ppm)
Na+
(ppm)
Al3+
(ppm)
Fe(aq)
(ppm)
Mn4+
(ppm)
Si(aq)
(ppm)
Sr2+
(ppb)
Ba2+
(ppb)
P(aq)
(ppm)
7.48
0.12
6.97
0.12
8.27
0.10
8.50
0.00
6.26
0.89
55.00
5.98
3.23
0.49
3.13
0.00
2.27
0.26
36.95
5.38
3.45
0.43
2.72
0.00
3.48
0.45
11.59
0.64
8.84
0.71
7.87
0.00
15.80
3.80
62.57
4.27
45.78
1.05
33.86
0.00
2.12
0.31
0.11
0.04
5.02
0.81
3.60
0.00
1.12
0.17
0.06
0.02
1.95
0.33
1.36
0.00
0.02
0.01
0.54
0.10
0.02
0.00
0.01
0.00
4.34
0.61
0.55
0.08
12.26
2.95
7.20
0.00
37.77
4.42
519.86
58.79
40.07
6.28
37.34
0.00
37.13
7.97
22.37
2.91
11.80
1.83
8.54
0.00
0.15
0.03
0.77
0.03
0.35
0.01
0.27
0.00
Si/Ti
Al/Ti
Fe/Ti
Mn/Ti
Mg/Ti
Ca/Ti
Na/Ti
K/Ti
P/Ti
S/Ti
Ba/Ti
Co/Ti
119.88
20.96
797.67
68.17
233.75
8.49
124.00
0.00
Freshwater f.
(n ¼ 15)
Average
Stdn. error
121.66
1.90
32.7
0.52
11.69
0.24
0.15
0.01
11.00
0.44
0.34
0.32
0.51
0.69
5.90
0.16
0.29
0.00
0.50
0.13
530.15
6.11
22.37
1.08
103.79
1.81
41.44
0.92
79.79
4.45
Saline f.
(n ¼ 4)
Average
Stdn. error
117.76
1.34
31.97
0.93
11.21
0.87
0.12
0.00
8.21
0.45
0.20
0.02
1.07
0.13
5.08
0.27
0.25
0.00
0.25
0.00
550.9
19.48
22.47
2.00
105.12
4.57
44.37
1.92
111.25
6.78
Reworked marine f.
(n ¼ 3)
Average
Stdn. error
127.31
1.75
33.96
0.68
12.31
0.37
0.15
0.02
9.82
0.47
0.34
0.06
0.83
0.05
5.86
0.11
0.36
0.06
0.36
0.06
535.6
32.87
23.87
1.06
11.87
2.42
42.18
1.29
124.55
13.42
Drying-up f.
(n ¼ 1)
Average
Stdn. error
135.47
0.00
29.61
0.00
16.65
0.00
0.15
0.00
10.27
0.00
0.30
0.00
1.13
0.00
5.12
0.00
0.25
0.00
0.25
0.00
738.95
0.00
89.88
0.00
130.97
0.00
68.05
0.00
455.83
0.00
In situ marine f.
(n ¼ 1)
Average
Stdn. error
131.41
0.00
28.83
0.00
9.66
0.00
0.15
0.00
12.10
0.00
0.64
0.00
0.67
0.00
5.26
0.00
0.26
0.00
0.26
0.00
488.92
0.00
9.00
0.00
86.05
0.00
35.2
0.00
122.56
0.00
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(n ¼ 9)
SO2
4
(ppm)
Mg2+
(ppm)
A. Raab et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
Freshwater f.
Cl
(ppm)
Ca2+
(ppm)
pH
2273
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A. Raab et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
2274
Table 2
Similarity of the different facies according to the data of water-soluble elements, electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of PG1238 (+ denotes a
statistically significant difference at a ¼ 0:05)
EC
pH
Ca2+
Mg2+
K+
Na+
Al3+
Fe(aq)
Mn4+
Si(aq)
Sr2+
Ba2+
P(aq)
Cl
SO2
4
Freshwater facies
vs. saline facies
Freshwater facies
vs. reworked
marine facies
Freshwater facies
vs. in situ marine
facies
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Reworked marine
facies vs. in situ
marine facies
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
and anions SO2
4 and Cl in the water-soluble element
assemblage (Table 1). These elements probably derive
from the input of reworked marine sediments. Due to
higher evaporation than the sum of precipitation and
glacial meltwater supply, a concentrated brine developed in the water body that led to an enrichment in
some elements and to the precipitation of easily soluble
mixed salts. Observations on lakes in Antarctica have
shown that evaporites can be formed even in lakes with
an ice cover of up to 4.5 m, still allowing the exchange of
gases, liquids and solids (Andersen et al., 1993).
5.6. Freshwater facies
The freshwater facies (7.85–0 m) is a reddish-brown
silt/clay derived from the red-coloured Devonian
sandstones in the catchment or from the cover loams
derived from these sandstones (Bolshiyanov et al.,
1990). The water-soluble element assemblage differs
distinctly from that in the underlaying saline facies
(Tables 1 and 2) with low Na+, Cl and SO2
4 values,
and an absence of marine organisms, and indicating
deposition in freshwater. Today, Changeable Lake has a
non-stratified, freshwater body (U. Wand, pers. comm.,
2002).
In the lower part of the facies (7.85–2.56 m) black
layers and irregular but well expressed laminae, defined
by colour and grain-size variations, occur. These layers
indicate that periods with anoxic bottom water conditions, characteristic for the underlaying saline facies, still
occurred from time to time. The upper part (o2.56 m)
of the facies, in contrast, has a reddish-brown colour
and is poorly stratified to massive. This may reflect less
Saline facies vs.
reworked marine
facies
Saline facies vs. in
situ marine facies
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
stable climatic conditions, also shown by marked
fluctuations of TOC, TN and TIC (Fig. 5).
Generally, low organic content indicate that biogenic
production was low in the lake and its catchment area,
or that the concentration of organic compounds in the
sediments was restricted by their dissolution in the oxic
water column or dilution by a high clastic-sediment
supply. The TOC/TN-ratio of o10 evidences that the
organic material derives mostly from non-vascular
plants (e.g. algal production). An exception to this is a
sandy layer at 25 cm depth, whose TOC/TN-ratio of
>10 points to a single inflow event, when more coarsegrained sediments and more terrestrial organic material
was supplied to the lake.
6. Chronology
From the in situ marine facies two infinite 14C ages of
>47.5 and >48.4 ka BP were measured on benthic
foraminifera (Table 3, Fig. 7). IRSL from fine-silt
feldspars gave an age of 5373 ka, but quartz-sand
SAR dating gave inconsistent ages of 3473 and
8476 ka within the same relatively thin horizon. We
presently do not consider the quartz SAR ages to be as
accurate as the IRSL ages. Little is known of the
effectiveness of zeroing of the quartz SAR clock in
marine sediments, in contrast to its demonstrated
zeroing in eolian sediments (Murray and Wintle,
2000). Thus the quartz SAR estimate of 86 ka could
readily be an over-estimate of the deposition age. On the
other hand, the younger quartz SAR age estimate of
34 ka is inconsistent with the limiting ages from 14C
dating. The 14C dated foraminifera have an abundance,
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A. Raab et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
PG1238
Facies
Magnetic
susceptibility
PG1239
GRD
Facies
(g/cm3)
Magnetic
susceptibility
(10-6SI)
Sediment depth (m)
0
0
200
2275
GRD
(g/cm3)
(10-6SI)
1.4 1.8 2.2
0
200
1.4 1.8 2.2
0
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
12
Legend
foraminifera
freshwater facies
drying-up facies
saline facies
in situ marine facies
reworked marine facies
glacigenic facies
pyrite
Fig. 4. Facies succession vs. the physical properties magnetic susceptibility and gamma-ray density of the sediment cores PG1238 and PG1239.
assemblage, and good preservation that strongly suggests that they are autochthonous, rather than redeposited. If this SAR age estimate was accurate, one would
expect the 14C ages to lie in the finite range of 30–35 ka
BP. Possibly this sample of quartz was accidentally
exposed to light during sampling or sample preparation,
ARTICLE IN PRESS
2276
A. Raab et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
Fig. 5. Grain-size median, contents of total inorganic carbon (TIC), total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), total sulphur (TS) and TOC/
TN-ratio in sediment core PG1238 (for legend see Fig. 4).
(
Fig. 6. Semi-quantitative bulk mineralogy of the sediment core PG1238. Presented are the peak intensity ratios Imineral/Icorundum(0 3 0). 1.4 nm=14 A(
minerals, 1.0 nm=10 A-minerals,
Q=quartz (1 0 0), Or=orthoclas (0 0 2), Al=albite (0 0 2), Cc=calcite (1 0 4), Dol=dolomite (1 0 4), Pyrite=pyrite
(3 1 1) (for legend see Fig. 4).
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A. Raab et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
Table 3
Core PG1238:
14
Lab. no.
Method
Material
Sediment depth (cm)
Sediment facies
Erl-1158
Pot99-24
Pot99-25
Erl-1151
Pot99-26
Erl-1230
KIA-6086
Pot99-28
Erl-1078
Erl-1078
Pot99-29
Pot99-30
KIA-6087
Erl-1079
KIA-6088
KIA-6089
Pot99-32
Ris^995404
Pot99-33
KIA-6090
KIA-6091
Ris^995403
14
Humic acids
Feldspar fine-silt fraction
Feldspar fine-silt fraction
Humic acids
Feldspar fine-silt fraction
Humic acids
Insect remains (undet.)
Feldspar fine-silt fraction
Pollen grains
Humic acids
Feldspar fine-silt fraction
Feldspar fine-silt fraction
Insects and organic remains (undet.)
Humic acids
Insects and organic remains (undet.)
Insects and organic remains (undet.)
Feldspar fine-silt fraction
Quartz sand fraction
Feldspar fine-silt fraction
Benthic foraminifera
Benthic foraminifera
Quartz sand fraction
11–17
20.8
200.8
258–264
307.8
360–362
610–616
714.8
770–776
770–776
811.8
841.8
862–864
882–888
924–928
962–968
962.8
990.0–999.5
996.8
997–1000
1000–1006
1000.5–1011.0
Freshwater f.
Freshwater f.
Freshwater f.
Freshwater f.
Freshwater f.
Freshwater f.
Freshwater f.
Freshwater f.
Freshwater f.
Freshwater f.
Saline f.
Saline f.
Reworked marine
Reworked marine
Reworked marine
Reworked marine
Reworked marine
In situ marine f.
In situ marine f.
In situ marine f.
In situ marine f.
In situ marine f.
2277
C (AMS) ages, IRSL (infrared-stimulated luminescence), and quartz-SAR (single-aliquot-regenerative-dose) luminescence ages
C
IRSL
IRSL
14
C
IRSL
14
C
14
C
IRSL
14
C
14
C
IRSL
IRSL
14
C
14
C
14
C
14
C
IRSL
B-PSL
IRSL
14
C
14
C
B-PSL
accounting for an age underestimation. In comparison,
the stratigraphic consistency of the IRSL ages suggest
that they are more reliable, including the result of 53 ka
at ca 10 m. Furthermore, fine-silt feldspar luminescence
dating of polar-region lake core sediments has been
shown elsewhere (Berger and Anderson, 2000; Berger
and Doran, 2001) to be capable of accuracy over the age
range studied here. In any case, all reasonable age
estimates here give a minimum age of Middle Weichselian (MIS 3–4) for the in situ marine facies as well as the
glacigenic facies.
In the reworked marine facies 14C ages of 25.6, 27.4,
23.0 and 24.2 ka BP were measured on mixtures of insect
remains and plant debris, which had to be combined to
provide sufficient sample sizes, and on humic acids
(Table 3, Fig. 7). A more detailed determination of the
organic remains was excluded due to their poor
preservation. Keeping in mind that AMS 14C age
estimates can be influenced by a variety of natural
contamination and reservoir effects, by sample size and
.
sample processing (Bjorck
et al., 1991; Snyder et al.,
1994; Wolfarth et al., 1998; Turney et al., 2000; Kilian
et al., 2002), resulting in 14C ages of up to several
thousand years different from time of deposition, our
measured 14C ages indicate a formation of the reworked
marine facies during Middle/Late Weichselian time. This
is supported by an IRSL age (silt feldspar) of 3372 ka
from the lower part of the facies.
In the saline facies no 14C dating could be carried out
due to insufficient organic content. However, two IRSL
Age (yr BP)
f.
f.
f.
f.
f.
109227150
44007380
40307420
81897350
51207680
9253771
60207100
12 1107680
11 377785
18 4347120
19 20071300
20 5007910
24 1707160
22 9537161
27 4007220
25 5707220
33 40072100
34 00073000
53 00073000
>47 560
>48 380
84 00076000
d13C (%)
—
—
—
—
—
—
35.5170.17
—
—
—
—
—
13.4470.08
—
15.5770.27
19.7970.24
—
—
—
0.2770.11
0.0270.14
—
ages of 2171 ka from the lower part and of 1971 ka
from the upper part of the saline facies (Table 3, Fig. 7)
delimit its formation during Late Weichselian time.
In the freshwater facies, 14C ages were obtained from
insect remains (6.0 ka BP), a pollen extract (11.4 ka BP)
and 4 humic acid samples (bottom to top: 18.4, 9.3, 8.2
and 10.9 ka BP) (Table 3, Fig. 7). Two age inversions in
this data set (360–362 cm and 11–17 cm depths), along
with large age differences between two samples from the
same depth (770–776 cm), as well as an unrealistic age
close to the sediment surface (11–17 cm), make the 14C
age estimates highly questionable. At best, these 14C age
estimates hint at a formation of the freshwater facies
after the Late Weichselian. In contrast, the IRSL age
estimates (top to bottom: 4.4, 4.0, 5.1, 12.1 ka) define a
clearer age-depth trend, one that is highly consistent
with the IRSL age-depth trend deeper in the core (Table
3, Fig. 7). This was expected because laminated lake
sediments, such as these, are ideal for luminescence
dating of the fine-silt feldspars (Berger, 1990; Berger and
Easterbrook, 1993). Possibly the IRSL age estimate of
4.470.4 ka for the top-most sample exceeds the deposition age, but given the analytical uncertainties (all at a
67% confidence level) and the uncertainties of sediment–
water interface core recovery with the type of coring
device employed here, this IRSL age estimate is reasonable. Certainly it is more accurate than the comparable
14
C result (10.9 ka BP), and does not affect our main
conclusions about the paleoenvironmental history of
this sediment record.
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A. Raab et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
Fig. 7. Radiocarbon ages of different organic fractions and luminescence (IRSL and SAR) age estimates of different mineral fractions vs. sediment
depth in core PG1238. The 8476 ka result from quartz-SAR luminescence dating in the 10-m horizon (Table 3) is not plotted here. The dashed line
links the IRSL results (for legend see Fig. 4).
7. Climatic and environmental history
7.1. Early and Middle Weichselian
The glacigenic facies at the base of the sediment
record, consisting of a till, is interpreted as a relict from
the last glaciation of the Changeable Lake area (Fig. 8a).
The till predates the in situ marine facies that from our
data is evidently Middle Weichselian in age or older.
The glacigenic facies thus could have been formed
during the Early Weichselian or early Middle Weichselian. This is in agreement with the Early/Middle
Weichselian glacial limits presented by Mangerud et al.
(2001) and Svendsen et al. (1999) (Fig. 2), which indicate
a complete ice coverage of Severnaya Zemlya, and with
tills exposed on October Revolution Island which are
classified as Early/Middle Weichselian (Alekseev, 1997).
In addition, Knies et al. (2001) describe a well-defined
moraine ridge, occurring in 385 m water depth west of
Komsomolets Island, that yielded an ‘‘infinite’’ age of
>44 ka BP. Based on marine sediment records Knies
et al. (2001) also propose a grounded ice sheet along the
outer shelf of northern Severnaya Zemlya in at least
340 m water depth during the Middle Weichselian (MIS
4) glaciation. Relicts of an Early/Middle Weichselian
glaciation on the Taymyr Peninsula, to the south of the
archipelago, are buried glacier ice bodies, found at the
‘‘Ice Hill’’ site at the Jenissej River (Astakhov and
Isayeva, 1988) and at the Labaz Lake in the Taymyr
Lowland (Siegert et al., 1999a). Additionally, glacial
erosion features identified in high-resolution seismic
data from Levinson-Lessing lake are interpreted to be
older than LGM (Niessen et al., 1999).
The in situ marine facies that overlays the glacigenic
facies reflects the deglaciation and a marine transgression which led to full marine conditions in the Changeable Lake region, probably during Middle Weichselian
time (Fig. 8b). This corresponds with ESR ages of 50–
60 ka determined on foraminifera and mollusk shells
from Quaternary marine sediments occurring near the
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A. Raab et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
2279
Fig. 8. Reconstructed environmental history of the Changeable Lake region since its last glaciation during presumably Early Weichselian time and
resulting facies succession (for legend see Fig. 4).
Vavilov glacier margin and in the Changeable Lake
catchment (Makeyev et al., 1992). A partial marine
transgression is also reported for the North Siberian
Lowland; however, this transgression was estimated to
have taken place somewhat later, between 50 and 26 ka
BP (Kind and Leonov, 1982).
The subsequent drying up of the marine basin,
reflected by the drying-up facies, was the consequence
of a regression, an arid climate and a limited meltwater
supply (Fig. 8c). The dried basin probably lasted for less
than 20 ka, as inferred from IRSL ages in the overlaying
(3372 ka) and underlaying (5373 ka) facies. Erosion,
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A. Raab et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
as another possible explanation for the time gap, is
regarded as unlikely, because neither a relict sediment
nor compaction or deformation structures occur in the
underlaying sediment. Interestingly, the interval 30–
50 ka was a time of development of peat beds on the
.
Taymyr Peninsula (Moller
et al., 1999), and deposition
of peaty sand in the Taymyr Lowland (Andreev et al.,
2002). It was also a time of soil development (hence,
warmer climatic intervals) at middle latitudes throughout the world, based on luminescence and 14C dating of
paleosols from Alaska, USA, New Zealand and China
(Berger, 2003).
Sedimentation commenced again some time before
3372 ka. During the remaining Middle Weichselian and
parts of the Late Weichselian, until ca 21 ka, the
reworked marine facies was formed, reflecting redeposition of marine sediments from the catchment of
Changeable Lake (Fig. 8d). The input of reworked
marine sediments with the corresponding elements led to
the formation of a saline water body. The fluvial
sediment supply suggests a comparably warmer and
more humid climate than before.
In general, an unstable climate with alternating
warmer and cooler phases is described for the Middle
Weichselian in the Taymyr region (Andreeva and Kind,
1982). Melles et al. (1996), Hahne and Melles (1999) and
Siegert et al. (1999a) found evidence for predominantly
cold and arid continental climate conditions, interrupted
by warmer periods with still very cold winters but with
summer temperatures sufficient for the development of
increased vegetation.
7.2. Late Weichselian
Parts of the Late Weichselian are represented in the
Changeable Lake record by the saline facies (Fig. 8e).
Formation of this facies started earlier than 21 ka and
lasted until after 19 ka. It reflects sedimentation under a
permanent lake ice cover, with a limited meltwater and
precipitation supply that led to a precipitation of readily
soluble salts due to evaporation of the saline water, and
in a stratified water column with anoxic bottom water.
These processes suggest a particularly cold and dry
climate. An extreme continental climate is assumed for
the Late Weichselian of Northwestern Siberia by Kind
and Leonov (1982) and Velichko et al. (1997). The same
conclusion was drawn by Siegert et al. (1999a) from
permafrost sequences at Labaz Lake, Eastern Taymyr
Lowland, which show salt accumulation in a dried lake
depression, connected with evaporation and freezingout processes in the active layer.
The continuous limnic sedimentation and the lack of
glacial and glacio-lacustrine sediments during the Late
Weichselian in the Changeable Lake depression also
indicate a small glaciation of October Revolution Island
at the LGM. Although at present the glacier margin is
only in about 4 km distant, the Vavilov Ice Cap did not
reach Changeable Lake during the LGM. This supports
earlier investigations on the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, where Alekseev (1997), Velichko et al. (1984)
and Stie! venard et al. (1996) suppose small and relatively
thin ice for the Late Weichselian maximum between 18
and 14 ka BP. According to Makeyev and Bolshiyanov
(1986) the ice sheet covered the Changeable Lake
depression, but was still restricted to local ice caps on
October Revolution Island (Fig. 1). The latter interpretation is based on mammoth finds next to the
modern margin of the Vavilov Ice Cap, dated to 24.9,
20.0, 19.3 and 11.5 ka BP (summarized by Vasilchuk
et al., 1997). However, the lake cores reported in this
paper demonstrate that a glacier expansion did not take
place and that fine-grained lake sedimentation was
continuous throughout this period. This suggests that
during the LGM the Eurasian ice sheet did not extend
eastward onto the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, and
by implication, perhaps also did not extend onto the
Taymyr Peninsula. Further numeric dating of relevant
deposits on the Taymyr Peninsula is needed to test this
implication.
A scenario of limited glaciation during the LGM of
the Eurasian Arctic has been modelled by Siegert et al.
(1999b) and by Siegert and Marsiat (2001). They
propose for the LGM climate of the Eurasian Arctic
that the eastern margin of the LGM ice sheet, and the
central area of the Barents and Kara Seas experienced
very low amounts of ice accumulation (o200 mm yr1),
and that the rate of ice accumulation over the Kara Sea
was less than 100 mm yr1, making this area similar to
the polar desert conditions in central East Antarctica.
The regions to the east of Severnaya Zemlya, and the
greater part of the Taymyr Peninsula, were certainly not
affected by glaciation during the LGM (Fig. 2). This is
demonstrated by lacustrine sediments, massive ground
ice, thick Yedoma (ice-loess) complexes and numerous
mammoth finds in these areas (e.g., Isayeva, 1984;
Sulerzhitsky, 1995; Vasilchuk et al., 1997; Hahne and
Melles, 1999; Siegert et al., 1999a). An exception is the
northwestern Taymyr Peninsula, where a thin glacier
originating from the Kara Ice Sheet inundated the
present land area forming the North Taymyr icemarginal zone (NTZ) between 20 and 12 ka BP
(Alexanderson et al., 2001, 2002).
7.3. Latest Weichselian and Holocene
The global warming at the termination of the
Pleistocene led to an enhanced meltwater supply and
to a freshwater body in Changeable Lake earlier than
12 ka (Fig. 8f). In the lower part of this freshwater facies,
during the transition from the Late Weichselian to
the Holocene, anoxic bottom water conditions developed possibly due to perennial ice cover of the lake.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A. Raab et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2267–2283
Therefore, these represent temporary cold periods.
During most of the remaining Holocene the climate
seems to have been warmer and more stable, resulting in
well developed laminations caused by annual meltwater
discharge and by low but constant biomass production.
During the later part of the Holocene the lack of
lamination and stronger fluctuations in the biogeochemical data suggest that conditions became more instable.
Thereafter, sedimentation conditions pass into modern
climate conditions, being characterized by a direct
dependence of the sedimentation processes on the air
temperature (Bolshiyanov, 1985).
The global ice retreat at the Weichselian/Holocene
transition led to a sea-level rise that resulted in the
separation of the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago from
the continental mainland (Alekseev, 1997). The low
relative land uplift, indicated by the low marine limit on
western October Revolution Island is a further argument against a large Late Weichselian ice cover on the
Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, since glacial loading
would have led to a larger isostatic rebound and,
consequently, a higher marine limit.
More detailed information about the Holocene
climatic and glacial history on the Severnaya Zemlya
Archipelago comes from ice-core data and investigations of peat sections. According to oxygen isotope
analyses on ice cores from the Vavilov Ice Dome and the
Academy of Science glacier, the Holocene thermal
climate optimum on the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago
occurred between 10 and 8 ka BP (Bolshiyanov et al.,
1990; Vaikm.ae, 1991; Stie! venard et al., 1996; Andreev
et al., 1997) and it is presumed that the glaciers that
existed on the archipelago were smaller than at present.
This is indicated by 14C ages of lake-swamp samples
between about 11.5 and 8.8 ka BP and of soil horizons
with wood remains between 10.2 and 9.0 ka BP, lying
below the recent Vavilov glacier (Velichko et al., 1984).
A milder climate than today, during the Early to
Middle Holocene, is also assumed for regions adjacent
to Severnaya Zemlya. This is based, for example, on
pollen analyses on 14C dated peat sections from different
locations in the Russian Arctic (Makeyev et al., 1992;
Kondratjeva et al., 1993; Alekseev, 1997; Serebryanny
and Malyasova, 1998; Serebryanny et al., 1998; Siegert
et al., 1999a). The same conclusions were drawn from
palynological, biogeochemical and diatom investigations on lake sediment cores from the Taymyr Peninsula
(Hahne and Melles, 1999; Harwart et al., 1999; Kienel,
1999).
8. Conclusions
Based on our multi-disciplinary investigation of the
Changeable Lake sediment record, the following conclusions can be drawn concerning the climatic and
2281
environmental history of the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago since Early Weichselian time.
*
*
*
*
*
*
The last ice advance to the Changeable Lake is
represented by a till. This glaciation took place prior
to ca 45 ka but most probably just before 53 ka.
Deglaciation of the area commenced sometime after
>53 ka, and was followed by marine transgression
into the Changeable Lake basin.
The basin dried up between 53 and 33 ka, suggesting
a time of an arid climate and a geomorphological
stability.
Enhanced humidity or temperature during the Middle to Late Weichselian transition (ca 33–21 ka) led to
the development of a lake in the basin. The lake water
was saline, in consequence of a fluvial supply of
marine sediments and the corresponding ions from
the catchment area.
During the Late Weichselian (between 21 and 19 ka),
a cold and arid climate led to a permanent ice cover
on the lake, limited meltwater and precipitation
supply, a density stratification of the water column
and sedimentation in anoxic bottom water. This
limnic sediment formation, and the lack of glacigenic
sediments, are evidence for a restricted or only local
glaciation of the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago
during the time of the LGM. Our dating of a
continuous non-glacial sedimentary record provides
a significant constraint on the northeastward limit of
the Eurasian ice sheet during the LGM stage.
During the termination of the Pleistocene and the
entire Holocene (since about 12 ka) sediment formation took place under freshwater conditions. A
warmer and more humid climate led to higher
sedimentation rates than during the Weichselian.
Holocene climate changes are only weakly reflected in
the Changeable Lake record.
Acknowledgements
D. Yu. Bolshiyanov, T. Muller-Lupp
.
and A. Zielke
are acknowledged for their competent help in collecting
the sediment cores during the expedition 1996. We
thank F. Niessen for supporting the physical property
measurements and A. Mackensen for conducting the
foraminifera analysis. Our special thanks are extended
to the reviewers M.J. Siegert and J. Mangerud, and to J.
Rose, U. Kienel, T. Kumke and T. Raab for helpful
comments and discussions. This study was financially
supported by the German Federal Ministry for Education, Science, Research and Technology (BMBF; Grant
No. 03PL014A,B), and by the US National Science
Foundation (NSF; grant EAR-9909686 to Berger).
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