Unit 1: Elements of Music
Section 1: Overview
Simply put, music is an art based on the organization of sounds in time.
We distinguish music from other sounds because of four key elements: pitch, duration,
dynamics, and tone color. These four key elements are part of the character of every musical
composition and are defined as follows:
• Pitch: the relative highness or lowness of a sound (the faster the vibrations, the higher
the pitch; the slower the vibrations, the lower the pitch)
• Duration: how long a musical sound lasts (coupled with rhythm, which is the flow of
music through time, and helps define the specific arrangement of note lengths in a piece
of music and is an essential feature of its character or personality)
• Dynamics: the loudness or softness of a sound
• Tone Color: the unique auditory property that distinguishes one instrument from another.
(for example, a trumpet has a “bright” and “brassy” sound and is readily distinguishable
from a flute, even if playing the same tone at the same dynamic level)
To better understand how music is constructed, this unit will provide an overview of the
following elements of music:
• Melody
• Rhythm
• Harmony
• Basic Musical Forms
• Instrument Families
Understanding these key elements will make listening to music a more enjoyable experience, no
matter the genre. In addition, a section on how to listen to music will include a listening example
with a guided listening guide to provide a structure for listening to unfamiliar and familiar music.
As the study of musical composition is complex, this unit closes with a section on resources for
further study of music theory and composition if so desired.
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Section 2: Melody
Key terms:
Note: a sound with a specific pitch and duration.
Melody: a series of notes strung together, one after another.
Phrase: a musical sentence
Melody, though, isn’t just any bunch of notes strung together. Composers shape or add contour
to the notes to add interest and to create a distinctive, identifiable “tune” that catches the
listener’s ear. A melody’s shape can be heard as well as seen in the written score. You can also
describe it verbally, such as a “rising melody” or “descending line” – basically describing the ups
and downs you hear (or see) in the line.
In the example below, you can see the melody “rise” and then “descend.”
Melodies are usually described as being made up of phrases. A phrase is like a sentence, with a
group of notes that make sense together (just as a group of words makes sense together in a
sentence). Unlike a sentence, though, it takes more than one phrase to make a complete melody.
In vocal music, the phrases often follow the sentence structure of the text. In instrumental music,
there are strong and weak endings to the phrases, kind of like asking a question in one line and
then answering it in the next. The formal terms for these questioning and answering phrases are
antecedent (question) and consequent (answer). Another way to label these phrases is
incomplete (question) and complete (answer).
Listen for the question and answer phrases in the “Good Morning to All” song, as you follow
along with the score on the next page.
Use this link to access the listening file:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:GoodMorningToAll_1893_song.ogg
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Score for “Good Morning to All”
Composed in 1893 by Patty & Mildred Hill
This melody with chords arrangement prepared in 2008 by Susan Anderson-Benson
Lyrics:
"Good Morning to All"
Good morning to you,
Good morning to you,
Good morning, dear children,
Good morning to all.
This melody is probably more familiar to most listeners as the “happy birthday” song. It was
written in 1893 by two sisters, Patty Hill and Mildred J. Hill. They were school teachers in
Louisville, Kentucky, and their version was originally written as a classroom greeting.
Interestingly, the version we know which bids a person “happy birthday” was copyrighted in
1935 as an arrangement of their original song. On a related note, Warner Chappell, the current
owner of the “happy birthday” version copyright, claims that unauthorized public performances
of the song as they copyrighted it are technically illegal unless they are paid royalties!
Thankfully, the sisters’ original melody and lyrics remain part of the public domain.
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Section 3: Rhythm
Rhythm is an essential part of music, since music can’t happen without time. Simply put, the
placement of sounds in time is rhythm.
Because music has to be heard over a period of time, rhythm can be either metered or unmetered.
Metered music has a clear, steady beat or pulse. Metered music has a repetitive pattern of strong
and weak beats, suggesting a pulse – something you can tap your foot to, clap along with, dance
to, and so on. The “Good Morning to All” song previously explored in melody is an excellent
example of music with a clear, steady beat or pulse.
Unmetered music is where rhythm is simply a placement in time that can’t feel a specific beat or
pulse. (Example of unmetered music include plainchant/Gregorian chant, and some genres of
20th century music.) This music could perhaps best be described as giving the listener a sense of
“floating” or being “surrounded” by the sound, since there is not a beat or pulse to provide a
rhythmic structure to the music to assist the listener’s understanding.
Listen to this example of unmetered music, the Gregorian chant “Salve Regina”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5p_U8J0iRQ
Another element of rhythm is tempo. Tempo is a word or phrase that gives the listener the
composer’s idea of how fast or slow the music should feel. This can be a little tricky, since the
same tempo marking can mean different things to different composers and performers, thus the
variances that can be heard in performances of the same piece.
For example, think of how the “Star Spangled Banner” is performed at various sporting and
political events. Sometimes, it is sung almost reverently, other times at an upbeat/robust tempo.
It’s still the same song Francis Scott Key and John Stafford Smith wrote in 1814 and 1780
respectively with the tempo marking of “con spirito.” (from a copy issued in 1815, as found in
the Library of Congress at the following address (click to see a full sized copy of the score):
http://memory.loc.gov/diglib/ihas/loc.natlib.ihas.100000006/enlarge.html?page=1&from=pageturner
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So, according to the score, the composers wanted a “spirited” rendition of the song – not a dirge. Yet, we
still hear the anthem sung slowly and often without any rhythmic pulse, depending on the performer!
To better understand the difference rhythm and tempo can make, listen to these two very different
recordings of the National Anthem. While there are many more recordings of the anthem on
youtube.com, these two provide a striking contrast in interpretation of the rhythm and tempo.
The first recording features the combined choirs of several United States military academies during a
performance at a football game. Note the simplicity as well as crispy rhythmic rendition of the score,
staying quite true to the composer’s original instructions.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ETrr-XHBjE
The second recording features the acappella group, Take 6, with a beautifully sung, but
decidedly stylized rendition of the anthem. This version takes nearly a minute longer than the
first version. Listen to how the singers extend the work by stretching the duration of some of the
rhythms as they vocalize and stylize the anthem.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2qZe8aB7plU
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Section 4: Harmony
Harmony is simply when more than one note is sounding at the same time in music. Even if no
one is playing actual chords and just playing another melody line, you can hear a relationship
between these simultaneously sounding notes and that is harmony. Another word for this is
accompaniment. Accompaniment is simply all the parts of the music that aren’t the melody and
can include the bass line, chords, harmonies and rhythmic parts. Texture is another way to
discuss how much is going on in music, for example, thick (lots going on) or thin (not much
going on) and is linked to harmony, since harmony adds to the thickness or thinness of the
sound.
There are several types of harmony:
• Implied: this is a melody all by itself. Even just a melody, though, has “implied”
harmony because of how the melody line is built, implying chords or harmony that could
accompany it, even though it isn’t accompanied. A good example of this is the
plainchant or Gregorian chant found in Section 3 as well as in Unit 2 (Medieval music).
• Drone: A drone is a note that stays the same or rarely changes. A good example of this
is found in bagpipe music, where one note is hanging on underneath the moving melody
line. “The Cliffs of Dooneen” is an excellent example of the drone harmony. Follow this
link to access the mp3 file and then scroll to the bottom of the page:
http://www.mattpiper.com/samples.html
• Homophony: this is a texture in music where the melody line is obvious and all the other
notes are easily heard as harmony/accompaniment. (This is most of the music we
routinely hear.)
• Polyphony (also known as counterpoint): this is a texture in music where there is more
than one independent melody line at the same time, and they’re all pretty much equal in
importance. A good example of this is J.S. Bach’s Fugue in A Minor, as performed by
Julian Bream.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2mZvdGAGlOo
• Chords: in Western music, most harmony is based on chords. A chord is a group of
notes that are sounded together (block chords) or separately and quickly so they sound
like a chord (arpeggiated chords). This recording of Greensleeves nicely demonstrates
both block and arpeggiated chords accompanying the melody.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5cjjG8SOy9M
Another aspect of music is Dynamics. Dynamics are simply the loudness or softness of the
music, and gradations therein, including crescendo (gradually louder), decrescendo (gradually
softer), accents (single strong-sounding notes).
When we put all the pieces together, even on a simple song like “Good Morning to All,” the
results can be quite interesting and sometimes very fun, as in this recording:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=glK1LojN6yg
Note how all the parts come together into a pleasing whole. We can clearly hear the melody,
harmony and dynamics combining into this very familiar tune.
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Section 5: Basic Musical Forms
Every piece has an overall plan or blueprint and that is the music “form.” Form is a familiar
concept since everything that exists has form, such as recognizing a cat from a giraffe at a
distance because of their unique form. Similarly, music has recognizable forms, some simple,
some complex, all designed to help shape the structure of the music and give it an overall “plan.”
Simple forms are readily recognizable and can help aid in the enjoyment of music. For example,
a symphony is a big, complex piece of music, with essentially a very simple form. Most
symphonies have three or four sections called movements, and are framed by fast movements,
with a slow movement in the middle, with the other inner movement often in a dance style.
Within the movements or sections themselves, there is also a recognizable form. For example,
the first movement of most symphonies is in “sonata form.” The piece starts with a recognizable
theme in the exposition, sometimes introduces a secondary theme, and then about mid-way
through, “develops” the themes through various compositional techniques in the development
section, and then returns to the main theme in the final section, called the recapitulation.
Sometimes an extra little bit of music is added after hearing the main theme(s) again in the
recapitulation, and is called a coda (closing material).
While you can enjoy music without recognizing its form, being able to see the “big picture” or
“plan” of the music can enhance the enjoyment. For instance, you can anticipate the return of
the opening theme and know that the movement is coming to its conclusion. In the familiar 5th
Symphony of Ludwig van Beethoven, the distinctive opening theme is presented first in the
exposition, varied throughout the development, and then returns in its original form in the
recapitulation.
Listen to the first movement of Beethoven’s 5th Symphony in this rare old video recording from
1952, as conducted by renowned conductor Arturo Toscanini. (This recording also contains a
link to the 2nd movement, so not only can you listen to the form of the 1st movement, but also the
contrasting style of the 2nd movement, if you choose to do so.)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N6K_IuBsRM4
Note especially how the distinctive opening theme is “played with” throughout the development,
and how its return in the recapitulation lends almost a sense of comfort or grounding to the
listener, as its familiar notes signal the conclusion of the movement.
Forms can also be labeled with letters, from simple to complex, with each major section being
labeled with a letter, starting with “A.” For instance, the “Good Morning to All” song used in
the previous sections is in the form: A A’ A’’ B. A is the opening line of music. This line is
somewhat repeated for lines 2 & 3, but with some differences, thus they are labeled A’ (a-prime)
and A’’ (a-double prime) to indicate the similarity, but also the differences. B is the closing line,
which is different from all the rest. (See page 2 for the melodic score.)
As you listen to any type of music (including all popular genres!), try applying the alphabet
letters to the various sections. This can enhance your enjoyment by appreciating how the
composer applied form to add to the organization of the piece.
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Section 6: Instrument Families
Brassy…reedy…warm…harsh…shrill…piercing…mellow…bright…light…heavy…dark…
All of these words have been used to describe the timbre or tone quality of the various musical
instrument families.
Tone color or timbre describes the aspects of musical sound that don’t have to do with pitch,
volume or duration. It’s what helps us distinguish between the sound of a flute playing a note
and a trumpet playing the same note.
Since the human ear and brain are capable of hearing and understanding very small variations in
tone color or timbre, we can not only tell the difference between a flute and a trumpet, but also
the difference between, say, two flutes or two trumpets. The general sound we expect to hear
from an instrument is its tone color or timbre; the differences between players of the same
instrument is tone quality. For instance, a trumpet player can produce both a brassy and a
mellow tone on the same note, depending on how s/he approaches the note.
There are four main families of instruments: Strings, Woodwinds, Brass, and Percussion. This
section will provide an overview of the primary instruments of each family, including how they
produce sound. Specific “period instruments,” those instruments unique to a particular historical
period, will be discussed in their respective historical units.
Strings
Sound is produced by vibrating strings and amplified by a hollow wood body with perforations
where the sound comes out. All stringed instruments have strings stretched over them; the
strings are made of nylon, steel or gut. The instruments are played with a bow (a long stick that
has horsehair attached to it), with the bow drawn across the strings in an action calling bowing.
The bow can also be used to strike the strings. Players may also pluck or strum the strings with
their fingers to produce sound.
The four main string instruments are: violin, viola, cello and double bass.
Violin: Smallest member of the string family; has the
shortest strings, so it produces the highest sound. The
shape of the violin has stayed virtually the same since
the 16th century. The modern violin has 4 strings; the
earliest ones only had 3.
Viola: Bigger than the violin, with longer strings;
makes a rich, warm sound that is lower in pitch than
the violin. The instrument itself is also a little heavier,
with a slightly different shape. The viola plays the
middle part of orchestral harmony and while they don’t
stick out when the whole orchestra is playing, they
would be missed if they weren’t there, since they fill in
the vital “middle” of the harmony.
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Cello: Plays even lower than the viola. It is twice as
big as the viola to accommodate its much longer
strings. The instrument is also quite heavy, requiring
players to sit down and rest the instrument against their
bodies. They also use an endpin that comes out of the
bottom of the cello to stick into the floor to balance the
instrument. The cello makes a rich, warm sound and
also helps fill out the middle part of the harmony in the
orchestra.
Double Bass: The largest of the stringed instruments;
played the lowest notes. The double bass adds the
“weight” to the orchestra sound with its deep notes.
Sometimes, the lowest, longest string of the double
bass is made longer so it can play even lower.
Woodwinds
Sound is produced using vibrating air. Instruments are made not only of wood, but also metal,
and even ivory and bone. The instruments are played in one of two ways. Flutes have a hole the
player blows across; air vibrating through the instrument creates a sound. (If you’ve ever blown
air across a pop bottle to make sound, you’ve essentially played a flute!) Pressing the fingers
across holes cut in the instrument allows the player to change the sound. The other way is by
blowing air through a reed (clarinet, oboe, bassoon, saxophone); the vibrating reed sets the air
inside in motion, creating the sound. Again, pressing fingers across holes cut in the instrument
allows the player to change the sound.
The main woodwind instruments are: flute, clarinet, oboe, bassoon, and saxophone.
Flute: made from metal; sometimes made from wood.
Playing the highest notes in the orchestra, they’re also
good at playing fast, intricate or “busy” music. The
very highest pitched instrument in the orchestra is a
cousin of the flute: the piccolo (Italian for “little”).
The piccolo has the piercing sound that stands out over
the entire orchestra in such works as the “Stars and
Stripes Forever” (Sousa).
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Clarinet: made from wood or molded plastic. Clarinets
come in different sizes, with the standard B-flat clarinet
running about 2 feet long. Sound is produced by
blowing air through a single reed. The orchestra also
includes an E-flat clarinet (smaller than the B-flat and
plays a higher range of notes) and a bass clarinet (plays
lower).
The bass clarinet is larger than the B-flat and E-flat
clarinets and because it can play lower, it can produce a
“mysterious” sound quality. The bass clarinet, because
of its larger size, has a bent neck, curved around to face
upward, to accommodate the length. It also has an
endpin that slides out of the bottom to help prop it up
on the floor.
Oboe: made of wood; look similar to the clarinet, but
sound very different. Unlike the clarinet, sound is
produced by blowing through a thin double reed that
sticks out from the upper end of the instrument. Its
distinct sound is easy to hear in the orchestra, and is
often heard on slow, thoughtful lines. Its cousin, the
English horn, plays a little lower than the oboe and has
a pear-shaped bell. Both instruments require the air to
be force through at very high pressure into the tiny
double reed, making it very difficult to play.
Bassoon: made of wood; has almost 8 feet of wooden
tubing, bent into a narrow “U” shape. Uses a double
reed, which is placed in a curved metal tube. The
bassoon is the largest woodwind in the orchestra, save
for its cousin, the contra bassoon, which is even bigger,
and plays even lower than the bassoon.
Because both instruments are so very heavy, they are
usually supported by a seat strap that the player hooks
onto the lower end of the instrument and then sits on to
hold it in place.
The rich, mellow, and low-pitched sound of the
bassoon and contra bassoon have been described as
“dark” and akin to a god speaking. Like the oboe, it
takes a lot of breath to play the bassoon.
Saxophone: made of brass, but classified as a woodwind because
it is played using a single reed and mouthpiece, like a clarinet, but
has a metal body with a flared bell. There are four major types:
soprano, alto, tenor and baritone. Saxophones produce a strong,
mellow tone. Invented by Adolphe Sax in 1846, and originally
intended for use in military bands, the instrument is heard in all
musical genres, included orchestral music.
Brass
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Sound is produced using vibrating air. Instruments are made not only of brass, but also of wood,
tusk, horn and shell. The instruments are played by blowing air into the mouthpiece of the
instrument. The air is set in motion by the player buzzing their lips together, with their lips
acting like the reeds on the woodwind instruments. Since brass instruments are really just long
metal tubes with a bell at the end, the tubes are bent and folded into more compact shapes so they
can be held by the player.
The main brass instruments are: trumpet, French horn, trombone and tuba.
Trumpet: made of brass, and played by blowing air into a cupshaped mouthpiece through a narrow tube and out a flaring bell.
Sounds are changed by pressing down on the keys that control its
three valves, and also by changing the shape of the player’s lips
against the mouthpiece. The trumpet is only 18 inches long, but
if the tube were unwound, it would extend more than 4-1/2 feet
long. The instrument dates back more than 3,500 years, with
early versions found in the ancient Egyptian tombs, including that
of King Tut.
French horn: made of brass, and played by blowing air into a small
mouthpiece through a narrow tube and out a flaring bell. Sounds are
changed by pressing down on the keys that control its three valves, and
also by changing the shape of the player’s lips against the mouthpiece.
Sound is further controls by movement of the right hand inside the bell,
including volume, pitch and tone. Uncoiled, the instrument is some 12
feet long. The sound has been described as “velvety” and “round.” Its
rich sound is easily heard above the rest of the orchestra without being
overpowering. The very first horns were made from animals’ horns.
By breaking off the horns tip and blowing down the hole, you could make
a sound. Later horns were made of metal, but didn’t have valves – just a
long piece of tubing coiled around in a circle, with sound changed by the
lips.
Trombone: made of brass, and played by blowing air into a cupshaped mouthpiece through a narrow tube and out a flaring bell.
Unlike other brass instruments, sound is changed using a slide
which is moved back and forth to change the length of the tube,
which in turn changes the pitch. Unwound, the trombone tube is
9 feet long. The trombone fills the middle of the brass section
covering the harmonies between the trumpets and horns, and the
tubas. The trombone dates back to the 15th century, when they
were called sackbuts.
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Tuba: made of brass, and played by blowing air into a large
cup-shaped mouthpiece through tubing and out a flaring bell.
Notes are changed by pressing on valves, and also by
adjusting how the player blows into the instrument. The
largest member of the brass family, it also plays the lowest
notes. Unwound, the tuba is 18 feet long. The youngest
brass instrument, it was first used in military bands in the 19th
century, and joined the orchestra in the early 20th century.
Percussion
A percussion instrument is essentially any instrument that produces sound when it is hit or
struck, scraped or shaken. Orchestral percussionists often may play as many a dozen different
instruments in the course of a concert, since different pieces require different kinds of
percussion.
Struck percussion instruments are simple things like drums that you hit with your hand or a stick.
They can also be as complex as the piano, which has 88 keys and makes sound by internal
hammers hitting strings that are activated by pressing on the keys. Other struck percussion
instruments include: timpani, xylophone, cymbals, triangle, snare drum, bass drum, woodblocks,
gongs, and chimes.
Scraped percussion instruments are more common in world music, but are occasionally found in
orchestral literature. These include instruments such as the guiro. The same is true of shaken
percussion instruments, such as tambourines and rattles.
guiro
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Benjamin Britten wrote “The Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra, Op. 34” in 1945. Subtitled
“Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Purcell,” the work was inscribed to the children of John
and Jean Maud, and written, as Britten stated in the dedication, “for their edification and
entertainment.” The work provides a wonderful introduction to the instruments of the orchestra,
while being an enjoyable piece in its own right.
The piece is organized as follows:
Movement
Name
Theme
Variation A
Variation B
Variation C
Variation D
Variation E
Variation F
Variation G
Variation H
Variation I
Variation J
Variation K
Variation L
Variation M
Fugue
Tempo Marking
Featured Instrument(s)
Running Time
(minutes/seconds)
Allegro maestoso e largamente
Presto
Lento
Moderato
Allegro alla marcia
Brillante: alla polacca
Meno mosso
Cominciando lento ma poco a
poco accel al allegro
Maestoso
L’istesso tempo
Vivace
Allegro pomposo
Moderato
Entire Orchestra
Flutes and piccolo
Oboes
Clarinets
Bassoons
Violins
Violas
Cellos
Double Basses
02:03
00:31
00:59
00:39
00:54
00:39
00:54
01:11
01:02
Harp
Horns
Trumpets
Trombones and Tubas
Percussion
Entire Orchestra
00:48
00:48
00:32
00:59
01:55
02:45
This is a video presentation of a performance by the London Symphony as conducted by Michael
Tilson Thomas and is in two parts. Watch and listen carefully as each group of instruments is
featured as the piece progresses, and also listen for how each instrument brings its own unique
sound and style to the variation in which it is featured. Click on the links to be connect to
youtube; it will take a few seconds after you connect to youtube for the performance to start.
Benjamin Britten: “The Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra “
Part 1: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kR9nDnyIhAU&feature=related
Part 2: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bi0DQNd6bCc&feature=related
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Section 7: How to Listen to Music
When we listen to music, we can’t help but react emotionally to what we are hearing – there are
some things we really like and others that we don’t care to listen to again. Despite that, we can
still apply some basic questions to all types of music to help us be better listeners even to types
of music we haven’t heard before or types we have previously not enjoyed. Some simple
questions can help us listen to any type of music and shape our reactions without needing
advanced musical training.
These questions include:
• What is your overall impression of this piece?
• What is your emotional reaction to this piece?
• Why do you think this?
• Describe the melody. Was there more than one main tune? Was there a contrast between
“happy” and “sad” sounds?
• Describe the harmony. Were there a lot of chords or busy things going on under the
melody? Was there a contrast between “happy” and “sad” sounds?
• Describe the rhythm. Was it fast or slow paced? Were the notes really moving, slow, or
a combination of speeds? Was there a “beat” to the piece or syncopation or anything else
that caught your ear and got your toe tapping?
• What did you like about the piece?
• What didn’t you like about the piece?
• For performances using a video clip: Did the performers shape your feelings about this
piece in any way? (for example – too much gesturing, distracting, too still, etc.)
Coupled with the insights gained on the composers, their music and their place in history in the
upcoming units, we can then approach all types of music openly and, potentially, find enjoyment
in them.
Let’s put this approach to work on a famous classical piece of music that may sound familiar to
you: Gustav Holst, The Planets, Op. 32, 4th movement: “Jupiter, the Bringer of Jollity”
Gustav Holst (1874-1934), an English composer, wrote the orchestra suite, The Planets, between
1914 and 1916, with its premier taking place at the end of World War I (1918). The concept of
the work is astrological (not astronomical, thus why Earth is not included). The idea was given
to Holst by a friend, Clifford Bax, who introduced him to astrology in 1913. Holst became a
devotee of the subject and even cast his friends’ horoscopes for fun. Each movement is intended
to convey ideas and emotions associated with the human psyche, not the Roman deities
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associated with each planet. Holst also used Alan Leo’s book, “What is a Horoscope?” as
inspiration for the subtitles of the movements. Originally written as a piano duet, Holst then
scored the suite for large orchestra, with his colorful and imaginative orchestration influenced by
Schoenberg and Stravinsky in particular.
This link will take you to a streaming video of a performance by the Osaka Philharmonic
Orchestra, led by conductor Eiji Oue.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3B49N46I39Y
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Sample of a completed listening guide for this piece:
What is your overall impression of this piece?
Power, might, “bigness,” and fun!
What is your emotional reaction to this piece?
Awe – visualize the size of the planet Jupiter. Also smiles – for the “jollity” aspect – can’t help
but smile when listening to the lighter sections, even as the “big” theme re-emerges under it and
takes over
Why do you think this?
The use of the full orchestra in the opening and recurring sections creates a big sound that
reflects my perceived might of the planet Jupiter. Using less instruments and softer families of
instruments in the contrasting/jollity sections helped provide great contrast.
Describe the melody. Was there more than one main tune? Was there a contrast between
“happy” and “sad” sounds?
I heard one main tune – it was the opening theme and it was on the heavy side – conveyed power
and had a big sound. I would describe it as a powerful sound rather than sad or dark. The
lighter sections had a little, but happy sound and the tunes there seemed to mostly use the lighter
sounding instruments; no one tune stands out in my head here, though.
Describe the harmony. Were there a lot of chords or busy things going on under the
melody? Was there a contrast between “happy” and “sad” sounds?
There was a definite contrast between the “big” and “jolly” sections of this piece. The big
sections (like the opening and ending) used big sounding chords to help convey the power. The
jolly sections were a lot lighter and seemed to have a lot of notes in single lines underneath the
tunes throughout these sections.
Describe the rhythm. Was it fast or slow paced? Were the notes really moving, slow, or a
combination of speeds? Was there a “beat” to the piece or syncopation or anything else
that caught your ear and got your toe tapping?
There was a combination of things going on. The “big” section had a definite pulse or beat and
a slower overall feeling of motion, since the notes weren’t running all over the place. The “jolly”
section also had a definite pulse, but was busy sounding and really moved at times with lots of
fast notes.
What did you like about the piece?
Contrasting sections; recurring main theme; big brass sound.
What didn’t you like about the piece?
‘Gets a little “long” in the extended quiet part. Despite that, overall, I really liked it; has
excellent variety, ebb and flow of high and lower energy and a great finish!
Did the performers shape your feelings about this piece in any way?
This particular performance was not distracting; really just full of energy and emotion, especially
the conductor!!
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Section 8: Resources for Further Study
As noted in the introductory section, detailed study of musical composition and theory can be
quite complex. However, there are some excellent resources available that will provide
additional detail without asking the student to become a music major to do so. These resources
are listed first. The resources near the bottom of the page are examples of standard music theory
texts for extremely detailed study.
On the internet:
Resources abound on the internet, but these three sites provide a range of a little to a lot of
information in a readily digestible format.
Schmidt-Jones, Catherine. “The Basic Elements of Music.” Accessed 7-08-2008.
<http://cnx.org/content/col10218/latest/> Covers the basic elements of music with some musical
examples, and also includes activities to further explore the elements. Written specifically for
elementary classroom use, but intended for developing music appreciation in persons of all ages.
Mitchell, Danlee and Jack Logan, Ph.D. “Basic Elements of Music.” Accessed 7-08-2008.
<http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Arts/music/elements/elemofmusic/main.htm> Also
covers the basic elements of music, but in a more complex manner, with less examples, and a
fairly significant amount of detailed information.
Lifetips.com. “Elements of Music Tips.” Accessed 7-08-2008.
<http://classicalmusic.lifetips.com/cat/57534/elements-of-music/> A quick reference for various
musical elements. Not at all detailed, but a quick source of basic information.
Books:
Harnum, Jonathan. “Basic Music Theory” How to Read, Write, and Understand Written
Music.” Questions, Ink., 2001. Provides a basic introduction to the concepts of music theory.
Miller, Michael. “The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, 2nd Edition (The Complete
Idiot’s Guide).” Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 2002. Like the other “idiot’s guide” books, this one
provides a very basic and understandable introduction to the concepts of music theory.
Music Theory Text:
Benward, Bruce, and Marilyn Saker. “Music in Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition.”
Volumes 1 & 2. McGraw-Hill, 2002. Together, the two volumes provide an excellent study of
the various elements of music, including musical styles, more complex chords, larger forms, and
detailed compositional analysis. Older editions are also excellent and available used at very
reasonable prices on the internet.
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Unit 2: Medieval Period
Approximately 200 – 1450 A.D.
The Medieval Period is a challenging one to study, covering more than 1,000 years, but is
essential as it lays the foundation for all subsequent musical development.
During Medieval times, music was fused with philosophy and theology, and fully integrated into
a student’s complete educational curriculum, making music’s role unusual and complicated.
Further, the study of Medieval music can be challenging as many of the concepts from this time
are unfamiliar musically, philosophically and theologically, and the tonal results coming from
this fusion are somewhat strange to our contemporary ears.
Finally, source materials for this period are often limited, especially for secular genres, as
notation systems were limited, and usually restricted to use for church functions. Oftentimes,
accompaniments were not written out at all, and the recordings we listen to today are musicians’
“best guesses” on what the practice was at the time, based on written materials describing
performances and instrumentation from the time period. Despite these challenges, you will find
a rich selection of musical examples along with information about this vital period of music
history.
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Section 1: Main Musical Forms/Stylistic Elements
Four Main Time Divisions
The Medieval Period can be broken down into four main time divisions. Each division is
representative of key developmental elements of that time period.
Early Medieval: 200 – 1100 A.D.
Western European music comes of its own at this time, with the development of
Gregorian chant/plainchant (monophonic or single line forms), “church” modes,
beginnings of musical notation, as well as distinct Sacred and Secular styles of music,
characterized in part by the use of Latin for the sacred music and the vernacular
languages of the countries for the secular music.
Ars Antiqua: 12th and 13th Centuries A.D. (The “Old Art”)
Efforts focused largely in France, with the development of Organum (the beginning of
polyphonic or multiple line/harmonized forms), the Tempus Perfectum, and rhythmic
modes. Other musical forms included the motet, hocket, rota, rondellus and polyphonic
conductus.
Ars Nova: 14th Century A.D. (The “New Art”)
Efforts focused largely in France and Italy, with the development of complex polyphony
(further development of harmony), the Tempus Imperfectum, and isorhythms. Other
musical forms included the madrigal, caccia and ballata.
Burgundian Era: 1st half of 15th Century A.D.
Efforts focused largely in France, the Netherlands and England, with the development of
imitative polyphony, and continued experimentation and elaboration of the Mass. This
was, for all intents and purposes, the transition time between the Medieval and
Renaissance period, as exemplified in the music of Guillaume Dufay, whom we will
study in the Renaissance unit.
Definitions of Key Musical Styles/Forms
Ballade: A form from the troubadour tradition, this is a one-movement piece with lyrical and
dramatic story-telling qualities, and was made popular by Machaut. This type of setting of
French poetry remained common throughout the 14th century and into the middle of the 15th
century, and featured a prominent upper voice with the text, and two lower voices accompanying
by vocalizing or using instruments.
Ballata: Form from the end of the Medieval and definitely foreshadowed the techniques of the
impending Renaissance period. Originated as a dance song and had a clear sectional structure
with refrains (called ripressa), that were sung at the beginning and end of each verse.
Caccia: Form from the 2nd half of the 14th century. Used a canon that was based on continuous
imitation of two or more parts, with the two upper parts sung in string imitation with the
third/lowest part moving in slow notes, and probably played on an instrument rather than sung.
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Conductus: Polyphonic conductus was used during the 2nd half of the 13th century. Featured an
original tenor melody (unlike organum) and written for 2-4 parts, with the parts moving together
rhythmically.
Estampie: The main dance form of the 1400s; played in triple time typically and had many
repeated sections.
Hocket: A form of polyphony from the late 1200s to 1300s characterized by a technique in
which the melody line was interrupted frequently by the placement of rests (alternating between
the two voice parts). Sometimes described as a “hiccupping” sound.
Hymns: Sacred songs that became an important part of the sung liturgy and eventually
introduced into the mass. Later included formal variations of the conductus. Hildegard was a
well known writer of hymns, as was Kassia.
Liturgical Chant: see monophonic music/Gregorian chant.
Monophonic Music/Gregorian Chant: music with one melody line and no accompaniment. Also
known as plainsong or plainchant. Vocal music.
Madrigal: First polyphonic form to be used in Italy; featured two vocal parts with verses written
in duple time with a chorus or “ritornello” section in triple time.
Mass: Organization of liturgical music for Catholic Church worship. The form was “set” during
the Medieval period, and in addition to being a public celebration of the Eucharist, included
musical settings of elements such as the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus and Agnus Dei.
Motet: Main polyphonic form starting around 1250, replacing organum and conductus.
Followed specific guidelines, with a plainsong sung by the tenor voice and above it, two other
parts sang in faster moving notes. Used both in sacred and secular styles, and usually in triple
meter with some dissonance or clashing harmonies appearing.
Organum: The Notre Dame Organum was developed around 1150. Another form of polyphony,
it consists of two parts sung by solo voices which alternate with sections of plainsong sung by a
choir. The melody was typically “borrowed” from plainsong.
Polyphonic Music/Polyphony: music with two or more melody lines that were heard at the same
time. Vocal music.
Rondeau: A form from the troubadour tradition, and part of the Medieval courtly music
tradition. Machaut was an early writer-composer of this form. It was later adopted by church
musicians for spiritual worship, while still being used in the secular forum for subjects such as
springtime, courtly love and romance. It was even used to convey pain and loss, but with a
closing statement of lightness, “c’est la vie!” (that’s life!). Of note is that this practice is
comparable to that found in the 20th century American blues form.
Rondellus: A three part secular form characterized by trading off between the three different
melodies. A polyphonic work where all the parts start together and then rotate the melody
between the three voices.
Rota: A round or canon in which two or more parts used the same melody, but at different times.
(Think of “Row, Row, Row Your Boat” for an example of this kind of form.) The term was also
used to describe the finale of an instrumental dance work.
Virelai: A French form of poetry and song from the troubadour tradition, it is written with a
courtly text in ABBA form. The word is from the old French word “virer” (to turn or twist),
showing it was derived from an early dance form.
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Section 2: Church Influences
The Catholic Church
The Catholic Encyclopedia notes that the combination of the words “Catholic” and “Church” (he
katholike ekklesia) is seen for the first time in a letter of St. Ignatius to the Smyraeans, around the
year 110, and clearly established as such by the 3rd century. The word “Catholic” also appears in
the Creed by the 4th century (the petition expressing belief in the “holy Catholic church”). When
the Roman Empire formally legalized Christianity during the 4th century, Catholicism spread like
wildfire across Europe.
The Catholic Church quickly gained prominence and rose to power, ultimately dominating all
aspects of society, fusing music with theology and philosophy as the required educational
curriculum. The Church was the focal point of social life, learning and the arts throughout the
Medieval period. Not only does music show this influence and control, but also art and
architecture, in addition to the books and laws of the time.
Two figures represent the influence of the church in the earliest years of the Medieval period: St.
Ambrose and St. Gregory. In addition, they are key figures in the development of music, too.
St. Ambrose: ca. 340-397
St. Ambrose introduced metrical hymnody into the
Daily Office in the West. His influence was widespread
and long-lasting. “Ambrosian” hymns are found in
Catholic hymnals throughout the centuries up until the
time of Vatican II, when chant generally fell out of
favor.
St. Ambrose of Milan was the son of a Roman prefect,
and initially had a career in law and politics, becoming
the Imperial governor of Northern Italy in 370. In 374,
he became the bishop of Milan at the demand of the
citizenry. He accepted the call as the will of God, and
was baptized, ordained first as a deacon, then priest, and
finally as bishop, all in one week.
“The Father of Latin hymnody”
Recognizing his lack of preparation for this role, he
immediately undertook an intensive study of Scripture.
Coupled with prayer and his speaking skills from his legal and political roles made St. Ambrose
one of the great preachers of the early Catholic Church. He was a strong champion of the
church, vehemently opposed to heresy, paganism and hypocrisy, working hard to keep the
Church independent from the government. He also had a significant impact on sacred music of
the time, composing hymns and psalm tones which are known to this day as Ambrosian chant.
He had a lasting impact on musicians of his day and beyond, with hymns originating as late as
the 6th century having been attributed to him, since in this style. Stylistically, the hymns are
quite simple or “austere,” as Richard Chenevix Trench (Protestant Archbishop of Dublin, as
quote in “Sacred Latin Poetry,” London, 1874m 87 sq.) notes: “After being accustomed to the
softer and richer strains of the later Christian poets…it is some little while before one returns
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with a hearty consent and liking to the almost austere simplicity which characterizes the hymns
of St. Ambrose…to appreciate that noble confidence in the surpassing interest of his theme,
which has rendered him indifferent to any but its simplest setting forth….The great objects of
faith in their simplest expression are felt by him so sufficient to stir all the deepest affections of
the heart, that any attempt to dress them up, to array them in moving language, were merely
superfluous.”
There are 14 hymns attributed to St. Ambrose for which music is available, although recordings
are difficult to find, since it is essentially service music (part of the Breviary). The following
example, “Te deum laudamus,” was long attributed to St. Ambrose, but recently has been
determined by historians to be by Nicetas, Bishop of Remesiana (ca. 335-414). Despite this, it is
an excellent example of Ambrosian chant and is beautifully rendered in this recording.
“Te Deum laudamus” (Hymn of Saint Ambrose of Milan)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=if1bVpb_rSo
“Te deum laudamus” was one of only two hymns included in the Anglican Service of 1549. It
has had many uses throughout the history of the Catholic Church, and remains a part of some
service settings to this day. The final petitions were added at a later time and are considered
optional. The English translation of the text is:
We praise Thee, O God: we acknowledge Thee to be the Lord.
All the earth doth worship Thee and the Father everlasting.
To Thee all Angels: to Thee the heavens and all the Powers therein.
To Thee the Cherubim and Seraphim: cry with unceasing voice:
Holy, Holy, Holy: Lord God of Hosts.
The heavens and the earth are full: of the majesty of Thy glory.
Thee the glorious choir: of the Apostles. Thee the admirable company: of the Prophets.
Thee the white-robed army of Martyrs: praise. Thee the Holy Church throughout all the world:
doth acknowledge. The Father of infinite Majesty. Thine adorable, true: and only Son
Also the Holy Ghost: the Paraclete. Thou art the King of Glory: O Christ.
Thou art the everlasting Son: of the Father. Thou having taken upon Thee to deliver man:
didst not abhor the Virgin's womb. Thou having overcome the sting of death:
didst open to believers the kingdom of heaven. Thou sittest at the right hand of God: in the glory of the
Father. We believe that Thou shalt come: to be our Judge. We beseech Thee, therefore, help Thy servants:
whom Thou has redeemed with Thy precious Blood. Make them to be numbered with Thy Saints:
in glory everlasting. Lord, save Thy people: and bless Thine inheritance. Govern them: and lift them up
forever. Day by day: we bless Thee. And we praise Thy name forever: and world without end.
Vouchsafe, O Lord, this day: to keep us without sin. Have mercy on us, O Lord: have mercy on us.
Let Thy mercy, O Lord, be upon us: as we have hoped in Thee. O Lord, in Thee have I hoped: let me never
be confounded.
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St. Gregory the Great:
540-604
St. Gregory was another politician turned religious
figure. The son of a wealthy Roman senator, he
followed in his father’s footsteps, becoming Prefect
(mayor) of Rome for a year before he sold all his
property and used the money to build seven monasteries,
including one in Rome, where he went to live as a monk
(ca. 574). His life was full of deeds to those in need,
and he was elected to succeed Pope Leo the Great in
590, the first monk ever elected to this role.
Also known as Pope Saint Gregory I, he is called the
Doctor of the Church because he wrote many books,
especially on the liturgy of the Mass and the Office, as
well as made laws to govern the Church.
“Doctor of the Church”
His writings lean toward the practical and spiritual,
rather than being doctrinal and theoretical.
His devotion to the liturgy is seen in the music attributed to him from this period, “Gregorian
Chant,” another type of plainsong. St. Gregory the Great is given credit for the final
arrangement of the Roman chant in many historical sources dating from the 9th century through
the 18th century. An example is “Audi benigne Conditor,” a Gregorian Vespers hymn for Lent.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kS_HbU0SI4E
This recording features an animated score to accompany singing by the Auckland Catholic
Music Schola . The translated text is found below:
O kind Creator, bow thine ear to mark the cry, to know the tear Before thy throne of mercy spent in this thy
holy fast of Lent. Our hearts are open, Lord, to thee: thou knowest our infirmity; Pour out on all who seek
thy face abundance of thy pard'ning grace. Our sins are many, this we know; spare us, good Lord, thy
mercy show; And for the honour of thy name our fainting souls to life reclaim. Give us the self-control that
springs from discipline of outward things, That fasting inward secretly the soul may purely dwell with thee.
We pray thee Blessed Trinity, One God, unchanging Unity, That this our fast of forty days may work our
profit and thy praise! Amen.
(St. Gregory the Great; trans. Thomas A. Lacey, 1853-1931)
Jewish roots of Christian liturgical practices
Even though the most significant influence in the Medieval period was the Catholic Church,
there are distinctive Jewish roots to the liturgical practices found in this music. Music as
appropriate medium for addressing God and a tool by which God and his works could be
comprehended and interpreted was not unique to the Catholic Church. In fact, there are
numerous Old Testament references to music as praise to God (such as the “Song of Miriam”),
the psalms of David, and so on. Certain traditions, in particular, were common to both religious
practices.
Perhaps of greatest interest is the use of certain psalms being linked to specific days of the week,
giving a liturgical organization common to both practices. This includes use of responsorial
chant (leader sings something, congregation responds). In addition, the order of worship was an
important common ground, including prayer, praise and religious instruction (Scripture).
Finally, the Scripture readings were done with music, and the music was based on a standard
formula or recipe for how it was to be written in order to worship God.
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Section 3: Other Influences/Factors
Notation
One of the biggest challenges of the Medieval period was establishing a common way to write
down music. Prior to this time, notation was limited, and not done in the same way, thus why
there is so little music around from the earliest days.
Guido of Arezzo (Guido d’arezzo; ca. 990-1050) recognized this problem and sought to develop
a solution to not only notate music, but also help singers to read it.
(Image source: http://www.catholicculture.org/liturgicalyear/activities/view.cfm?id=1128)
This hymn was used as a mnemonic aid for singers. Guido specifically noticed that singers had
problems understanding where half-steps fell in the various modes. To help them remember the
scale steps, Guido used this hymn around 1025 as a mnemonic aid for singers. Each phrase of
the hymn begins a step higher than the previous one, kind of like going up the scale. Guido
developed a system of six solmization syllables (ut, re, mi, fa, sol, and la – using the first word in
each phrase to name them) as a way for singers to remember crucial intervals, making it easier
for them to read music. This system remained the same into the 16th century, when musical
development necessitated evolution. Interestingly, though, this system remains in effect to this
day in the study of sight-singing, and in France, a derivative of the Guidonian custom of not
using letters for pitches persists to this day.
To further assist students and singers in remembering the various syllables and “mutations”
(changes of pitch) a note could receive, Guido related them to the knuckles of the hand, where
each knuckle stood for a specific pitch and its various syllables/mutations. The illustration of
“Guido’s Hand” found below shows how this system worked and how it was also a memory aid,
again, well into the 16th century.
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(Image source: http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/ds/ucb/images/DS004539aA.jpg)
Music as the Knowledge of Numbers
Anicius Manlisu Severinus Boethius (ca. 470-525), a Roman
philosopher, espoused the idea that music is number made audible.
Using a legend of Pythagoras as the basis for his work, the story goes
that Pythagoras heard hammers beating on the anvils of a forge,
creating beautiful harmony. Determined to understand how this was
possible, Pythagoras weighed the hammers, and created ratios based
on their weights to explain the sounds he had heard. Simply put,
music gets its beauty from the pure world of numbers, thus
Boethius’s assertion that music is number made audible. Boethius
then took this concept further, creating three levels of music that had
further interconnected relationships or levels, with the ratios being the
rationale for why music was enjoyable; it wasn’t enough to say that
you liked music because it sounded nice; the ratios and the levels were what gave music its
beauty to his thinking. These three levels of music are:
1. Musica mundana - music of the spheres/world
2. Musica humana - harmony of human body and spiritual harmony
3. Musica instrumentalis - instrumental music (including the human voice)
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Section 4: Social/Historical Context
The word Medieval means middle ages (med=middle; eval=ages). Despite some of rather grim
elements, like the plague and general poverty, it wasn’t all bad, though. The times were
relatively peaceful, and improvements in farming and other techniques resulted in the ability to
sell excess goods. Lifespan was also growing longer. For those who survived childhood disease,
most enjoyed 20 to 30 “good years” before succumbing to the perils of “old age” in their 40s and
50s. Some lucky and exceptionally hardy individuals lived into their 60s, 70s and even 80s, and
were deemed to be examples of how God’s blessings could extend a person’s life!
As was mentioned in Section 2, the Catholic Church touched every person's life in every level of
society. Every child was baptized and then entered a life of service to the church, since everyone
had responsibility to the Church and fell beneath its laws. Everyone paid taxes to the Church as
well as to their feudal lord. In turn, the Church controlled not only the people, but the leaders,
plus made political alliances, and even controlled royal marriages. The Pope was the head of the
Church and was considered to be God's representative on earth. Anyone who defied the church
was met with excommunication, a powerful punishment upon the offender. In the Church
hierarchy, beneath the Pope were the bishops, ruling over the priests of the parishes. Every
nation was divided into parishes over which a priest led. Every town had a parish church,
generally the largest building in the town. Most of the parishioners were illiterate and depended
on the priest for religious and Biblical instruction. (Remember, this was pre-Guttenberg, before
the Bible was translated into the language of the people.) The priest’s instruction included a
service (in Latin that parishioners did not understand) and a sermon, which was given in the
native language of the parish. Even when you died, the Church still controlled you, since around
it were the consecrated burial grounds for the parish, reserved only for those who were in “good
standing.” Anyone who had been excommunicated or in some other way had offended the
Church were not allowed to be buried within the consecrated grounds.
Church dating to Medieval times, Erice, Sicily
Another aspect of the time that is difficult to understand today is the lack of individualism and
privacy experienced by all people. Partly this was due to a lack of being able to travel far, plus
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the relative poverty, but also because that had always been the way life was lived. Living
quarters were cramped, even for the nobles, and the lack of full house heating we are accustomed
to made it usual for nobles to have huge beds (12 feet wide!) that allowed the noble, his wife,
their children, and even some servants and key members of the noble’s knights to sleep together
in the coldest days of winter. Likewise, the noble household members dined together, not only
to encourage loyalty but also because there was no refrigeration so meat and cooked food had to
be eaten right away or it would spoil. So, people lived in close quarters, and didn’t even think
about privacy as we know it today. In fact, anyone who went off by themselves was thought to
be extremely pious, or mad, or even a little of both!
Finally, for aristocratic children, they were typically given two choices: either accept an
arranged marriage or choose life in a convent or monastery. Interestingly, many chose religious
life, “dropping out” of society rather than fulfill their royal obligations. In addition, many kings
and queens chose to live out their “retirement years” in convents and monasteries as well. This
is particularly interesting, since some of the composers featured in this unit were of noble birth
who chose religious life, and ultimately benefited from the educational opportunities it afforded
them.
Musica speculativa is another important concept from this time. This is the term used to
describe the philosophical, mathematical, scientific and even psychological bases and elements
of music. Music was fully intertwined with these disciplines in a complex process of education
in a symbiotic relationship that drew upon the other facets. Of particular interest is the study of
philosophy during this period.
Philosophy: The study of philosophy from the Medieval period could easily comprise an entire
course and study guide of its own. For the purposes of this course, we will look at the key points
that impacted music of the period.
Again, the Church emerges as a primary influence. Christian institutions such as monasteries
sustained all intellectual life in this period, and created the curriculum by which students were
considered to be educated. History considers this philosophical theology to be one of the
greatest achievements of Medieval philosophy, in that the great thinkers of this period, as highly
trained theologians, readily combined philosophical ideas, argument and logic and conceptual
analysis to the various questions they explored to understand the world.
The Church retained this exclusive control of education until the 12th century, when Universities
began to emerge. As the students were then able to firsthand study Aristotle, they were at the
same time discovering works by Jewish and Islamic philosophers, such as Avencebrol and
Avicenna respectively. Some of their works were commentaries on Aristotle, providing the
students with understanding and insight, while also sparking debate and discussion. Ironically,
the same Boethius who defined music as number (see Section 3), translated Aristotle and Plato
into Latin since he felt that general intellectual ability of his time was declining to a point that
students could not read the original Greek! Unfortunately, he had just begun his efforts here
when he was executed for treason (suspected of conspiring with the Byzantine empire), and thus
the Greek classics were lost for hundreds of years, with this resource being reclaimed at the same
time the Universities emerged.
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Section 5: Instruments
Many of the instruments of the Medieval period are the predecessors to our modern instruments, such as
guitar and clarinet, and some are not much different today to how they were at that time. Some specific
period instruments that will be heard in the upcoming musical examples include:
Chalumeau: A simple rustic reed-pipe, an ancestor of the clarinet, with 6 to 8 finger-holes.
Dulcimer: A shallow closed box over which are stretched wires to be struck with 2 wooden
hammers held in the player's hands. Also known as a Cimbalon.
Flute: A Woodwind instrument of ancient origin formerly made of wood. In the Medieval
period, there were two methods of producing sound: either blowing across a round mouth-hole
as on the panpipes or transverse (side-blown) flute or blowing into a whistle mouthpiece (endblown) as on the recorder. During Medieval times, the word flute was indiscriminately used to
denote both side and end blown types.
Harp: an instrument of very ancient lineage, it can be simply described as an open frame over
which is stretched a graduated series of strings, which are vibrated by plucking with the fingers.
Lute: A fretted stringed instrument played by plucking with fingers (or with a pick). The lute
has a round body, like a halved pear, a flat neck with seven or more frets, and a separate pegbox
usually bent back from the neck at an angle.
Mandolin: A plucked instrument of the lute family, usually with 8 strings tuned in pairs and
played with a pick, generally in a sustained tremolo or vibrating type of motion.
Oliphant: horn made of elephant tusk
Organ: Portative organs or organetto were used at this time. These were small and able to be
moved around. The positive organ was perhaps the most important instrument in this family as it
was medium size, unable to be moved around, and was the first for which polyphonic music was
composed. Around 1300, the very large pipe organs we are familiar with in contemporary times
began to appear in the churches of Europe.
Percussion: Kettledrums, also called nakers or timpani, were used in pairs during this era. A
cylindrical drum called a tabor was also used. Bells and cymbals of all sorts were also
commonly used.
Psaltery: A plucked string instrument with a flat sounding board, similar to the zither.
Rebec: Bowed string instrument with a pear-shaped body.
Recorder: A woodwind instrument of ancient ancestry, made without a reed. The recorder is the
forerunner of the flute, but is end-blown through a whistle-mouthpiece. It has seven finger-holes
in front and one thumb-hole behind, and a beak-shaped mouthpiece.
Shawm: double reed wing instrument.
Trumpet: made of wood or metal at this time
Vielle: Bowed string instrument.
Zither: A folk instrument, which consists of a flat wooden soundbox over which are stretched
four or five melody strings, and up to thirty-seven accompanying strings. The melody strings are
nearest to the player, and are stopped on a fretted fingerboard with fingers of the left hand and
plucked by a plectrum on the right thumb. The accompanying strings are plucked by fingers of
either hand.
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(Image source: http://flickr.com/photos/14307737@N00/2158254172/)
Relief carving of Medieval instruments from the Minster at Beverly (England)
29
Section 6: Key Figures
For years, the male composers of the Medieval period were always studied as the only significant
figures of this time. Even today, with the notable exception of Hildegard of Bingen, men are still
known as the key contributors to the music of this time. Part of this is due to the greater problem
of the time, which is simply that much of the music is not credited to any composer, male or
female. Further, women were often writing only functional music; for example, nuns writing
liturgical music for use by their sisters for worship. The church’s stance on women playing
instruments in general, along with a grim view of all types of secular music, coupled with limited
resources to notate music, thus further limits the amount of examples available from this time
period.
For the purposes of this course, we will focus in this section on three key male figures from the
period: Bernart de Ventadorn, Philippe de Vitry, and Guillaume de Machaut. Each represents a
significant development of the period, with extant music and recordings available.
Bernart de Ventadorn
(ca. 1130-ca. 1200)
French troubadour poet and composer Bernart de
Ventadorn is considered one of the most important
troubadours because of his musical ability. He is also
notable as the prominent member of the idealist school
of troubadours who sang of chivalric love rather than the
then-common heavier themes. He served in the court of
Eleanor of Aquitaine (grandmother of Queen Blanche),
and some of his songs even spread to other parts of
Europe. He was a highly influential composer, and his
work in northern France is believed to have contributed
to the development of the trouvere tradition there.
Eighteen of his poems with their music survive to this
day, more than any of his contemporaries.
His song “Quan vie la lauzeta mover” (When I see the
lark beat his wings) was very popular and its being
spread throughout Europe demonstrated not only his
popularity, but confirms his importance for spreading
the troubadour genre throughout Europe as a whole.
Follow the link to hear and watch a performance of this piece. Written around 1180, it is being
played in this performance on an oud.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3HDxDtcyNx0
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Philippe de Vitry: 1291-1361
(no photos available of this composer)
French prelate, music theorist,
poet and composer Philippe de
Vitry studied at the Sorbonne
(one of the early Universities) and
was ordained as a deacon while
still young. He served the French
royal court in many politic roles,
including to the papal court, and
was ultimately appointed bishop
of Meaux.
He was considered one of the
leading intellectuals of his time,
and recognized by Petrarch as
“the unparalleled poet of France.”
Image of de Vitry’s famous treatise “Ars nova”
His place in history, though, is for
his work as a musician. Most
notable is his famous treatise “Ars nova,” written around 1320 about the “new art,” and dealing
with the theoretical aspects of French music of the first half of the 14th century. 24 chapters
long, it included discussion of the new theories of mensural notation, which recognizes the
existence of five note values, codifies a system of duple and triple meter (mensuration) in four
levels, and also introduces four time signatures. (This was a big deal for this time; remember
that notation was still in its infancy and this work along with de Vitry’s motets written this way,
really moved music forward.)
Sadly, most of de Vitry’s music, save for a few motets, did not survive. These surviving motets
reflect the theoretical developments de Vitry so eloquently describes in “Ars nova.” The link
found below will bring you to a recording by the Medieval music ensemble “Sequentia”, on a
work by de Vitry titled “Firmissime fidem teneamus/Adesto, sancta trinitas/Alleluya,
Benedictus”.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W4e14GzNeKg
If you’re interested in knowing more about the modern day performance of Medieval music or
just learning more about the ensemble “Sequentia”, check out their web site at this link:
http://sequentia.org
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Guillaume de Machaut: ca. 1300-1377
French composer and poet Guillaume de
Machaut was the leading composer of the Ars
Nova movement of the 14th century. His music
embodied a spontaneity and lyricism that
foreshadowed the art of the Renaissance. He
was one of the earliest known users of
syncopated rhythm and was a leader in rhythmic
experimentation in both sacred and secular
genres.
Although he is best known for “La Messe de
Notre Dame” (Notre Dame Mass), his heart was
really in his secular music, and in it, he
embodied the world of chivalry and spirit of
courtly love.
Machaut took holy orders and ultimately served the King of Bohemia, and then other members
of the French nobility, from 1323 until his death. Throughout these years, he wrote more than
140 mainly polyphonic works, all of which are preserved in 32 manuscripts, making it the largest
collection of music available from a single composer of this time period. Machaut is considered
the last great poet of France to view poetry and music as a single entity, and that is readily heard
in his compositions.
In addition to the sacred and secular vocal music for which he is so well known, Machaut also
wrote some of the first purely instrumental music in the West in “Hoquetus David.”
Compositionally, Machaut followed and developed the guidelines of de Vitry’s “Ars nova”
treatise, and especially followed his advocation of using duple time in most of his works, even
the Ordinary of the Mass. He epitomized the chivalric world, writing many love songs, and in
fact, near the end of his life, falling in love with a much younger woman and courting her
through letters, poems and songs, as was the courtly love tradition, in order to win her love.
Even though he was quite innovative rhythmically, Machaut is really a composer at the
crossroads of conservatism and innovation, with his music falling between those who devoted
their lives to keeping the traditions of the previous century and those who fought to make the
new ideas the rule. It is his “middle of the road” posture that most likely made him so popular.
There was enough familiar and enough new to make him very interesting, and that will be heard
in the two examples found below.
Recognized as the most respected composer of his time, at his death, a peer memorialized him
thus: “Men of arms, lovers, ladies and their knights, clerks, musicians, and those who write in
French, all thinkers, poets, and all you who sing harmoniously with tuneful voice and hold dear
the sweet art of music, give full feeling to your rightful grief, and lament the death of Machaut,
the noblest bard.”
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“La Messe de Notre Dame” (ca. 1364) is one of the first Masses to have been written by a single
composer (previously, the various parts were assembled from music of different composers). In
addition, it is the first polyphonic Mass (rather than in plainchant), and also employed his
innovative rhythmic techniques (like isorhythm-the repeated overlapping of a rhythm pattern in
various melodic forms), making it a true milestone in the evolution of the Mass as a musical
form in and of itself.
This link goes to a performance of the Agnus Dei as
performed by cantato dai solisti dell’Abbazia di Solesmes.
Note the purity of the sound and the sheer beauty of the
male voices as they weave in and out of each other as their
lines overlap.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bHRAYbgdxew
In his chanson, “Rose, liz, printemps,” Machaut brings the
trouveres into the polyphonic age. This sample exemplifies
his secular music, as sung by Lionhart in a 1999 concert.
The complete text in both the original French and English
translation is included for reference.
http://www.chantboy.com/lionheart/machaut.htm
Rose, liz, printemps, verdure,
Fleur, baume et tres douce odour,
Bele, passés en douçour,
Rose, liz, spring, greenery,
Flower, balsam and very sweet odor,
Bele, crossed there douçour,
Et tous les biens de Nature,
Avez don’t je vous aour.
Rose, liz, printemps, verdure,
Fleur, baume et tres douce oudour.
And all the property of Nature,
Have of what I to you,
Rose, liz, spring, greenery,
Flower balm and very soft odor.
Et quant toute creature
Seurmonte vostre valour,
Bien puis dire et par honnour:
Rose, liz, printemps, verdure,
Bele, passes en douçour.
And as any creature
Seurmonte vostre valour,
Well then say and honor:
Rose, liz, spring, greenery,
Bele, crossed there douçour.
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Section 7: Role of Women
Not surprisingly, perhaps, members of religious orders dominated the women’s music scene in
the Medieval period, with notated music readily available as well as biographical information.
This was partly because convents offered women access to musical literacy, and thus the
opportunity to write and perform music. This was despite the restraints placed on women’s role
by the Church Fathers as early as the 4th century, in which they elaborated on St. Paul’s dictum
“mulieres in ecclesies taceant” (“Let your women keep silent in the churches, for they are not
permitted to speak, but they are to be submissive as the law also says”; 1 Corinthians xiv.34).
The 9th to 13th centuries in particular comprised a period of relative power and freedom for
women. Noblewomen had many of the same legal and economic privileges as men, especially in
northern Europe, and most especially in France. Women could take over their husbands’
businesses upon their deaths, could belong to most guilds, and were expected to administer the
household and financial affairs of their husbands’ estates. Even peasant women had a peer
relationship with men, being able to work beside them.
While there is historical reference to secular women musicians and composers of the period,
including the troubadours and trouveres, there is little notated music extant from this genre, save
for that of select noblewomen. Music, in general, had a functional or transitory nature to it; it
was created for a specific use, say to entertain, or support worship, but without credit to either
the male or female composer.
In this unit, we will focus on three women composers for whom there are extant scores, as well
as recorded music available. Each is significant musically and historically in her own right, as
the biographical information and musical examples will demonstrate.
Kassia: 801- ca. 867
Kassia was a renowned Byzantine composer of chant.
She was probably born and raised in Constantinople.
Her family was aristocratic as her father served in the
emperor’s court. Her education is uncertain, but she was
skilled in classical Greek. Rumors abound as to
Kassia’s early life, with a legend of her having been
beaten for helping exiles and imprisoned monks around
825. Another tale has Kassia being considered as a wife
by the Emperor Theophilis in 830, but being rejected
because she spoke up for women. Her life between 830
and 843 is uncertain; it is not known if she ever married
or had children. She is next heard from in 843, when
she founded a monastery in Constantinople and became
its first abbess. Her hymns are believed to have come
from this period, with some scholars believing she wrote
in secular verse prior to this time.
Kassia’s extant writings include 49 attributed hymns (30 of which are still used in the Eastern
Orthodox liturgy). Of these 49 hymns, 47 are troparia (short praise hymns) and 2 are canons
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(hymn cycles of eight odes). A set of troparia by Kassia represents the first surviving music by a
female composer. Her works demonstrate her originality and ability as both a poet and as a
composer. The poetry guides the structure of the music, with her works being much more
original than those of her contemporaries, both male and female. Likely this originality and
imaginativeness are part of the reason her music was saved and recorded in the Byzantine
chronicles of the day. Her contemporaries were much less creative, with wordier poetry and
long, drawn out music. They also paid little attention to musical structure. By contrast, Kassia’s
music is concise and she set her texts syllabically. Her legendary wit is evident in her poetry and
how she plays with words, as well as the structure of her compositions, with the two interlinked
by musical motives that symbolize and reflect her text. (This is certainly an early predecessor of
the 20th century “tone painting” genre.)
Kassia’s historical importance may also lie in the fact that she was the only hymnographer of her
time who wrote a hymn about the “fallen woman,” Mary Magdalene, a subject that male
hymnographers in particular did not find worthy of any attention. Thus, her most famous
troparia is “The Fallen Woman.” It is still used today during Holy Week in the Orthodox church,
sung in the Morning Office of Holy Wednesday, but technically celebrated at the end of the
Vespers service of Holy Tuesday. The hymn is about Mary Magdalene, the “fallen woman” who
washed Christ’s feet, anointed them, and wiped them with her long hair. (Luke 7: 36-50)
An Orthodox image of Mary Magdalene; note the similarity to the portrait of Kassia!
Image source: http://www.logoi.com/pastimages/mary_magdalene.html
The hymn is also considered to be at least partly autobiographical. History suggests that
Emperor Theophilos later regretted not choosing Kassia as his bride, and he kept trying to see
her to express this and to proclaim his love. Although Kassia avoided him, she felt that she had
returned his love in her heart, and thus had also become a “fallen woman.” Legend also suggests
that while Kassia was in the middle of writing the poem for this hymn, the Emperor made one of
his unexpected visits, and she fled to avoid him, leaving the unfinished poem on her desk. When
the Emperor entered her monastery cell, legend suggests he saw the poem and added the lines
“those feet at whose sound Eve in Paradise hid for fear.” The lines contain a delicious double
entendre: Eve hiding from God, and Kassia hiding from Theophilus. Although out of context
with her theme of a fallen woman, legend says that Kassia kept the Emperor’s addition. In some
ways, this legendary aspect helped make this hymn so well known.
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Follow this link for a video recording of this hymn:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jQBY95YVruk
The translated text of this troparia is:
O Lord, the woman who had fallen into many sins,
Perceiving Your divinity,
Took the part of a myrrh-bearer;
Weeping, she brings oils of myrrh
Before your burial.
“Woe to me,” she says, “for night
is a frenzy of license to me,
a dark, moonless love of sin.
“Receive the fountains of my tears,
O You who gather the sea-waters into clouds
Incline to the groanings of my hearts,
O You who laid low the heavens by Your ineffable humility.
“I shall kiss Your immaculate feet,
wipe them again with the hair of my head,
those feet at whose sound Eve in Paradise hid for fear.
“The multitude of my sins, the depths of your judgments,
who can search them out, O Savior of souls?
Do not despise me, Your handmaiden,
O You whose mercy admits of no measure.”
Kassia also wrote 261 known epigrams and gnomic verses (short, witty poems, expressing a
single thought of observation, or concise, clever, often paradoxical statements, some being only
one line). An example from her epigrams is this one-liner: “Love everyone, but don’t trust
all.”
Hildegard of Bingen: 1098-1181
Hildegard, an abbess from Germany, was a leading
figure in 12th century culture, and one of several
prominent female mystics in the 12th and 13th centuries
and is the “superstar” female composer of the Medieval
period. While music history has long acknowledged her
presence, only recently has the full scope of her
achievement become known. Hildegard created the
largest body of attributed monophonic chant of this
period. She also wrote the first allegorical morality
play, “Ordo virtutum,” the only Medieval music drama
in which both music and text are attributed.
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Hildegard has enjoyed a recent revival of her music some 800 years after it was written (thanks
to Anonymous 4 and other performance groups). However, she is not always celebrated as a
mainstream composer, since her music was exceptionally creative and poetry rather mystical,
putting her somewhat outside of the “mainstream” of the time. Regardless, her contribution is
significant and extant, in large part, to this uniqueness.
Juan Louis Vives, a noted 16th century scholar, in his book “De institutione feminae christianae,”
wrote that “the letters and learned books of the German maiden, Hildegard, are in everyone’s
hands,” clearly showing her long-lasting impact despite her uniqueness for her time.
Sample of Hildegard’s music in period notation
Known for her mysticism, Hildegard was certainly charismatic, drawing the attention of royalty
and Popes, and preaching to many persons. She wrote poetry, tracts on theology and medicine,
and of course, composed music. Her music and poetry is said to have come to her in her
numerous visions which she then recorded. The antiphon, “Caritas abundat” (Divine love
abounds) exhibits just such a mystical and deeply religious air, similar to the quality of most of
Hildegard’s chants. Her spreading of words over several notes makes it seem as if the singer is
vocalizing rather than intoning words at times, adding to the mystical quality of the music.
Follow this link to the video recording of “Caritas abundat.”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCZdjYrB788
Text for “Caritas abundat” in both the original Latin and in English translation:
Caritas abundat in omnia,
de imis excellentissima
super sidera,
atque amantissima in omnia,
osculum pacis dedit.
quia summo Regi
Loving tenderness abounds for all
from the darkest
to the most eminent one beyond the stars,
Exquisitely loving all
she bequeaths the kiss of peace
upon the ultimate King.
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Queen Blanche of Castile:
1188-1252
Blanche was born in Castile, then a kingdom of what we
now know as central and northern Spain. She was
brought to France by her grandmother, Eleanor of
Aquataine, to marry the heir to the French throne, the
future Louis VIII. As mother of Louis IX, she governed
France as regent during his youth and again when Louis
went on a crusade in 1248. Since Blanche was of noble
birth, she was able to receive an education unavailable
to most women and men outside of religious orders.
Her nobility, along with her education and wealth,
probably helped assure the survival of her songs
throughout these many centuries.
Writing in the vernacular and the secular tradition, and most definitely the language of courtly
love, Queen Blanche provides a glimpse into the otherwise mostly unavailable secular trouvere
songs of Medieval women. Note the similarity to the courtly love themes seen in the works of
her male contemporaries. This was a particularly popular theme in secular music of this era.
This sample file of “Amours, ou trop tart me sui pris” (“Love, with whom too late I am allied)
provides a nice taste of her work. Performed by soprano, accompanied by psaltery and medieval
fiddle, the performance is representative of what was common secular music performance
practice from this time.
http://www.leonarda.com/le340.html
Entire text of “Amours, ou trop tart me sui pris” translated to English:
Love, with whom too late I am allied,
Has instructed me through its lordship,
Sweet lady of Paradise.
That I should want to sing-a-song of you;
For the joy which can endure
One should serve and love you.
Virgin Queen, sacred lily,
How much joy fills him
Who is full of love for you;
No one can say,
For the joy which can endure
One should serve and love you.
Well chosen was the vessel,
Sweet Lady, where the Holy Spirit was,
For nine full months nourished,
For it was, Lady, your heart.
For the joy which can endure
One should serve and love you.
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Section 8: Additional Musical Examples
The internet abounds with Medieval musical examples. The list below annotates just a few of
the many free resources available. In addition, there are many more fee-required recordings
available through some of these same links, as well as on the music services of iTunes and
Rhapsody.
Follow this link to access several samples of Kassia’s work: http://www.vocame.de/en/musik/
You are encouraged to explore several of the samples to get a good sense of her style.
Medieval Songs, Dances & Chant: http://www.leonarda.com/le340.html This link connects to a
“sampler” of songs from the recording entitled “The Medieval Lady” and features music by
Medieval women composers.
Hildegard recordings: http://www.earlywomenmasters.net/cds/ has several excellent mp3s of
Hildegard’s works using actual instruments and voice; as a caution, the site also has some midi
files of recordings which do not do justice to the music of this era!
Hildegard and Machaut compositions: the following link has mp3 files of performances of
Umea Akademiska Kor of both of these composers; the recordings are very good. The site also
features an entire listing of works by many Medieval composers, so it is well worth exploring for
anyone interested in hearing more of this type of music.
http://www.acc.umu.se/~akadkor/conserts/2006-01-15.html
Finally, you can find virtually anything and everything at http://www.youtube.com
Youtube’s search engine is excellent; just type in a composer name or style or a title or a few
words, and you will find many more examples of Medieval music by all the composers featured
in this unit, and many more.
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Section 9: Resources for Further Study
This unit provided an overview of key concepts and figures of the period. For those interested in
learning more about specific subject areas, the following resources are provided for further
study.
On the Internet:
Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01383c.htm By using the search
engine or alphabetical search guide, this online encyclopedia is a topnotch source for the
Catholic perspective, especially as relates to period music and figures.
Early Women Masters, http://www.earlywomenmasters.net A wonderful source for snapshot
information on women composers, and even links to recordings.
Hildegard Publishing, http://www.hildegard.com/ Great short biographies of women composers,
plus sheet music for purchase.
International Machaut Society. http://www.loyno.edu/~avclark/Machaut/imslinks.htm For all
things Machaut – detailed bibliography including biographical information, music/recordings.
MacDonald, Scott and Norman Kretzmann (1998). Medieval philosophy. In E. Craig (Ed.),
Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved July 09, 2008, from
http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/B078 This link goes to an excellent, detailed source with
lots of cross-study links imbedded throughout the site. This site is for anyone wanting to study
philosophy and its inter-relationship with theology from this time in more detail.
The Musica Antiqua group at Iowa State maintains an excellent website of Medieval and
Renaissance era instruments. Click this link to reach their main page, and then select the link for
any instruments you’d like to know more about to see pictures, read more about the instrument,
and in some cases, hear a sound sample. http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/instrumt.html
Touliatos-Miles, Diane. “Women Composers in Byzantium.” Retrieved July 7, 2008, from
http://web.archive.org/web/20061023191159/symposium.music.org/cgibin/m_symp_show.pl?id=207
Simply the best accounting of the women composers from this period, with an excellent account
of the life and work of Kassia in particular, including transcriptions of the music by the author.
Link to bonus article by the same author: http://www.hellenicnest.com/womencomp2.html
Touliatos-Miles is a foremost writer on this subject and this article provides additional insights
into the women of this period.
Books:
Seay, Albert. “Music in the Medieval World, 2nd Edition,” Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1975. An
excellent, albeit male-dominated, overview of the Medieval period in music history. The book
includes cultural, philosophical and religious aspects that shaped this period. This book gets
heavy at times, but overall is very reader friendly for anyone wanting to go into some more depth
on this period.
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Hoppin, Richard H. “Medieval Music (The Norton Introduction to Music History),” W.W.
Norton & Company, 1978. Extremely detailed and excellent accounting of the Medieval period,
intended for the music major/graduate music student studying this period. The companion book
of scores provides annotated sheet music for the period.
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Unit 3: Renaissance Period
1450 – 1600 A.D.
“Renaissance” means “rebirth,” and indeed, the Renaissance period was just such a period in
music history. The objective of the scholars and artists of this time was to put aside the
Medieval period’s concepts and to embrace or restore both the philosophical and artistic ideals of
classical antiquity (the period preceding the Medieval period), including the creation of art for
art’s sake. Many historians consider the Renaissance to be the beginning of modern history.
While this goal was relatively easily put forth in the philosophical arena, that wasn’t quite the
case in the musical arena. Indeed, while a “Renaissance spirit” can be felt in the songs of Dufay
(smooth, flowing lines), the contrapuntal or imitative harmonic aspects coming to the fore at the
end of the Medieval continued to develop and in fact, became increasingly complex at the period
unfolded. The development of printing further allowed knowledge to become spread more easily
and music became published instead of hand-copied, allowing its more ready distribution, and
thus available for teaching purposes. The resulting hybrid of the “smooth” and the “imitative”
styles is found in the music of Palestrina and Byrd, among others. This characteristic musical
style of the Renaissance is found both in secular and sacred music, both vocal and instrumental.
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Section 1: Main Musical Forms/Stylistic Elements
As noted in the introduction to this unit, the characteristic musical style of the period is a hybrid
of the smooth, flowing lines of those looking back to classical antiquity, and the imitative or
contrapuntal complexity of those who continued to develop the techniques that emerged near the
end of the Medieval period. This hybrid can be described as a smooth, homogeneous, imitative
polyphonic style. The vocal styles remained the dominant genres, but separate instrumental
styles were emerging and becoming independent forms in their own right.
This style will be found in both secular and sacred music genres.
In secular music, the style is particularly found in the vocal madrigals, as well as the instrumental
consort music. In sacred music, the style is found mainly in the masses and motets.
Imitative polyphony continued to develop, foreshadowing the complex counterpoint of the
subsequent Baroque period. Interestingly, even as this complex style was emerging, the
Renaissance imitative polyphony, with its smooth lines, remained popular in sacred music well
into the 17th century, and even beyond, being recognized in many schools as the most “fitting”
manner for church music.
One of the interesting challenges facing modern musicians who perform music of the
Renaissance is to not be lured into the conventions of the barline and what various time
signatures “tell us” what to do when we perform. Stylistically, it’s difficult to not respond in this
way, since musicians are so conditioned to have strong downbeats, and having the rhythm in
some ways dictate interpretation of the music. The challenge then is to use contemporary
transcriptions of Renaissance music as guideposts, and to take extreme care to let the rhythmic
polyphony “flow” as it was meant to be performed. Likewise, singers have to take care to use a
vocal quality that is more folk-like or non-Western, and to avoid the “bel canto” (aka operatic)
style so prevalent in post-Renaissance music. The recordings used throughout this section
demonstrate the careful approach contemporary musicians have taken to preserve the stylistic
intent of the Renaissance.
One other thing to note when listening is the “niceness” or harmoniousness of the resulting
sounds. The imitation/polyphony, rather than being the sole stylistic feature, instead provide
some very lovely harmonies that make this music less trying to modern ears than the Medieval
music that proceeded it, and also easier to understand the words.
Definitions of Key Musical Styles/Forms
The Roman Catholic Church continued to dominate religious music, but the newly emerging
Protestant church also developed new musical forms to support their new churches, especially in
Germany, France and England. Religious music was still the dominant musical form, but this
was decreasing as the period unfolded and secular music gained much ground. Likewise, vocal
music was still dominant, but independent instrumental styles began to emerge and also develop.
Instruments were also used more freely in the performance of vocal music, and musicians were
encouraged to improvise or “embellish” (ornament) the written music. There were also many
transcriptions of vocal works for instruments Perhaps of greatest note is the overall emergence
43
of works that displayed more artistic freedom and individualism, despite the “rules” still being
imposed upon composers.
Anthem: A new form that developed first in England after 1534 for the Anglican church. The
term was probably derived from the Catholic liturgical “antiphon” and soon assumed a vital
place in services of most Protestant denominations. Texts came from a variety of sources (not
just the Bible) and were always in the vernacular of the region. The use of the term was rather
loosely applied to a variety of religious music used in this way, and remains quite flexibly used
to modern times.
Ballade: A continuation of the form first seen in the Medieval period; a one-movement piece
with lyrical and dramatic story-telling qualities.
Ballata: A continuation of the form first seen in the Medieval period; a dance song with a clear
sectional structure and refrains.
Caccia: A return of a Medieval form; used a canon that was based on continuous imitation of
two or more parts, with upper parts in imitation and the lowest part moving in slow notes and
played on an instrument rather than sung.
Canon: Think of “Row, Row, Row Your Boat.” This is an imitative style where one part starts
out with the melody, with another part coming in with the same melody a little later, and other
parts joining at various points to form a lush harmonic structure through the simple repetition of
melodic parts at staggered intervals. In addition to the mensuration canon described first, canons
were also written in retrograde (melody sung backwards), augmentation (where the time values
of the notes get longer in the imitating voices), and as double canons (two different melodies,
each canonically imitated).
Cantus Firmus: The cantus firmus was a repeating melody. Used primarily as a new mass form,
each section of the ordinary had the same melody, usually written in plainsong style (although
sometime secular melodies were used).
Canzone: Popular vocal form in Italy; usually in four parts, with a strong beat and dance-like
rhythms. This form is a predecessor of the madrigal.
Carol: Popular music form in England; usually had two parts and was sung to a religious poem
with lots of verses and a refrain.
Chanson: French secular song form; typically used the same polyphonic texture as the mass, but
more rhythmic, with the melody in the top voice.
Chorale: One of the most important forms that came from the Protestant Reformation. This is a
hymn meant to be sung by the congregation. Chorales began as monophonic works (single line),
but gradually evolved to four-part harmony and the still prevalent harmonic form found in most
traditional Protestant hymns.
Concertato: An instrumental or vocal style where groups of instruments or voices share a
melody, usually alterating it. Gabrieli started the style using groups of instruments in different
parts of the cathedral and used the echo effect to create a “stereo” sound. This is the beginning
of this form which took even greater shape during the Baroque period.
Fugue: In the Renaissance, the term was used to denote specifically imitative works (following
specific rules). This is really the beginning of this form that takes its full shape in the Baroque
period.
Hymns: Usually a religious song, written for praise, adoration or prayer, addressed to God. The
term comes from the Greek word “hymnos” (a song of praise).
Instrumental Consort: An instrumental ensemble, often used to accompany vocal music.
Lied: A popular German secular song form; typically written for four voices with imitative
counterpoint. Often based on existing popular songs.
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Madrigal: Secular song form; grew out of the canzone tradition, with greater expressiveness,
more elaborate contrapuntally, and generally more “polished” in terms of musical organization.
Mass: Organization of liturgical music for Catholic Church worship. The cantus firmus mass
was a new development of the Renaissance. This was a setting where each successive section
had the same melody; the melodies were usually written in the plainsong style of the Medieval
period, but some used secular music. Another development was the parody mass, where a
secular chanson or motet was altered to fit the text of the mass. Regardless of the style, the mass
was polyphonic, although use of actually canon technique became much less used by the early
1500s.
Motet: Sacred choral composition based on a single Latin text and sung in all voice parts, with
the melody in the top voice; usually short in length; written on a variety of subjects, usually
derived from the Bible. Depending on country of origin, may be written as a duet, or in
fugal/imitative style or counterpoint.
Prelude/Choral Prelude: The prelude was the main improvisational form of the Renaissance;
usually composed for keyboard or lute, making use of a collection of materials to give the
listener a feeling of improvisation. A choral prelude is a contrapuntal arrangement of a chorale
which was played on an organ.
Psalms: A predominantly French form, Biblical Psalms were translated to French and then set to
melodies; usually sung in unison by congregations and meant to be sung at home, too.
Sometimes arranged into four part harmony with more elaborate contrapuntal arrangements as
the era progressed.
Quodlibet: A popular German secular song form; had various popular tunes and their texts
humorously combined in a contrapuntal manner.
Rondeau: A continuation of a Medieval form that remained popular in the early Renaissance
period. The form calls for a rigid repeated pattern of verse and refrain, following the evolving
rhyme scheme of the poetry.
Toccata: A virtuosic work for keyboard or plucked string instrument that features fast-moving,
lightly fingered sections, emphasizing the agility of the performer’s fingers. Sometimes used in
works for multiple instruments, but typically refers to works for solo instruments. The form first
appears in the Renaissance and reaches it highest development during the Baroque period and the
work of J.S. Bach.
Variation/Ground: The theme and variation form was one based on a popular tune which was
then modified with each restatement (variation). Another version was the ground, which used
short themes of four to eight measures in the bass and had a changing counterpoint played above
it. The cantus firmus variation used a single melody which was repeated many times, and
usually accompanied by a different counterpoint and in a different voice with each repetition.
Villancico (Spanish)/Villanella: A four part secular work with a regular metric construction.
Text was based on a three verse poem and with performed as a solo song with instruments
playing the three lower parts.
Virelai: A continuation of a Medieval French form of poetry and song from the troubadour
tradition, it is written with a courtly text in ABBA form. The word is from the old French word
“virer” (to turn or twist), showing it was derived from an early dance form.
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Section 2: Church Influences
As the Catholic Church began to lose its juggernaut-like control over society as a whole, two
other groups began to gain prominence: the Lutherans and the Calvinists. This section will
explore the three groups and their roles in society as a whole and, in particular, how they
impacted the music of the period.
In some ways, the Catholics represented the Renaissance spirit with their desire to go backward
and keep the “old” alive and dominant. The Lutherans and Calvinists, even with their expressed
desire to recapture the true meaning of Christianity actually represent the moving forward,
especially by using the vernacular (language of the area), with the Calvinists being even more
radical than the Lutherans. Lumped under the umbrella terms of “Reformation” and
“Protestant,” both had a clearly anti-Catholic identity. The Catholics, in response, met these
rebels with a movement called the “Counter Reformation,” a clear effort to revitalize the Church
and oppose all things Protestant.
Catholic Church/Counter Reformation
Some historians find the term “Counter Reformation” too negative and prefer to describe the
movement to revitalize the Catholic Church as the “Catholic Reformation” or the “Catholic
Restoration.” No matter the term, the movement’s goal was two-fold: to breathe new life into
the Catholic Church and to oppose Protestantism/the Reformation.
Even as far back as the 15th century, as Christians became more sensitized to religious abuses,
calls for reform of the church were heard. Various initiatives were undertaken to bring the
Church back to more austere times, but were disorganized and failed. When Paul III became
Pope in 1534, the Church finally had the leadership it needed to make serious efforts toward
reform and to meet the challenge of the Protestants head on. Paul brought serious reformers into
the College of Cardinals and also encouraged the development of new religious orders, most
notably the Jesuits, under the leadership of St. Ignatius Loyola. A group of highly educated men,
they were dedicated to a renewal of piety through preaching, religious instruction, and retreats.
Paul’s most notable act was convening the Council of Trent in
1545 to deal with the many doctrinal and disciplinary
questions raised by the Protestants. While his relationship
with Holy Roman Emperor Charles V was often shaky, Paul
(like his predecessors) still used both diplomatic and military
measures against the Protestants. Following Paul’s lead, in
Spain, the Inquisition became a terrifying instrument of King
Philip II to suppress both religious and political dissent. The
Council of Trent sought to address such issues as corrupt
bishops and priests, the practice of indulgences (paying for
salvation) and other financial abuses. The Council rejected
most of the Protestant positions, upholding the structure of the Medieval Church, doctrine, and
the practices of indulgences, pilgrimages, veneration of saints and relics, as well as the Virgin
Mary. Most notably, they reaffirmed the role of the Pope as God’s sole representative on earth,
much to the irritation of the Protestants. The most lasting of the Council’s work was the
commissioning of the Roman Catechism, which still serves as the Church’s authoritative
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teaching tool (the 1992 edition only updated language and provided modern explanations, but
doesn’t differ doctrinally).
While the basic structure of the Church remained intact, there were some changes made to
answer complaints that even the Counter Reformers had to admit were real. This included the
growing gap between the priests and congregation, partly due to the lack of education of the rural
parish priests. This included assuring that these priests were well schooled in Latin and had
proper theological training. In addition, bishops were no longer appointed for political reasons;
they had to visit even the most remote parts of their parishes to instill high standards.
When Pius IV became Pope in 1560, the Counter Reformation
really took form. This comprehensive effort to revitalize the
Church and put down Protestantism had 5 major components:
1. Doctrine
2. Ecclesiastical or Structural Reconfiguration
3. Religious Orders
4. Spiritual Movements
5. Political Dimensions
The reforms included the formation of seminaries for the
proper training of priests in this new order as well as a reform
of religious life, returning orders to their spiritual foundations.
The most effective of the new Catholic orders, the Jesuits, were founded in 1534 by Spanish
nobleman Ignatius of Loyola (St. Ignatius Loyola). The order received papal approval in 1540
from Paul III. The order was known for its careful selection, rigorous training and unyielding
discipline. Taking strong monastic vows of chastity, obedience and poverty, their example
helped improve the entire Church, and has been credited for staving off the Protestant movement
in Poland, Hungary, southern Germany, France, and the Spanish Netherlands. They also were
majority participants in missionary activity to the Americas and Asia, even outpacing the very
aggressive evangelical efforts of the Calvinists. The absolutism of the Council of Trent and the
Jesuits firmly brought the Church back to its Medieval roots.
The arts, as a whole, were impacted by this Counter Reformation. Starting with the Council of
Trent, and continuing on through Pope Pius IV’s time, the Church attacked things such as
Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel (painted 1534-41) frescoes for their nudity (which they painted
over), depictions of Christ, and inclusion of the pagan figure Charon. Orders included removal
of anything lascivious or superstitious, no elaborate clothing, and so on in all art works.
Music was dealt a serious blow by the Council of Trent when it demanded simplicity in music so
that the words could be clearly heard, which could have been the death knoll for polyphony. In
their “Canon on Music to be used for the Mass,” the Council stated: “All things should indeed be
so ordered that the masses, whether they be celebrated with or without singing, may reach
tranquilly into the ears and hearts of those who hear them, when everything is executed clearly
and at the correct speed. In the case of those masses which are celebrated with singing and with
organ, let nothing profane be intermingled, but only hymns and divine praises. The whole plan of
singing should be constituted not to give empty pleasure to the ear, but in such a way that the
words be clearly understood by all. And thus the hearts of listeners be drawn to desire of
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heavenly harmonies in the contemplation of the joys of the Blessed. They shall also banish from
church all music that contains whether in the singing or in the organ playing things that are
lascivious or impure.”
With this decree, while not specifically banned, the use of polyphony was essentially no longer
deemed acceptable for sacred music due to the requirement that texts be clearly articulated.
Other changes in music that the Council brought about included development of the Missa
Brevis, Lauda, and Madrigali Spirtuali (Spiritual Madrigal), which are defined in Section 1.
Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina
(1525-1594)
The Italian composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (15251594) was able to affect the outcome of these difficult
demands, thanks to his musical mastery and skillful word
setting. He composed a six-part polyphonic mass, the “Missa
Papae Marcelli” (Pope Marcellus Mass) in 1555,
demonstrating that polyphony was compatible with the
requirements of the Counter Reformation. Palestrina’s music
became the model for future generations of Catholic
composers, and continues to this day to be the example for
clarity of text in polyphony. Composers were thus able to
express sacred themes despite the little room for artistic
expression that the Council’s rules left them. Palestrina is
thus notable for the consistency of his style, and also for
composing reverent, yet technically flawless music suited
ideally to enhance the sacred texts.
This example from the “Missa Papae Marcelli” demonstrates the intricacy, yet clarity Palestrina
was able to achieve. This recording is the Kyrie from the Mass.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y28ZRYF9Q-4
Martin Luther/Lutherans/The Reformation
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Nailing up the 95 Theses & a Classic Portrait
Martin Luther certainly didn’t plan to
start a revolution. Ironically, he saw
himself as a reformer of the Catholic
Church. A simple German monk,
Luther believed his ideas would help
the Church return to its roots. Instead,
he divided Christianity into two
separate churches and changed the
world significantly, pushing it not into
an idealistic past, but rather firmly into
the modern era.
Luther developed his own personal theology shortly after becoming a monk in 1505, his actions
turning into outright blasphemy against the Catholic Church when he protested the use of
indulgences and posted his “95 Theses” on the door of the church in Wittenburg for all to read.
Luther held strong to his views, despite being ordered to recant, and was ultimately
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excommunicated from the Church in 1521. His work, “The Freedom of the Christian,” outlined
his theological and ideological thinking. Luther’s concept of freiheit (freedom or liberty) isn’t
what we think of when the term “freedom” is used today, but in time, his concepts gave rise to
the ideas of individual freedom, economic freedom and political freedom. The overall concept
was one of liberating people – from false beliefs, false religion, arbitrary authority, and similar
problems identified by many who were uneasy with the direction the Catholic Church had
moved. Indeed, this concept of liberating people, common to international politics to this day,
comes out of Luther’s idea of freedom.
There are five theological tenets of Lutheranism/the Reformation called the “five solas.” These
solas are Latin phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the Reformation and summarized the
basic theological beliefs that were contrary to those of the teaching of the Catholic Church at that
time. The word “sola” means alone or only or single. Thus, the solas were what the Reformers
believed were the only things needed for Christian salvation.
The Five Solas are:
1.
Solus Christus (Christ alone): in protest of the Catholic dogma that the Pope was
Christ’s representative on earth, and recognizing Christ as the only mediator between
God and man.
2.
Sola scriptura (Scripture alone): This tenet addressed the need for pure reading of the
Bible, believing that Catholic teaching obscured or convoluted the teachings of the
Bible.
3.
Sola fide (Faith alone): This tenet addressed the Catholic stance that faith alone was
not enough and that man had to do good works for eternal salvation. Protestants put
forth the belief that good works were merely a testimony to one’s faith.
4.
Sola gratia (Grace alone): Protestants put forth the idea that salvation is a gift of God,
God’s act of free grace. This directly attacked the Catholic stance that salvation was
contingent upon one’s works, and that faith wasn’t just a belief but included works,
and only through both could one achieve salvation.
5.
Soli Deo Gloria (Glory to God alone): In this tenet, the Reformers expressed the
belief that human beings are not worthy of the glory accorded them by the Catholic
Church – this included the saints, pops and ecclesiastical hierarchy. In Protestant
eyes, all glory was due to God alone, since salvation was accomplished solely
through this action.
In addition to translating the Bible into German, and making it readily accessible, Luther was
also instrumental in creating lasting music for worship. Luther loved music and, for him, music
was one of the greatest gifts of God. Because of this, Luther wanted to use music to move the
soul, and to do so, he wanted people to be able to sing during his services, not just rote-recite
Latin chant. For Luther, congregational singing exemplified the spirit of worship in the new
Church. He wanted them to put themselves into singing heartily, and thus created music in his
native German language (the vernacular) in order for worshippers to participate fully in the
worship experience. He reformed the Catholic Mass to allow the congregation more chances to
sing and participate in the service, rather than just being spectators.
This spirit of inclusiveness can be seen to this day in all the many permutations of worship
experience we see at various Protestant churches and on television. All of these worship
experiences have their roots in Luther’s work to make worship more inclusive and participatory.
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To further enhance worship participation, Luther advocated including hymns in the vernacular as
a part of the formal worship service. He began composing hymns in 1523. While the exact
number of hymns he composed remains in dispute to this day, he is acknowledged as having
written at least 36 hymns. The dispute in the number he actually wrote comes from the fact he
translated Latin texts and used the same familiar melodies people had rote-sung in the past. (His
intent in “reusing” this material, of course, was to take something familiar to aid in the
congregation’s participation and comfort.) Regardless, his impact on hymn writing and worship
has reached across the centuries, with J.S. Bach first re-setting one of his hymns and use of his
instrumental chorales continuing through the 20th century with composers such as Shostakovich.
His chorale style writing was so popular it was picked up by the secular composers of his time
and again, continued to develop throughout the succeeding centuries, just as the hymn writing
did.
Martin Luther’s contributions to music were invaluable and provided the model for much future
development of both sacred and secular music. Worship music in the vernacular helps
worshippers better understand the messages of the church. Similarly, children are taught ideas in
song aid in remembering and understanding. Music as a universal language is at the heart of
Luther’s musical heritage. In addition, his hymns are still widely used today, and the tradition of
congregational participation and robust singing are mainstays of Lutheran services to this day.
“Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott” (“A Mighty Fortress is Our God”) is one of the most universally
familiar of all of Luther’s hymns. Click the link to hear an organ rendition of this mighty work.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z2PvGvZMNIg
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John Calvin (1509-1564)
John Calvin (aka Jean Cauvin) was originally a lawyer,
but was so filled with the ideas of humanism (see
Next
line of text
Section 3 for more on
humanism)
he dedicated himself
to reform the Church. He got his chance in Geneva
when he was invited there to build the new Reformed
church. At first, his reforms didn’t go over well and he
was tossed out in 1538. In 1540, he was invited back
and set about revolutionizing Genevan society, with his
most important innovation being to incorporate the
church into city government. Clergy was involved in
municipal decisions, especially as related to disciplining
the citizens, including imposition of a strict moral code.
By the mid-1550s, Geneva was completely Calvinist in thought and structure and had become
the most important Protestant center of Europe, especially for those exiled from their native
countries of France, England, Scotland and the Netherlands.
The five points of Calvinism reflect Calvin’s thinking; while not written by him, they are derived
from ideas he presented. The main thought of these points is that God is able to save every
person upon whom He has mercy and that His efforts aren’t affected by the unrighteousness or
the inability of humans. These five points are represented by the acronym “tulip” and are:
T: Total Hereditary Depravity. At birth, all are depraved, a sinful condition inherited from their
parents.
U: Unconditional Election. God arbitrarily chose to save some people and destroy others and
nothing can be done to change God’s sovereign decree.
L: Limited Atonement. Christ died only for the ones God chose unconditionally to save.
I: Irresistible Grace. Once God determines to save someone, that person cannot overcome or
resist the power of God no matter what s/he may desire.
P: Perseverance of the Saints. Since people can’t do anything but evil on their own, God’s
unconditional election is required to save them. Thus, one doesn’t need to do anything to remain
saved.
The strictness of Calvinism and its literal reading of Scripture resulted in music that was also
distinctly rule-driven. Music had to use Biblical texts and couldn’t use non-Biblical texts (this
was much more strict than Luther’s thoughts on texts), and also required monophonic (single
line) setting of texts for worship services – no parts! Of musical significance is the resulting
Genevan Psalter, a collection of metrical psalms created under Calvin’s direct supervision.
Metrical psalms are rhymed versions of the songs from the book of Psalms in the Bible.
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The Genevan Psalter (Pseaumes Octante Trois de David) was published in 1551 and is a mixture
of borrowed tunes (from secular chansons & the Strasbourg Psalter) and original compositions
by Guillaume Franc, Pierre Davantes and Loys (or Louis) Bourgeois.
Most notable of these songs is the well known “Old Hundredth,” composed by Louis Bourgeois.
Perhaps the best known melody in all Christian musical traditions, it was first associated with
Psalm 134 in the Genevan Psalter, the original text that Bourgeois used for the tune. It’s better
known name (“Old Hundredth”) came later when Psalm 100 was applied to the hymn tune in a
paraphrase of the Psalm written by Scottish clergyman William Kethe in 1561 in the AngloGenevan Psalter (“All People that on Earth do Dwell”). The hymn tune is also known as the
“Doxology” (“Praise God from Whom All Blessings Flow”), the familiar “grace” text sung first
in 1674, and written by the Church of England priest Thomas Ken.
Bourgeois (c. 1510-1560) was a French composer and music theorist.
His early life is a mystery; his first publication, a collection of secular
chansons, is dated 1539. By 1545, he was in Geneva and became a
music teacher there. He worked on psalm tunes in 1549 and 1550, and
is remembered as one of the three main composers of the original hymn
tunes in the Genevan Psalter. He was sent to prison late in 1551 for
changing the tunes of some well-known psalms “without a license.”
Although released by the personal intervention of John Calvin, he remained controversial, with
the town council ordering the burning of his instructions to singers. Shortly after this, Bourgeois
left Geneva and returned to France, where he appears to have returned to composing secular
music, with a collection of secular chansons being published in 1560. No records of his life are
available after 1560, and it is believed he died this year.
The version in this listening example is an arrangement with harmonization by contemporary
composer Ralph Vaughan Williams. It was first sung at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in
1953. The first verse is as follows: All people that on earth do dwell,
Sing to the Lord with cheerful voice.
Him serve with fear, His praise forth tell;
Come ye before Him and rejoice.
Follow this link to the musical example: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dtfkyyPQLAE
This particular recording is sung by the choir of Westminster Abbey. The accompanying
pictures are of various cathedrals around the United Kingdom.
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Score to the Old 100th psalm tune
Closing Thoughts: From the strictness imposed upon it by the Catholics and Calvinists, to the
move toward music truly of the people with the Lutherans, music was thus clearly impacted
by the three major religious phenomenon of the Renaissance.
In closing, it is interesting to note that both Luther and Calvin had been encouraged to become
lawyers by their fathers, with Calvin actually practicing law for a time. This may perhaps (at
least partly) explain their ability to so stridently and successfully present their cases against
the tenets of Catholicism, as well as their determination to persevere in their beliefs despite
adversity, not only from a theological standpoint, but also a musical one.
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Section 3: Other Influences
As noted in Section 2, religion was certainly at the heart of much that happened in the
Renaissance. Beyond that, though, there were many social, political and intellectual happenings
that helped define the Renaissance.
During the 16th century, ancient Greek and Roman writings were rediscovered, translated and
thus read by many people. These classical writers (such as Plato, Ovid & Sophocles) focused on
the human condition; that is, the nature of humans, human suffering and what worked to
establish social order. From these ideas there ultimately emerged a philosophy called
“humanism.”
Humanists believed that the ancient writings held the lessons one needed to live a moral and
effective life and also provided the best models for life. The result was the development of a
new kind of classical scholarship, with ruling families hiring humanists to teach their children
this classical morality, as well as writing in that elegant/classical style for their letters, histories,
and even propaganda pieces. The Church likewise hired these scholars to write official
correspondence and propaganda in an effort to create an image of the popes as powerful, modern
and enlightened leaders. This also spilled over into the service itself, with the writing of a more
classical form of the Mass.
The relationship between popes and scholars was complex, since the humanists ended up
developing their own views on theology, and even criticized Church doctrines, with some even
bordering on paganism. The Protestant threat resulted in some scholars using humanist
scholarship to defend the Church. In the end, the humanists couldn’t reform the Church it both
supported and challenged, and the relationship between popes and scholars dissolved.
Rodin’s “The Thinker”
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Section 4: Social/Historical Context
There were many social, political and intellectual changes/evolutions that comprised the
Renaissance. Of these, religion and humanism were clearly the two main influences on overall
life, and also music. In this section, two additional areas will be discussed to provide even
further insight into the context in which composers were writing during the Renaissance: science
and William Shakespeare. (Note that discussion of the women’s situation will take place in
section 7.)
The Scientific Revolution comprises a period between 1500 and 1700. The foundations of
modern science were developed in Western Europe during this period. Prior to this time, nothing
like science as we know it even existed. During the Medieval period, there were attempts to
explain the physical world, known as “natural philosophy,” and based almost entirely on the
teachings of the Greek philosopher Aristotle. These explanations were based on Aristotle’s
writings rather than experiments or practical study. This approach was done avoiding practical
subjects such as mathematics to explain the physical world. Even at universities, sciences such
as astronomy and physics were considered inferior to Aristotle’s natural philosophy. The study
of plants was even done in the “natural” way, using texts rather than actual physical observation
and analysis.
This approach was reinforced by the Catholic Church after it resolved problems with the nonChristian aspects of Aristotelian teaching. In fact, the Church embraced Aristotle’s teaching as a
handmaiden to the “queen of the sciences,” theology! Thus, the combination of the Church
doctrines along with Aristotle’s natural philosophy resulted in the exclusion of direct study and
analysis of nature.
During the Renaissance period, the situation began to change. The scientific revolution had four
major pieces: development of experimental method; realization that nature obeys mathematical
rules; use of scientific knowledge to achieve practical aims; and development of scientific
institutions.
Experimentation became a vital part of the scientific world during the Renaissance, and remains
a key feature to the sciences to this day. Throughout the period, experiments were used to help
understand the physical world. Increasing emphasis on experiments and actual observation
became the norm for scientific study: doing rather than just reading about something. Coupled
with the advent of printing, information became widely available with excellent illustrations that
could be mass-produced and thus provided more useful reading material based on actual
experiments and observations.
The period is also marked by the invention of new observational instruments. Galileo used the
telescope to make his astronomical observations. His success with the telescope prompted the
development of the microscope, thermometer and barometer, all now considered “standard”
instruments in the study of nature/science.
Developments were rapid and widespread. Copernicus, the Polish astronomer, put forth the
theory that the Earth must revolve around the Sun, simply because mathematics said so. Kepler,
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the German astronomer, reinforced this idea with astronomical measurements more precise than
any prior to that time. This theory of motion ultimately became a new mathematical science
initiated by Galileo and reaching its highpoint in the work of Isaac Newton a few decades later.
This development along with several others (such as Descartes’ groundbreaking work in
mechanical philosophy), all working in concert with the four major pieces of the scientific
revolution resulted in the realization that the traditional Aristotelian natural philosophy was
completely wrong. Despite this, because of its broad-ranging scope, Aristotelian teaching
remained a part of study since it could still provide an explanation for all the things that still
couldn’t be explained through the new experimental and observational scientific approaches.
Perhaps the most interesting outcome of the scientific revolution was the tangential subject of
atheism. Previously unknown in Christian Europe, atheism became an increasingly popular
alternative to religion. This is especially ironic, since all of the major figures of the scientific
revolution were extremely devout Christians. Regardless, the new scientific philosophies were
used to deny the validity of religion, since the world could be explained as working in an entirely
mechanistic way without need for supernatural intervention or supervision.
William Shakespeare
(c. 1564-1616)
William Shakespeare, the great English Renaissance writer,
was well read in ancient Greek and Roman literature and
certainly was influenced by it. Knowledge of these works,
along with philosophical humanism, is believed to have
contributed vastly to Shakespeare’s focus on human beings in
his work, instead of the supernatural. For example, Romeo
and Juliet depicts how an inherited feud coupled with an
impetuous nature not only can ruin people’s lives, but the
state itself. Likewise, it shows that passion is disruptive,
dangerous and destructive, while still expressing love and
grief. Finally, with the death of the two young lovers, the
feuding families are reconciled, and order is restored to the
community.
This examination of the human situation is clearly humanistic, while at the same time showing
connections to the ancient Greek handling of tragedy. Music was often used to accompany
Shakespeare’s plays. The example below is some incidental music to Act III of MacBeth.
To set the scene: On a stormy night, the witches invoke evil spirits as they brew their magic potions.
Macbeth arrives and asks them to prophecy his destiny, In response, they conjure up three apparitions
who, in turn, warn him to beware Macduff, that he need fear "none born of woman," and that he will be
invincible until Birnam wood marches on his castle. The witches then summon the apparitions of eight
kings who proceed past Macbeth, followed by Banquo, carrying a mirror. Terrified, Macbeth recognizes
them as Banquo's descendants ("Fuggi, o real fantasima"). Macbeth faints and the witches dance around
him ("Ondine e silfide"), then disappear.
Of note, this particular witch's dance doesn't sound threatening (i.e., it's not "Blair Witch"-like).
Listen carefully: it seems that the Renaissance English took a more enlightened view of witches
(more like Glenda from Oz)? Click the link http://www.jsayles.com/familypages/earlymusic.htm
and scroll down to “The Witches’ Dance” from Anonymous to listen to this selection.
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Section 5: Instruments
Most the instruments used during the Medieval period continued to be used in the Renaissance,
with new instruments being invented throughout this period that provided greater ranges and
technical opportunities for performers and composers alike. Refer to page 26 (Section 5,
Instruments, in Unit 2, Medieval Period) to review descriptions of the instruments that continued
to be used in the Renaissance Period.
Instruments that continued to be used from the Medieval included: dulcimer, flute, harp, lute,
mandolin, organ, percussion, psaltery, rebec, recorder, shawm, trumpet, vielle, and zither.
Many instruments were created in different sizes to produce difference ranges, and then played
in groups known as “consorts” to emulate the sound of a vocal quarter (soprano-alto-tenor-bass).
New inventions included:
Clavichord: a keyboard instrument that was very popular from the 16th century to the 18th
century. Its name is derived the Latin word “clavis” (key) and the Greek word “chorda” (string
of a musical instrument). Sound is produced by striking brass or iron strings with small metal
blades called tangents. The clavichord was widely used as a practice instrument and an aid in
composition. The instrument continued to develop through the period, increasing in range from
four octaves to six octaves.
Crumhorn: a woodwind instrument most commonly used during the Renaissance. Its name is
derived from two old English words: “crump” (curve) and “crumpet” (a curved cake). It is
played by blowing into a windcap with a double reed inside to produce sound. Shaped like the
letter “J,” crumhorns are distinctive for their strong buzzing sound. They have a limited range,
and thus were usually played by a group of instruments of different sizes, and thus different
pitches (the consort).
Harpsichord: a keyboard instrument; existed in varying shapes and sizes, but all functioned the
same: the player presses a key, which causes the far end of the key to rise. This in turn lifts a
long strip of wood, called a jack, which is attached to a piece of quill called a plectrum, which
then plucks the string and makes the sound.
Organs: the use of the portative of the Medieval period was declining (and died out entirely by
the later 1600s). Regal or positive organs were the new inventions of this period. The regal
dates from the late Medieval period, and was a small portable organ that had beating reeds and
two bellows. The positive organ was a portable one-manual pipe organ that could be moved
without first being taken apart. It was used in both sacred and secular music, at first performing
the lowest part of polyphonic works. Some even had wheels to enhance their portability.
Because this is pre-electricity times, organs required a person to operate the bellows to supply
the air or wind to the instrument. The positive is also notable in that it was larger than the
Medieval portative and wasn’t played strapped to the player’s body, but rather on a table top.
Because of their versatility and rich sound, positive organs were used in homes and churches, at
banquets and court events, for choirs and music schools, and especially in the small orchestras of
Monteverdi at the beginning of the musica drama/opera.
Trombones: early version, pre-valves, still. These were restricted to playing the natural tones
of the harmonic series, and air/lips had to be used to change to these tones.
Trumpets: early version, pre-valves, still. These were restricted to playing the natural tones of
the harmonic series, and air/lips had to be used to change to these tones.
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Viol: The viol is a string instrument that has frets and is bowed. The frets were made from
pieces of stretched gut and tied around the neck of the instrument and could be pushed around
easily for tuning. Viols were typically played by holding them downwards on one’s lap or
between the legs, with the box drawn across the strings to produce sound. The viol produces a
quiet sound, with a distinctly nasal quality; it is readily heard in polyphonic music of the period.
Like other instruments of the period, they came in multiple sizes, and thus ranges. The types of
viols were treble, alto, small tenor, tenor and bass.
Virginals: The virginals is a keyboard instrument that is smaller than the harpsichord, and has
only one string per note. The strings run parallel to the keyboard, on the long side of the case.
The Iowa State website has excellent pictures and even some musical examples featuring the
Renaissance instruments. This site has especially excellent information on crumhorns, lutes and
shawms. Click this link to access the site for further exploration:
http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/instrumt.html
A rendition of a Scottish consort from the painted ceilings of Crathes Castle in Aberdeenshire, late 16th century
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Section 6: Key Figures
As discussed in the previous sections, the Renaissance was a time of change on every front. The
musicians of the period accordingly had to respond to these stimuli and still create music that
either met a functional need and/or was appealing to the “masses” as music was increasingly also
a home activity in this period. The music created by women of the period will continue to be
lifted out and covered separately, in Section 7, since the issues surrounding their role in music
remain complex and still separate from their male counterparts.
In addition to Palestrina, Luther and Calvin/Bourgeois (covered in section 2), there are many
other male composers in this period, but three figures are representative of the period’s musical
output: Guillaume Dufay, William Byrd and Thomas Morley.
Guillaume Dufay
(1398-1474)
Next line here
Guillaume Dufay is credited with being the man most
responsible for ushering in the Renaissance in music. Born in
the Duchy of Burgundy (now France), he lived in one of the
main musical centers of his era. He also lived in Italy, and
assimilated French and Italian thought to become one of the
most cosmopolitan composers of his generation. He composed
in every genre known at the time, including Masses, motets, and
hymns.
Dufay produced music that flowed more smoothly than the
complex rhythmic pieces from the end of the Medieval period,
and his graceful melodies are distinctive, with a clear sense of
direction.
As his career continued, he incorporated the four-voice vocal style which came to be
characteristic of the early Renaissance. His Mass writing became the dominant style of mass
composition for his time, and he produced what is considered the earliest surviving mass based
on a secular theme, rather than liturgical chant, as previous masses had been written.
Dufay’s music remains important today, not only for its inventiveness and grace, but also
because of its place in history and the very quickly evolving style of the early Renaissance
period. Dufay’s music and his life have provided historians with valuable insight into the
musical developments of the early Renaissance.
This example is from his “L’homme arme” Mass. The use of the “l’homme arme” tune for this
mass is historically significant, as this French secular song tune was used in many settings of the
Ordinary of the Mass during this period. The importance of the “armed man” in the song has
been suggested to represent the Archangel Michael. Of further significance is that the song first
appeared around the time of the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks, which had a huge
psychological effect on Europe as a whole; Dufay in particular composed laments relative to this
event. There appears to be, on the whole, a feeling of wanting to organize a military opposition
to the Ottoman Turks, and this song’s popularity and inclusion in Mass settings, reinforces this
goal of opposition.
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One other theory of the tune’s origin is that is a stylized blending of a street cry with a trumpet
call, with the tune possibly composed for a Renaissance “man of arms,” Charles the Bold.
Whatever its true origin, certainly this tune is distinctive and provides a solid melodic base for
Mass composition. The tune and a translation of its text will be found below:
Original French
L'homme, l'homme, l'homme armé,
L'homme armé
L'homme armé doibt on doubter, doibt on
doubter.
On a fait partout crier,
Que chascun se viengne armer
D'un haubregon de fer.
English
The man, the man, the armed man,
The armed man
The armed man should be feared, should be
feared.
Everywhere it has been proclaimed
That each man shall arm himself
With a coat of iron mail.
The link below will take you to the Missa L’Homme Arme by Dufay. This is the Gloria
movement; the melody is somewhat concealed until near the end when the tenor (who sings the
cantus firmus or melody) is more clearly heard in the ensemble and the melody become readily
apparent. As you listen to this example, listen especially for the characteristic gracefulness of
the melodic lines. Links to other movements of the mass will be found connected to this link if
you would like to further explore this work.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=drqXpKuxuxc
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William Byrd
(c. 1539-1623)
William Byrd is perhaps the epitome of the true Renaissance man
and is not easily “categorized” as his life and work are marked by
a variety of contradictions. One of the most renowned English
composers of his time, he lived well into the 17th century without
writing any music the new “baroque” style that emerged at the
beginning of the century, even though his keyboard works clearly
mark the beginning of the Baroque organ and harpsichord styles.
His life and corresponding work reflect not only his mastery of
the keyboard and madrigal, but also the Latin and English
churches. Interestingly, he was the organist for the throne’s
private religious house, the Chapel Royal, yet he remained a
devout Roman Catholic his entire life.
The conflict is further seen in his compositions: he composed a lot of music, some of it for
Roman Catholic liturgy, yet also a great deal of music for the Anglican service, including the
Short Service and Responses, that remain in use to this day! He also wrote a great deal of
secular music. Likely as a result of these divided loyalties, Byrd did not receive much
recognition for his genius in his time, but is certainly recognized now as one of the foremost
composers of his time. His situation was especially aggravated around 1605, following the
“Gunpowder Plot,” when an anti-Catholic frenzy swept England, and under threat of
imprisonment, all Catholic music was banned from the country.
Despite this, many examples of Byrd’s work are available. Included in this section is a
particularly popular, and even familiar work of Byrd’s called “The Carmans Whistle.” Featuring
a delightful tune, the piece provides wonderful insight into Byrd’s keyboard mastery, and
features Davitt Marone on the organ.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFATccMxixA
Thomas Morley
(c. 1557-1602)
Thomas Morley, the English composer, organist and theorist, was
the first of the great English madrigal writers. He converted to
Roman Catholicism early in life, most likely at the influence of
his master, William Byrd. He was even sworn in as a gentleman
of the Chapel Royal in 1592. However, Morley left the Church,
and even engaged in espionage work among English Roman
Catholics in the Netherlands. About this same time, Morley
recognized the potential the newly popular Italian-style madrigals
offered with texts, and began to do likewise in his works.
An interesting historical insight into this period is that among Morley’s works are a number of
Italian madrigals he reworked and published without acknowledgement of the original
composers, a common practice of this period.
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Morley’s works are written in two distinct styles. The first reflects his training and work under
his master, William Byrd, and are in the pre-madrigal English style that featured strong and
broad polyphony. By the 1590s, though, his mastery of the Italian madrigal style was evident in
the springy rhythms, clarity of texture, and harmonic warmth his works exhibited. Morley ended
up being the most famous composer of secular music in Elizabethan England, and the only
composer whose settings of verse by Shakespeare survive to this day.
The piece, “April is in my mistress’ face” was published in 1594, and is perhaps the best known
and shortest of Morley’s madrigals. It is believed to be based on an Italian text by Livio Celiano:
April is in my mistress' face,
And July in her eyes hath place;
Within her bosom is September,
But in her heart a cold December.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o4vE2lZWZVU
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Section 7: Role of Women
Although members of religious orders continued to play an important role in the women’s
musical scene, some women in other walks of life were able to prosper as musicians, especially
those in the nobility/ruling classes. Remember that the Renaissance was really a time of going
backwards for most women. The ideal Renaissance woman was supposed to marry well, be
loyal to her husband, and to give birth to boys (think of poor Anne Boleyn as you consider this!).
Custom and prejudice thus kept most women at home, serving as the primary caregivers of the
children and also the keepers of the house. Work for women became very separate from that of
men, and unlike in the Medieval period, when women often worked beside men as trades or
crafts people, women were active only in the “domestic” crafts of carding and spinning wool. As
the production of goods became more efficient, women’s economic significance waned to the
point that many more women were unemployed.
The constraints placed on women were thus social and economic, and to a great extent, cultural
as well. Women who did thrive during this period are believed by feminist scholars to have
constructed positions for themselves in everyday life in the areas of literature, art and music.
Indeed, fathers and husbands who were able to profit from the work of their daughters/wives
were likely to support their efforts, although this was not a common situation.
Joan Kelly-Gadol, in her 1977 essay entitled “Did Women Have a Renaissance?” argues that
even though this was declared a period of “rebirth,” that the Renaissance rebirth really only
benefited the men of the time. The embracing of the classical Greek and Roman writings, along
with the medieval notions of women as being either good or evil, resulted in women being
relegated to roles of having and raising kids, and keeping the house to assure their man’s
comfort.
Likewise, in the area of art, female members of royalty used this form to establish and/or
strengthen their power. Not only were women the driving force behind works of art, but they
were also featured in numerous pictures. Even so, women were used both to show female virtues
and also eroticized, emphasizing the “wiles” women used or were accused of using to attract
men. No matter, in all of these roles (artist, patron, subject), women were still controlled and
regulated so they did not threaten social order nor the position of men in the social hierarchy.
Ironically, the very Protestant Reformation and consequent Catholic Reformation that proved to
be driving forces in social change, further restricted women’s roles. Again, women were
relegated to the “domestic realm” and their role as wives and mothers took tantamount
importance. Another striking occurrence is the peaking of witch executions during the mid
1500s through the mid 1600s. The women accused of witchcraft were often those outside male
control, usually living alone on the outskirts of rural areas, and middle-aged. Some 30,000
women were killed during these “witch hunts,” even as numbers of widows and unmarried
women increased. In all likelihood, this further constrained women’s desires to “step out” and
be musicians.
Despite these barriers, women’s status improved during the final decades of the 16th century,
albeit rather irregularly, and only in certain areas of music. By the end of the century, women
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could aspire to positions as court musicians and opera singers. In addition, women were working
as composers but were restricted to vocal music for soloists or groups. Similarly, the professions
of instrumentalists and church musicians (and the corresponding music composed for these
areas) were almost exclusively male. An added barrier to women pursuing music as their
vocation was the necessity to also be either a wife or a nun. Thus, many young women gave up
their music studies and essentially “disappeared” at a young age. Even so, there is a rich
unwritten tradition of women’s influential and active roles in creating texts, musical settings, and
performing in a variety of genres. Women shared singing to the lute as a pastime with men, with
some reported to have displayed great virtuosity in this practice. So, at least to this extent,
women had at least some manner of “Renaissance,” albeit not as rich as that of their male
contemporaries.
Because of the nature of women’s role in the Renaissance, this section will look at a female
patron in addition to four female musicians from the period.
Renaissance Women's Consort. One of four extant paintings from about 1525 by the "Master of the Female Half
Lengths," all depicting three female musicians, and all performing Sermisy's 'Jouissance.'"
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Isabella d’Este
(1474-1539)
Portrait by DaVinci
Isabella d’Este was the “first lady” of the Renaissance: noted
primarily for her patronage of the arts, she was also an inventor,
political ruler, mother to seven children, and a musician. Isabella
used her stations in life to serve not only herself, but also others,
and worked to better the standard of living of those others. She
exemplified the characteristics of the male great leaders of the
period and thus is remembered for her words and actions.
Born to the Duke and Duchess of Ferrara, she received a royal
education, and was schooled in Roman history and also learned to
translate Greek and Latin. Her intellect gave her the opportunity
to discuss the classics and political affairs with ambassadors.
Likewise, she knew the painters, writers, musicians and scholars
of the court, and became expert with playing the lute and singing, as well as was an innovator of
new dances. She was betrothed to then heir to the Marquis of Mantua at age 6, and became his
bride at the age of 16, and together their reigned as Marquis and Marchessa of Mantua. After
becoming Marchessa, she also studies architecture, agriculture and industry to help improve the
well being of her people. In her free time, she read and continued to play the lute; she also tried
all the new instruments as they became available. She also collected art, and backed the master
painters of her time: Titian, Raphael, and Da Vinci.
Isabella remained a driving force until her death, at times ruling both Mantua and Romagna,
Solarlo and giving comfort and aid to refugees of war. She also making Mantua a cultural
center, established a school for girls, and turned her duchal living quarters into a museum of fine
art. She was, in every sense of the word, a leader, and proved that women could be as good as
men, and will be remembered for her influence in her own time and still today.
Caterina Assandra
(c. 1570-1610)
Sister Caterina Assandra was an Italian composer and
Benedictine nun. She studied counterpoint with Benedetto
Re (aka Reggio), a leading teacher of the day. She likely
received her musical training because of her future religious
vocation. Her fame as a composer and as an organist
extended beyond Italy. Her compositions were limited to
sacred works, written in the motet style. It is believed she
also wrote the texts to her motets. In addition, she wrote quite
a few works for organ. Her compositions were among the
earliest examples written in the “Roman style.” Some of her
works were published during her lifetime. Perhaps most
notable about her compositions is that she was among the Italian composers whose motets were
for a few voices and organ accompaniment (continuo) in the new “concertato” style. Her
notoriety was such that she was even mentioned by the published Lomazzo in the dedication of
her male contemporary’s works, Giovanni Paolo Cima.
Among her published works is an “Ave verum corpus” (“Hail, true body”). The “Ave verum
corpus” first appeared in the 14th century and is a short Eucharistic hymn that was set to music
by many composers. Based on a 14th century poem, the text is a meditation on the Catholic
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belief in Jesus’ real presence in the sacrament of the Eucharist, and also ties it to Catholic ideas
on suffering in the life of believers. The text is in Latin. An English translation is also included.
Ave verum corpus natum
de Maria Virgine,
vere passum, immolatum
in cruce pro homine,
cuius latus perforatum
unda fluxit et sanguine,
esto nobis praegustatum
in mortis examine.
Hail the true body,
Born of the Virgin Mary,
Truly suffered, sacrificed,
On the Cross for mankind,
Whose pierced side
Flowed with water and blood,
Let it be for us, in consideration,
A foretaste of death.
Click this link to listen to this performance: http://lenorealford.com/sound-1.htm
Maddalena Casulana
(c. 1540-1590)
(no image of Maddalena is available;
this is a sample from one of her
compositions)
Maddalena Casulana was an Italian composer, and the
first woman to publish her music, as well as to consider
herself to be a professional composer.
She received her musical training first in Casola d’Elsa
(her birthplace) and then in Florence. She published her
first work in 1566: four madrigals in a collection entitled
“Il Desiderio,” and published by Scotto. In 1568, her first
entirely self-composed collection, the “First Book of
Madrigals for Four Voices,” was published by Scotto.
This is the first printed, published work by a woman in
Western music history. Around this time, she moved to Venice, where she gave private music
instruction. She also played the lute and sang for private entertainment. (Remember, women
weren’t supposed to perform publicly on instruments.) In the dedication to the first book,
Maddalena clearly indicates her intention to prove her talents and abilities as a woman in a maledominated field. Her dedication to Isabella de Medici (the highly educated daughter of Cosimo I
de Medici, and acting first lady of Florence following her mother’s death) included these words:
“want to show the world, as much as I can in this profession of music, the vain error of men that
they alone possess the gifts of intellect and artistry, and that such gifts are never given to
women.” Her declaration of being a professional composer was not easily accepted for a woman
in the male-dominated society of the Renaissance. Despite this, she did receive recognition from
some of her male counterparts, including Lassus, who is reported to have conducted one of her
works at a wedding in Bavaria.
Around 1570, she moved to Milan. Her “Second Book of Madrigals for Four Voices” was
published in the same year. She continued to dedicate works to Isabella de Medici, and their
relationship appears to have been quite close. (Isabella de Medici enjoyed much greater freedom
and autonomy than many of the women of her time.)
At some point, she is believed to have married, since the reprinting of the first book in 1583
referred to her as Maddalena Mezari detta Casulana. Her last known madrigal was a work for
three voices, and found in a 1586 collection entitled “Il Gaudio,” also published by Scotto. A
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total of 66 of her madrigals have survived to the present day. Reference to her is not found after
this point, and it is believed she died sometime around 1590.
Maddalena’s style is slightly contrapuntal and also chromatic, with readily singable melody lines
and careful attention to her texts. In this sample from “Morir non puo il mio cuore,” listen
carefully for the melody lines as well as how the voices blend together in the gentle movement of
the lines..
Click on the arrow beside the song title to activate the sample
http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B000THG936/ref=dm_mu_dp_trk16?ie=UTF8&qid=10319
41642&sr=11-1
Jane Pickering
(c. early 1600s)
Jane Pickering’s Lute Book is the major source for
English lute music of the Renaissance. The book,
published in various versions between 1615 and 1645,
contains music that was copied in three different hands.
At this time, it was customary when printed music wasn’t
readily available, to write down familiar tunes, your own
tunes, and tunes composed by other people. The book
takes its name from the lute pieces written in the same
hand that also wrote on the book “Jane Pickeringe owe
[sic] this Booke 1616.” Written during the “Golden Age”
of lute music, it is the main source of Elizabethan and
Jacobean lute music. The lute’s popularity for men and women alike, public and private
performance, make this collection particularly interesting, since it so vividly reflects what was
“popular” during this time, as well as the artistry of the composers and the performers alike.
The examples included here are the “3 English Toyes” from this collection. A “toy” is a little
piece for study or “fun” playing.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k7jkWjeZNqU
Anne Boleyn
(1507-1536)
Anne Boleyn is perhaps best known as the second wife of
English King Henry VIII and mother of Elizabeth I.
Executed in the Tower of London in 1536 for “treason”
(although her only crime is believed to have been her
failure to produce a male heir to the throne), Anne is also
remembered as an excellent poet, composer and musician.
Anne lived in the French court from ages 12-16 when her
father was the ambassador to France. She was trained in
music and dancing, owned a virginals, and played the lute.
Her reputation was excellent as a composer and
performer.
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Anne had a serious interest in vocal polyphonic music as evidenced by the appearance of her
coat of arms on a collection of French motets and chansons copied in France. It is believed she
performed from this collection with her female friends in her private chambers. (Remember that
women were prevented from public performance still at this time.) As Queen of England, it is
considered very likely that Anne encouraged the performance of these and other “continental”
works in King Henry’s Tudor court. Her early exposure to “continental” music would have
certainly influenced her own compositions. In 1522, the French Viscount Chateaubriant wrote in
his memoirs of Anne: “Besides singing like a siren, [and] accompanying herself on
lute….harped better than King David and handled cleverly both flute and rebec.” Thus Anne
was clearly an intelligent and talented young woman, as well as an accomplished performer.
“O Deathe, rock me asleepe” is a poem attributed to Anne, and is reported to have been written
during her final days of life in the Tower of London. Writing poetry intended for musical setting
was a common practice among courtly women of the Renaissance, and it is known that a poem
attributed to Anne was set by her contemporary, English composer Robert Johnson. Anne’s
education supports the notion that she would have been able to set her songs to paper. Given the
desire for anonymity so prominent amongst especially female nobles at this time, it explains why
nothing bearing Anne’s name as author has survived. Likewise, since it was commonplace for
women to create improvised songs that contemporary sources were likely to pay no attention to
Anne’s works, either. This setting, with its improvisatory quality, is believed to have been
written by Anne and completed by her chaplain, and adds credence to Anne’s authorship of the
work, as the poem vividly describes a woman in captivity, and the melody itself has a “French”
sound to it, and evokes the sounds of the bells tolling that she would have heard incessantly
during her captivity in the Tower. Likewise, her use of monotone to express “let passe my
wearye giltles ghost” seems as if the music lost its will to move. The use of this early “tone
coloring” to express the text would certainly have been something the well-education Anne
would have been capable of completing.
A sample of “O Death rock me asleepe” will be found at this link:
http://www.leonarda.com/le340.html
Scroll down to Anne Boleyn’s name, and then click on the sample. Text for the work:
O Death, O Death, rock me asleepe,
Bring me to quiet rest;
Let pass my weary guiltless ghost
Out of my careful breast.
Toll on, thou passing bell;
Ring out my doleful knell;
Thy sound my death abroad will tell,
For I must die,
There is no remedy.
Alone, alone in prison strong
I wail my destiny.
Woe worth this cruel hap that I
Must taste this misery!
Toll on, thou passing bell;
Ring out my doleful knell;
Thy sound my death abroad will tell,
For I must die,
There is no remedy.
My pains, my pains, who can express?
Alas, they are so strong!
My dolours will not suffer strength
My life for to prolong.
Toll on, thou passing bell;
Ring out my doleful knell;
Thy sound my death abroad will tell,
For I must die,
There is no remedy.
Farewell, farewell, my pleasures past!
Welcome, my present pain!
I feel my torment so increase
That life cannot remain.
Cease now, thou passing bell, Ring out my
doleful knoll, For thou my death dost tell:
Lord, pity thou my soul! Death doth draw
nigh, Sound dolefully:
For now I die, I die, I die.
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Section 8: Additional Musical Examples
The sites included here provide a range of music from the Renaissance, with some providing
additional historical insights as well.
http://wwnorton.com/college/music/hill/Anthology_recordings_list.htm
Don’t be deceived the page’s title indicating it is a Baroque music site. The recording from the
early 1600’s represent the end stages of the Renaissance and there are several excellent
selections to further enjoy the vocal style of the period: #6 (Cenci); #24 (Buonamente); #26 (da
Gagliano); #27 (Viadana); #28 (Assandra).
http://www.jsayles.com/familypages/earlymusic.htm
This site is a lot of fun! The artist describes himself as not being a professional, but he is
certainly a lover of music of the Renaissance. The site features a wonderful variety of pieces,
ranging from Dowland to Morley to others. The recordings are also very good.
http://www.leonarda.com/le338.html
This site has samples of music by women composers from albums available for purchase. This
link brings you to samples of works by Assandra and Caccini from the Renaissance. Works f
from other eras are also available for sampling at this site.
http://www.linnrecords.com/recording-go-from-my-window-sacd.aspx
This site also features a nice sampler of a wide variety of works also available for sale. Perhaps
most interesting is the work by John Johnson, “Greensleeves.” The site includes interesting
historical information as well.
http://pipedreams.publicradio.org/listings/2003/0309/
This “Pipedreams” program on Minnesota Public Radio featured a work by Gracia Baptista,
“Conditor alme siderum,” which appeared in one of the first printed collections of Spanish
keyboard music. Baptista, a Spanish nun, flourished around 1557, and is remembered for her
keyboard works, and in particular, her setting of “Conditor alme siderum.” The entire program is
available at this site, and features organ music by women composers from as early as Baptista to
as contemporary as Minnesota’s own Libby Larsen.
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Section 9: Resources for Further Study
This unit provided an overview of key concepts and figures of the period. For those interested in learning
more about specific subject areas, the following resources are provided for further study.
On the Internet:
http://www.teacheroz.com/renaissance.htm#art This site has wonderful links to everything
Renaissance.
http://www.diabolus.org/guide/guide-m.htm This is another very nice instrument site with
photos, sounds and descriptions of period instruments.
http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/music.html
Everything and anything you’d want to study further from the Renaissance period may be found
in the links on this site – amazing details and recordings available.
http://www.classicalscore.com/renaissancestyle.htm An unbelievable amount of information
about composers, styles, theorists, etc – with links for further detail. Another site for indepth
study of the period.
http://www.kapralova.org/DATABASE.htm This is the Women Composers Database. It
contains a great deal of information on women composers of all generations and periods. This
site is a terrific starting point for information on women composers.
Books
Morgenstern, Sam. “Composers on Music: An Anthology of Composers’ Writings From
Palestrina to Copland,” Pantheon Books, Inc., 1956. This book is a delightful compendium of
composers’ writings on their work, their times, and other topics; provides first-hand insight into
the composers and their time.
Osborne, Charles. “The Dictionary of Composers,” Taplinger Publishing Co., Inc., 1978. This
book is an abbreviated, but useful source for biographical information on the “big names” in
male composition from the Renaissance to mid-20th century. As the author notes, “The criterion
for inclusion has been whether one was likely to encounter the music of the composer in question
in the concert hall or the opera house, not just on an isolated and rare occasion but with
reasonable frequency.”
Pendle, Karin. “Women & Music: A History,” Bloomington Indiana University Press, 1991.
This book provides wonderful insight into women musicians across several historical periods.
Routley, Erik. “Church Music and the Christian Faith,” Agape, 1978. This book provides an
excellent and detailed overview of the Christian faith accompanied by good musical examples.
Written especially for music majors and church music professionals.
Strunk, Oliver. “Source Readings in Music History: The Renaissance,” W.W. Norton &
Company, Inc., 1975. This book contains period readings by theorists, composers, and key
social movement figures of the period.
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