Int J Biometeorol (2002) 46:118–125
DOI 10.1007/s00484-002-0135-1
O R I G I N A L A RT I C L E
María I. Gassmann · Claudio F. Pérez
Jesús M. Gardiol
Sea–land breeze in a coastal city and its effect on pollen transport
Received: 30 July 2001 / Revised: 17 April 2002 / Accepted: 17 April 2002 / Published online: 18 June 2002
© ISB 2002
Abstract This paper presents a statistical study of the
sea–land breeze in Mar del Plata (Argentina) to characterize the periods of the year when the breeze affects
pollen transport, particularly the dispersion of airborne
Poaceae pollen between urban and rural areas. In order
to analyse the sea breeze circulation, hourly data from
coastal, urban and rural meteorological stations were
used. The effect of the sea breeze on the particulate
matter was analysed from syncronic hourly airborne pollen records from an urban and a rural area. A sea–land
breeze appeared between spring and early autumn in the
hours of greatest diurnal warming. Results showed that
the surface wind direction most probably associated with
this phenomenon is NE and E, the time of occurrence
shifting to new directions following the counterclockwise rotation, according to theoretical models for the
Southern Hemisphere. Poaceae emission takes place in
the morning, during the hours of maximum insolation.
However, after the occurrence of the breeze, a rise in
pollen concentration between 2000 hours and 0200 hours
is detected because of pollen reentrainment brought
about by air recirculation. The results showed that breeze
transport brings a regional component to pollen assemblage.
Keywords Pollen assemblage · Sea–land breeze ·
Pollen transport · Pollen recirculation
María I. Gassmann (✉) · Jesús M. Gardiol
Dpto. de Ciencias de la Atmósfera y los Océanos,
Fac. de Cs. Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires,
Pabellón II 2do piso, (1428) Buenos Aires, Argentina
e-mail: [email protected]
Fax: +5411-4576 3364 ext. 12
Claudio F. Pérez
Dpto. de Biología, Fac. de Cs. Exactas y Naturales,
Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Funes 3250,
(7600) Mar del Plata, Argentina
Introduction
Some palynological studies have analysed airborne pollen dispersion mechanisms by means of analytical or
statistical models (Tauber 1965; Chamberlain 1966;
Prentice 1985). The 1970s were the beginning of the development of parametric models with discontinuous records
(Mandrioli et al. 1978; O’Rourke 1989) and time-series
analysis, which led to the variability being described as
different periods of oscillation, explaining pollen dispersion in different time scales (Bianchi 1994; Munuera
Giner et al. 1999). Prentice (1985) applied models of
particle dispersion and defined the presence of a pollen
taxon in a pollen assemblage with reference to the spatial
scale. He thus defined local-scale pollen as coming from
an area of 20 m radius, the extralocal-scale included pollen from between 20 m and 2 km, the regional scale included pollen from 2 km to 200 km and the extraregional
scale included pollen from longer distances. This is one
of the most frequently used classifications in aerobiological studies, but the characteristics of atmospheric movement that determine the diffusion of particles operate on
temporal and spatial scales that differ from those used by
Prentice. Meteorological phenomena that produce pollen
transport are therefore classified with their own temporal
and spatial scales (Orlanski 1975).
The atmospheric boundary layer is the portion of air
adjacent to the earth’s surface having characteristics that
are directly influenced by the presence of the earth and
responding to surface effects. Emitted particles, like airborne pollen, are usually transported by the wind and
dispersed by turbulence within this layer. Turbulence
changes with local effects like differential heating in areas with different land use, the building characteristics of
a city, the percentage of green area and coastal closeness.
On the other hand, cities create a microclimatic change
in temperature known as an urban heat island (Oke
1993), that produces variations in the thickness of the atmospheric boundary layer between urban and rural areas,
changing the spatial conditions for dispersion and transport. In coastal cities, dispersion characteristics become
119
more complex owing to the presence, during the warmest months, of the sea–land breeze in daylight hours and
the thermal internal boundary layer due to the land–sea
temperature difference. The sea–land breeze is a local
circulation, with cooler air flowing from the sea, near its
surface, to replace the air deficit as the warm land air rises near the shoreline. A return circulation 600–1,000 m
high (Yoshikado 1990; Steyn 1997) takes the warmer air
back out to sea where it descends towards the surface to
close the circulation. The breeze can penetrate up to
50–100 km inland (Zubillaga and Piccolo 1978a, b) and
is therefore considered a mesoscale phenomenon of the
order of 102 km and a duration of hours. Yoshikado
(1992) showed that the combination of an urban heat island with a sea–land breeze leads to unfavorable dispersion conditions and a rise of tracer concentration within
the city.
Prohaska (1970) has shown the presence of the
sea–land breeze and its nocturnal counterpart, the
land–sea breeze, in the area of Mar del Plata, Argentina.
His results showed that the diurnal breeze was related to
winds from the NE–SE sector, while the nocturnal one
was related to winds from the W–N sector. Some studies
of grass pollen dispersion, carried out in Mar del Plata,
do not analyse the effect of the breeze on pollen concentrations while others show some relation but with scant
detail (Pérez 2000; Gassmann et al. 2000). Given the
scale of this meteorological phenomenon, it is possible
to study whether there are any components that modify
the spatial scale of airborne pollen transport according to
Prentice’s classification. The aim of this paper is to present a statistical study of the sea–land breeze in Mar del
Plata in order to characterize periods of the year during
which the breeze could affect pollen transport in the area. We also analyse the incidence of the breeze on the
dispersion of non-arboreal pollen by means of dispersion
changes between urban and rural areas.
Fig. 1 Map of Mar del Plata city and locations of the meteorological/aerobiological stations
vegetation arises in the rural outskirts, mainly composed of grasses (Poaceae) and some weeds like Carduus acanthoides Linn., Conium maculatum L., Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L., Echium
plantagineum Jacq., Plantago major L., Melilotus alba Desr. and
Medicago lupulina L. There are also some trees (Eucalyptus globulus Labill., Acacia melanoxylon R. Br. and Populus alba L.)
planted as windbreaks for crops, and small bushes (Baccharis
tandilensis Speg. and Baccharis articulata Pers.).
Materials and methods
Collection of data
Study area
Mar del Plata city (37.59°S, 57.33°W) lies on the coast of Buenos
Aires province (Argentina) (Fig. 1). The city has a population of
approximately 700,000 inhabitants and represents the main merchant marine activity of the country. The coast of the urban zone
runs in a N–S direction, but approximately 25 km south of the city
it changes direction towards the West. Westward of the city rise
the Tandilia range system, with elevations up to 400 m. During
winter, westerlies are the predominant wind circulation, with frontal passages coming from the subpolar zone, while in summer the
poleward displacement of the South Atlantic high-pressure system
reaches this latitude.
The vegetation of the study area comprises trees cultivated for
ornamental purposes and naturally occurring herbs. Trees are the
main source of airborne pollen detected in the urban area. They
are present along the streets and avenues, and in numerous parks
and gardens. The most abundant species are Prunus ceracifera
var. athropurpurea (Jaeg) Rehd., Lagerstroemia indica L., Ulmus
pumila L., Fraxinus americana L., F. excelsior Boiss., Populus
spp., Platanus acerifolia Willd., Robinia pseudo-acacia L., Tilia
cordata Mill., Cupressus spp. and Acer negundo L. Herbaceous
The study carried out by Prohaska (1970) was based on the analysis of 1 year of meteorological information. Because of the availability of information, some statistical estimates were made of the
presence of sea–land breezes in Mar del Plata, using information
from a coastal and a rural meteorological station. Using a major
period record, hourly data for 0200, 0800, 1400 and 2000 hours
local time (LT) hour were obtained. These data came from the Mar
del Plata Aero (National Meteorological Service) station (Aero),
and the Mar del Plata Harbour (Army Meteorological Service of
Argentina) station (Harbour) (Fig. 1). Aero is located in a rural area and Harbour is an urban station. The period considered was
1968–1984.
The effect of sea breeze circulation over particulate matter was
analysed from hourly meteorological data registered during November–December 1995 in the Aero station and the University of
Mar del Plata (University) station (Fig. 1), in which airborne pollen samples were also collected weekly with Burkard-type traps.
The monitoring period was 41 days. Aerobiological samples and
counting were carried out with standard techniques (Käpylä and
Pentinen 1981). Only even-numbered hours were counted. The
study period represents the start of the main pollen season for
120
Fig. 2 Mean hourly frequencies (0200, 0800, 1400 and 2000
hours) of wind direction in the Aero station. Period 1968–1984
Fig. 4 Mean hourly frequencies (0200, 0800, 1400 and 2000
hours) of wind direction in the Harbour station. Period 1968–1984
Fig. 3 Mean wind roses at 0200, 0800, 1400 and 2000 hours local
time (LT) in the Aero station in January. Period 1968–1984
hours (Fig. 5) for January. Nevertheless, a diminution of
frequencies from the NE–SE sector at 2000 hours during
the warm months is observed, except in December and
January. This feature may be because, during the warmer
months, the sea breeze phenomenon extends some hours
after the sunset.
The difference of temperature between the Harbour
and Aero stations is an interesting variable for analysing
the effect of breeze circulation over the study area. The
temperatures recorded by Aero at 2000 and 0200 hours
are lower than those of the Harbour station during the
whole year (Fig. 6). At 0800 hours, the temperature difference reverses, higher values being recorded in Aero
from October to February and higher values in the Harbour station in the remaining months. As the Harbour
station is nearer to the sea, the sea’s restraining effect on
temperature is more pronounced, which explains the
spring and summer differences. Harbour temperatures at
1400 hours are lower than those in Aero, even during the
autumn and winter months when the temperature over
the sea is higher than over the continent. Higher positive
differences are seen in April at 0200 hours, while higher
negative ones appear in January at 1400 hours.
many species including Poaceae. This pollen type was selected for
study because it has the greatest atmospheric concentration in the
airborne pollen spectrum (Pérez and Paez 1998).
Results
Statistical analysis of the sea–land breeze
system in Mar del Plata
The hourly relative frequencies of wind direction in the
Aero station show that a sea breeze is present from August to April, with NE–SE winds predominating between
1400 and 2000 hours (Fig. 2). During these months the
most frequent wind direction relating to the sea breeze is
from the E at 1400 hours, while at 2000 hours the highest frequency changes towards the NE, following the
counterclockwise rotation of the breeze circulation in the
Southern Hemisphere. An example of this pattern, for
January, is presented in Fig. 3.
In the Harbour station, an increase of wind direction
frequencies relating to the sea breeze occurs between
September and March (Fig. 4). The frequencies of calmer winds are higher than those recorded in Aero. Winds
from the NE prevail over those from the E and SE during
the whole period, even during summer. Unlike the Aero
results, no significant variation of the wind directions is
evident between 1400 and 2000 hours, as shown by the
monthly mean wind roses at 0200, 0800, 1400 and 2000
Effect of the breeze on the tranport
of aerobiological particles
Wind analysis
Mean wind speeds for each direction were calculated
from hourly records of the Aero and University meteoro-
121
Fig. 5 Mean wind roses at 0200, 0800, 1400 and 2000 hours (LT)
in Harbour station in January. Period 1968–1984
both sampling stations. Although a sea–land breeze is present at both sites, the city centre has slightly higher wind direction frequencies during the hours of intense warming.
These results indicate that the effect of the breeze on pollen
transport is not significantly different in urban and rural areas, but convective movements produced by the urban heat
island lead to some pollen recirculation over the city during the night hours without advection.
Airborne pollen concentration
Fig. 6 Monthly mean temperature differences between the Aero
(Ta) and Harbour (Tp) stations at 0200, 0800, 1400 and 2000 hours
(LT)
logical stations (Table 1). The analysis only considered
wind directions relating to the breeze system: the NE–SE
sector for the sea breeze and the W–N sector for the land
breeze. Mean wind speeds for each direction calculated
in the University station were 10%–60% lower than the
Aero values, because of the friction effect induced by the
“roughness” of the city. At Aero, SE, NW and NE directions showed the higher wind speeds, comparable to
those registered for the NW and N directions at the University station. Wind speeds for the NE, E and SE measured in the former station are lower because the city
centre lies in those directions.
In Aero, the highest frequencies of winds from the
W–N sector arise between 0600 and 1200 hours (Fig. 7, 8).
Nevertheless, in the city, high frequencies from this sector
were recorded between midnight and 1000 hours, which
suggests that a local land–sea circulation is established during the early morning. The highest wind frequencies from
the NE–SE sector appeared from 1200 to 2000 hours in
Table 1 Mean wind speeds
by directions in the Aero
and University stations. Period:
15 November 1995–26 December 1995
Station
Aero
University
On 18–23 November and 14–22 December, higher pollen concentrations were detected in the rural area. Conversely, from 7 to 12 December the University station
registered high values of Poaceae pollen (Fig. 9). This
evidence shows that the two stations collected pollen
from different sources during the periods mentioned. In
addition the intradiurnal variation showed greater median values between 1200 and 1800 hours at Aero, with a
maximum at 1400 hours, and a barely defined pattern in
the University station, although the records showed a
tendency towards higher concentrations at 1600 hours
(Fig. 10). One factor that contributes to the low airborne
pollen content of the city is a higher removal effect than
that in the rural outskirts (Errell and Tsoar 1999).
Tables 2 and 3 show the ranked distribution for the
Poaceae pollen concentration as a function of wind direction in both sampling sites. Zones of highest emission
frequency were located towards the NE and NW of both
the Aero and University stations. The maximum pollen
concentration recorded at Aero occurs with SE and NE
winds (1,480–1,850; 1,110–1,480 grains/m3 respectively). At the University station, the maximum concentrations are related to SW, W, NE and N wind directions.
There are high frequencies with low pollen content,
which indicates that the predominance of diluted pollen
clouds in both sites may be due to resuspension processes caused by turbulence. Also there is a fraction of sedimented pollen, collected during calm weather. There are
a few cases when pollen was simultaneously recorded at
Mean wind speed (km/h)
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW
13.5
8.8
17.8
8.3
15.8
4.7
18.4
6.8
18.3
9.3
11.1
8.1
14.8
6.6
18.2
12.4
122
Fig. 7 Mean hourly frequencies of wind direcction in the Aero
station. Data period 15 November 1995–26 December 1995
Fig. 9 Series of hourly pollen concentrations in the Aero and
University stations during the sampling period (15 November
1995–26 December 1995)
Fig. 8 Mean hourly frequencies of wind direction in the University
station. Data period 15 November 1995–26 December 1995
Fig. 10 Intradiurnal variation of airborne Poaceae pollen collected
between 15 November 1995–26 December 1995
Table 2 Relative frequencies
of ranked hourly pollen concentrations by wind direction,
measured in the Aero station.
CAL calm
Table 3 Relative frequencies
of ranked hourly pollen concentrations by wind direction,
measured in the University
station
Concentration
(grains/m3)
Relative frequency (%)
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW
CAL
0–37
37–74
74–148
148–296
296–444
444–740
740–1,110
1,110–1,480
1,480–1,850
Total
1.9
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.9
8.4
3.2
3.6
1.3
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.2
0.0
18.0
5.8
1.5
1.1
0.4
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
9.0
7.3
2.1
1.5
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
11.6
9.2
1.5
1.5
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.0
0.0
13.3
3.6
1.1
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.1
3.2
0.9
2.8
0.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.7
7.3
5.1
4.7
1.5
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
19.3
8.4
1.7
1.7
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
12.2
Concentration
(grains/m3)
Relative frequency (%)
0–37
37–74
74–148
148–296
296–444
Total
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW
CAL
10.2
1.0
0.7
0.0
0.3
12.2
14.2
0.7
0.7
0.0
0.7
16.3
5.8
1.4
0.3
0.0
0.0
7.5
6.1
0.7
1.4
0.0
0.0
8.1
9.8
1.0
1.7
0.7
0.0
13.2
5.4
2.0
0.3
1.4
1.0
10.2
4.4
0.3
0.3
0.0
0.7
5.8
16.9
3.7
0.7
0.0
0.0
21.4
5.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.4
123
Fig. 11 Surface wind hodographs in the Aero and University stations during 14 and 15 December
the two sampling stations but the quantities are low.
Non-simultaneous recording of maximum airborne pollen concentrations in the two sampling stations and the
different predominant wind directions related with these
maxima show that the sources emitting Poaceae could be
located in different places for each station.
Fig. 12a, b Hourly surface temperature in the Aero and University stations. a 14 November 1995; b 15 November 1995
Effect of breeze on pollen concentrations
During the nights of 14 and 15 December, the Aero pollen records showed concentrations higher than commonly sampled (a maximum of 71 grains at 2000 hours LT
and 81 grains at 0200 hours LT). Because of results, the
characteristics of the atmospheric circulaton for these
days were studied.
The arrival of a cold front from the SW direction with
almost no activity on 14 December characterized the
weather in the Mar del Plata area. The synoptic chart at
1200 hours universal coordinate time (UTC) on 15 December shows a stationary front in the North of the city.
Southward, a new cold front approached the area and
passed through it in the morning. No precipitation was
registered at the Aero station. Synoptic circulation determined prevailing winds from the NW but, on both days,
a sea breeze was detected in the urban station, with rotation of the wind direction.
On the morning of 14 December the prevailing wind
direction at the surface was NW–N, although in the University station at 1300 hours LT, a change of circulation
was observed, with the settling of the sea breeze coming
from the NE (Fig. 11). Owing to the presence of the stationary front, the local circulation did not follow the
breeze model (Schmidt 1947), because from 1700 and
1900 hours in the University and Aero stations respec-
tively the passage of the second cold front caused a rotation of wind towards the S. NW winds were eventually
restored at 2300 hours LT. In the afternoon of 15 December, a SE sea breeze was recorded by the University and
Aero stations respectively at 1400 and 1600 hours. Owing to the presence of weak winds associated with
smooth surface pressure gradients, the breeze circulation
matched the theoretical model, resulting in a closed
hodograph of the surface wind with counterclockwise rotation. Air circulation carried airborne pollen seaward
during the early afternoon, afterwards bringing it up towards the coastal zone close to midnight. In addition to
the vertical recirculation of the breeze cell, a closed horizontal circulation can be seen because of wind rotation
(Fig. 11). Venegas and Mazzeo (1999) found that, in the
Mar del Plata area, maximum recirculation factors, estimated by the Allwine and Whiteman (1994) method,
reached values of 0.98. This result indicated that in almost 24 h an air parcel could return to its starting point.
Figure 12, shows that a fall in temperature was registered by the University station at 1300 hours during
14 December. The Aero station showed the same decline
at 1500 hours, although the wind direction did not allow
the conclusion that there was a direct relationship between
this descent and the presence of a sea breeze. The same
effect appeared on 15 December at 1400 hours in the Uni-
124
versity and at 1600 hours in the Aero records. Therefore
the falls of temperature were directly related to a rotation
of wind direction towards the coast and, in consequence,
to the advection of a marine air mass. On these days the
urban temperature was higher than that of Aero during the
night and in the first hours of the morning hours, this pattern reversing when the sea breeze started. Higher urban
temperatures produce an intense convection. The sea
breeze tends to appear earlier in the city, which led to the
temperature falling more sharply than in the rural area.
Conclusions
As Mar del Plata is a coastal city, a sea–land breeze appeared in the hours of greatest diurnal warming. According to the results, the surface wind direction most probably associated with this phenomenon is NE for the Aero
station and E for the Harbour station. A statistical analysis showed that there is a time when the most frequent
wind direction shifts following a counterclockwise rotation, according with theoretical models of breeze circulation in the Southern Hemisphere. Results for the year
1995 showed that it would be advisable to analyse in
greater detail whether urban heating determines a temporal advance in the occurrence of the breeze in comparison
with surrounding rural areas, appearing in consequence,
to exert a restraining effect on the urban heating in Mar
del Plata. Also, as Bakun (1990) argued, one consequence of increased greenhouse effects is an expected increase in the temperature gradient between the ocean and
the continent, enhancing the sea breeze circulation with
an increased alongshore wind. Nevertheless, this feature
was not part of recent climatological studies over Argentina (IPCC 2001).
Poaceae pollen arises from the natural grasses of the
area and its emission is practically at ground level. Given
the size and weight of the pollen grains and the height
from which it is emitted, it can be considered that the dispersion of Poaceae corresponds to the micrometeorological scale (Orlanski 1975). After the emission it could be
expected a priori that the pollen capture yields during the
first hour correspond to sources located within a maximum radius of 18 km for the Aero station and 12 km for
the University station (Table 1). In general, the emission
takes place in the morning, during the hours of maximum
insolation. In these hours the diurnal boundary layer has
its major variation in development until it reaches its
maximum height in the early afternoon and then remains
relatively stable for a few hours (Stull 1988). The development of the diurnal boundary layer is produced by ascending thermal currents due to surface heating. These
currents also transport the pollen disseminated in the first
100 m of the atmosphere towards mean elevations that, in
Mar del Plata, vary from 800 m in winter to 1,500 m in
summer (Gassmann and Mazzeo 2000). There is not
enough information to determine the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the breeze circulation in the study area.
However, pollen data showed that, after the occurrence of
the breeze, there is a rise in the pollen concentration between 2000 and 0200 hours, caused by pollen reentrainment brought about by the air recirculation.
Considering the characteristics of the source and the
emission height previously mentioned, from an aerobiological point of view, airborne dispersion of Poaceae pollen would be expected to be on local scale (Pérez 2000).
However, the absence of relevant sources in the city
showed that Poaceae pollen captured in this site was of
regional origin. This evidence indicated that meteorological characteristics were of great importance and, therefore, these were taken into account in the interpretation
of the transport of urban as well as rural airborne Poaceae pollen. The presence of pollen sources in the latter
site (Pérez 2000) led us to consider local and regional
components of dispersion in the rural airborne spectrum.
This study showed that recirculation of airborne pollen is
made possible by means of the breeze system and that it
brings a regional component to a pollen spectrum. These
results are not distinguishable in a standard palynological study. Therefore, it is of great importance to consider
the meteorological characteristics of a study site to obtain an appropriate interpretation of the patterns and dynamics of dispersion of airborne pollen assemblages.
Acknowledgements The University of Buenos Aires (grant IX16/98) and the University of Mar del Plata (grant EXA 11/93) supported this study. Meteorological records were given by the National Meteorological Service and the Army’s Meteorological Service of Argentina.
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