Vocabulary Development
The Multisensory Approach
Background Information
Purpose of Developing Vocabulary
 Improve long-term comprehension
 Improve successful communication (That’s not what I meant.)
Vocabulary Definition
 All the words of a language.
 The words used by a particular person or group.
 A list of words or phrases pertinent to a particular topic, book, or subject area.
Vocabulary Description
 Vocabulary knowledge includes:
o Number of words an individual knows (breadth)
o Amount of knowledge an individual has about a specific word (depth).
 Students also need to know (or it is helpful for them to know):
o How to pronounce and spell the word
o What the root of the word is, if there are prefixes or suffixes
o What part of speech the word represents
o How the word is used in sentences
o What connotations the word has
o If there are multiple meanings of the word
o In what contexts the word is used
Why is vocabulary instruction important?
 Vocabulary knowledge is fundamental to reading comprehension.
o Cannot understand text without knowing what most of the words mean
o The more word meanings the student knows, the easier it is to learn new words.
 Adults with low literacy skills often have difficulty realizing:
o That one word can mean more than one idea
o That more than one word can be used to express the same meaning
What are the goals of vocabulary instruction?
 Student can decode/pronounce the word, state the meaning of the specific word and use
it correctly in sentences to indicate understanding of the word’s meaning and correct
syntactic usage.
 Provide students with skills and opportunities to learn words independently.
 Nurture a love and appreciation of words and their use.
Why is specialized vocabulary instruction important?
 Most instruction fails to produce in-depth word knowledge.
 Traditional methods of instruction augmented with more intensive instruction produce
richer, deeper word knowledge.
Why Is Using Multiple Senses Important?
 Using multisensory techniques enhances memory.
 Using multisensory techniques enables learners to understand, remember, and retrieve
information more successfully.
 Using multisensory techniques is helpful for adults with learning differences.
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Word Origins
English word origins are primarily from Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and Greek.
 Anglo-Saxon words
o Short, common, everyday words often used in ordinary situations
o Most do not need to be taught to native English speakers.
o Many have non-phonetic spellings.
o Examples: bird, blood, cry, ditch, girl, grave, jump, laugh, mother, mouth, run
o Tier 1 words
 Latin words
o Technical, sophisticated words used mostly in more formal and written contexts,
including literature and textbooks.
o Found in many academic content areas, not just specific to one
o Affixes are added to roots
o Examples: advocate, analyze, audience, commitment, contradict, corruption,
disruptive, expedite, extracted, coincidence, absurd, industrious, fortunate
o Tier 2 words
 Greek words
o Specialized words, low frequency use, limited to specific domains
o Combining forms are compounded
o Examples: acrostic, amnesty, atmosphere, chromosome, deportation, genome,
lathe, peninsula, photograph, refinery, rhombus, thermometer
o Tier 3 words
English has also borrowed from many other languages. (Rice Univ Words in English)
 American Indian languages: avocado, canoe, chipmunk, chocolate, chili, hammock,
hurricane, maize, moccasin, moose, pecan, potato, squash, tobacco, toboggan, tomato;
many place names, including Michigan, Texas, Illinois
 African languages: banjo, gorilla, gumbo, jazz, jitterbug, jitters, yam, zebra
 Arabic: Bedouin, gazelle, giraffe, harem, lute, mosque, sirocco, bazaar, caravan
 Chinese: chop suey, chow mein, dim sum, ketchup, tea, ginseng, kowtow
 Dutch/Flemish: waffle, coleslaw, easel, landscape, sketch, bale, selvage, stripe, buoy,
cruise, dock, pump, reef, skipper, smuggle, yacht
 French: café, ballet, champagne, chic, corsage, faux pas, quiche, savoir faire, clique,
rouge, cavalry, bayonette
 German: pretzel, delicatessen, frankfurter, kindergarten, bundt (cake), spritz (cookies),
pinochle, poodle
 Hindi: bandanna, bangle, bungalow, chintz, cot, pajamas, shampoo, jamboree
 Italian: alto, balcony, cameo, casino, ghetto, macaroni, prima donna, stucco, tempo,
umbrella, torso, cappuccino
 Japanese: geisha, hara kiri, judo, jujitsu, karaoke, kimono, soy, shush, tsunami
 Pacific Islands: bamboo, gingham, rattan, taboo, tattoo, ukulele, boondocks
 Persian (Farsi): check, checkmate, chess
 Russian: borscht, czar/tsar, glasnost, icon, perestroika, vodka
 Sanskrit: avatar, karma, mahatma, swastika, yoga
 Scandinavian: fjord, maelstrom, ombudsman, ski, slalom, smorgasbord
 Spanish: armada, adobe, canyon, desperado, embargo, enchilada, tornado, vigilante,
guitar, mosquito
 Yiddish: bagel, chutzpah, kosher, schlep, spiel, klutz, schmuck
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Types of Vocabulary
 Listening/Aural Vocabulary: Words understood when we hear them.
 Speaking/Oral Vocabulary: Words understood enough to use in conversation.
 Reading/Print Vocabulary: Words that we can read and understand.
o More difficult to attain because relies on quick, accurate, automatic recognition
 Writing Vocabulary: Words that we can read and understand well enough to transfer to
our writing.
Types of Vocabulary- A Different View (Beck, McKeown, Kucan)
 Informal Vocabulary
 Academic Vocabulary: Words used in a formal, educational setting
o High-frequency, everyday words (building, driver, eraser)
o Non-Specialized academic words that occur across content areas (analyze,
examine, cause, formation)
o Specialized content-area words unique to specific disciplines (ecosystem,
foreshadowing, octagon)
Degrees of Word Knowledge
 I don’t know the word. I’ve never seen or heard it.
 I’ve seen or heard the word before but I’m not sure of the meaning.
 I know its meaning a little when I see it or hear it in some contexts, but I do not use it in
my own speaking or writing.
 I know the word. I can use it in a sentence.
Multiple Levels of Understanding (Whitaker: Word Play)
Verbal Association Level
 Everyday use
 Definition / single contexts
 Wide and varied interactive reading
 Learn words as they appear in context
Partial Concept Knowledge
 Deeper level of understanding
 Knowledge of multiple meaning possibilities
 Explicit strategies for words integral to story’s meaning
 Graphic organizers to extend definition knowledge
Full Concept Knowledge
 Deep level of understanding that includes knowledge of word families, multiple
meanings, and ways to extend definitions to applications
 Ability to discriminate word from similar words
 Ability to extend definition to related concepts
 Explicit strategies for connecting and extending words
 Opportunities for students to integrate word and concept in meaningful use
Typical Errors/Difficulties (Curtis)
 Substituting similar words in speech
o Example: property for prosperity
 Mispronouncing words read but not previously heard, with phonetically plausible
substitutions
 Not realizing that one word can mean more than one idea.
 Not realizing that more than one word can be used to express the same meaning.
 In writing, using the wrong spelling for multiple meaning words (homophones)
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How Vocabulary Affects Comprehension (ProLiteracyEdNet: A Way with Words)
 Not understanding the meaning of a key word in a sentence can totally disrupt
comprehension by preventing the reader from getting the gist. (i.e. lack of general
vocabulary can seriously impair comprehension)
Dairy farmers now face penalties for not registering
About 6 percent of Wisconsin’s dairy producers have not registered their farms with the
state. Now, they face penalties, much to the chagrin of the lawmaker who proposed the
registration law.
 Sometimes a reader encounters a new and previously unknown word whose meaning is
explicitly given in the text. (i.e. the act of reading can teach new vocabulary)
Trader Joe’s almonds are grown in the Central Valley of California. The weather
conditions are ideal for the cultivation of some of the world’s finest quality almonds.
These almonds are of the “nonpareil” variety, which translates from the French terms
for “no equal.” No almonds are of the same consistently high quality, which is why the
nonpareil variety commands top dollar.
 Sometimes, a reader encounters new and previously unknown words whose meanings
are revealed by the text, though not explicitly. (i.e. the reader must have some idea of
the gist of the passage and be able to use clues from within the text (the context) to
figure out a word’s meaning. Again, the act of reading can teach new vocabulary.
Sea Lions Swarm Newport Schools of fish caused the population explosion
NEWPORT BEACH - A popular food source lured unusually large numbers of sea
lions to the waters off Newport Beach beginning March 20, leading to a veritable feeding
frenzy. The pinnipeds were attracted by massive schools of shad. Pods of sea lions
were visible from the Santa Ana River to 45th Street.
 Sometimes, vocabulary is very specific to a certain domain or subject. Vocabulary terms
must be learned and understood in the context of learning that specific subject and its
concepts, or else comprehension is impaired.
When sailboats are on opposite tacks, a port tack boat shall keep clear of a starboard
tack boat. When boats are on the same tack, a windward boat shall keep clear of a
leeward boat.
 Sometimes, knowing the meanings of every individual word in a passage is not enough
to ensure comprehension. More often than not, some (or in certain cases, a LOT OF)
background knowledge is essential.
On racing engines the top ring is very close to the piston crown and gives precise control
over the port opening and closing periods. Roadsters have a taller top ring land and this,
while improving piston life, makes the exact opening position a little vague. Some tuners
file the piston crown away forming channels aligned with the ports in order to increase
the time-area and to give more precise timing. This will reduce piston life and the edges
of the channels may become hot enough to cause pre-ignition, however it could be a
useful way of determining the effect of more time-area without spoiling a cylinder barrel.
Teaching Vocabulary
Vocabulary Instruction (Beck, McKeown, Kucan) (Nagy)
There is no one single best way to teach vocabulary.
Use a variety of techniques that include repeated exposures to word meanings, including
concept, context, and definition.
Definitions alone are usually not enough.
 Minimal requirements: Provide adequate definitions and illustrations in natural sounding
contexts.
 Preferred: Intensive vocabulary instruction through a variety of strategies.
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Distinguish Between Teaching New Words and New Concepts (Allen: Words, Words, Words)
Teaching vocabulary often is teaching new labels for familiar concepts.
 Example: The student knows the meanings of the words fair and unfair. You are
teaching new vocabulary when you connect words such as discrimination, bias, and
stereotyping to that concept.
 Example: If the concept of faithfulness is new, the teacher designs several reading,
writing, thinking, and exploring activities to help the understanding. It is then teaching
new vocabulary to connect words such as loyalty, steadfast, and commitment to
faithfulness.
Effective Approaches to Teaching Vocabulary
Direct, Explicit, and Systematic Instruction (Beck, McKeown, Kucan) (Curtis) and others
Explicit instruction of vocabulary involves the following steps:
 Explain word meanings and model usage of difficult content-area vocabulary in
sentences that are relevant to the subject matter concepts that students are currently
learning. Provide description, explanation, and/or examples.
 Ask the student to restate description, explanation, and/or examples in his own words.
 Help the learners to connect a personal context to the word.
 Guide students to practice using the vocabulary in different sentences and contexts and
provide corrective feedback, both oral and written.
 Provide time for independent practice with the vocabulary, such as discussion, peer
tutoring, reciprocal teaching, collaborative learning, games, both oral and written.
 Repeat these instructional steps until students are able to use the new vocabulary
independently in their reading and writing.
Use Students’ Prior Knowledge (Beck, McKeown, Kucan)
To learn and retain new words and concepts, students need to connect these words and
concepts to what they already know.
 Prior to pre-teaching vocabulary, elicit students’ prior knowledge of the content in which
the new vocabulary is used and then relate their prior knowledge to the new vocabulary.
 Make a word map on the board, chart paper, or overhead to show the connections
between students’ prior knowledge and the new vocabulary.
Provide Opportunities for Multiple Exposures to New Words (Beck, McKeown, Kucan)
To learn and retain new words and concepts, students need repeated exposure to the words
and concepts plus opportunities to practice using them in different contexts.
 Provide multiple repetitions of the words in different contexts.
o Example: Within the context of explaining new concepts, giving directions, or
summarizing ideas, use the new words repeatedly. Pronounce these words
more slowly and pause after saying them to allow students time to identify and
focus on the words.
 Provide students several opportunities to apply new word meanings across different
situations.
o Example: Place students in small groups to discuss their understandings of the
new words. Have them develop their own word maps to show relationships
among the new words and connections to the important concepts. Have
students write sentences using the new words in different ways, then share
these orally with the class.
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Use Graphic Organizers as Tools
Graphic organizers help students to visualize the relationships between words and their
possible meanings. These tools may also be used as assessment for learning.
 Example: Visuword Online Graphical Dictionary provides a visual representation of a
range of meanings for a target word, and illustrates up to fifteen distinct relationships
among words by connecting them with color-coded links. www.visuwords.com/search
 Other sources include http://www.thinkport.org/technology/template.tp and
http://www.educationoasis.com/curriculum/GO/vocab_dev.htm
Work with Word Relationships
Use word relationships to highlight, compare, and contrast word meanings.
 Synonyms: different words with identical or similar meanings
 Antonyms: words having meaning opposite to that of another word; prefixes can create
antonyms (employed and unemployed)
 Homophones: a word that is pronounced the same as another word, but differs in
meaning. Homophones may be spelled the same or differently. (rose (flower) and rose
(stood up)) (two, to, too) (right and write) (there, their, and they’re)
 Analogies: a comparison of similarities between things which are otherwise unlike.
Differentiating Word Meanings (Curtis)
 Highlight distinctions among word meanings.
o Compare, classify, analyze, describe, represent graphically (semantic maps),
build a matrix that shows common and unique characteristics.
 Concept anchoring: connect new info to what already known
o Example: Compare workings of camera (familiar) to function of human eye (new)
 Word sorts: Have students explain why sorted as they did
Contextual Analysis (Curtis) (Allen: Words, Words, Words)
Using context involves integrating different types of information from text to figure out unknown
vocabulary. Model using context with the student by thinking aloud.
 There are two types of contextual clues: semantic/syntactic and typographic
o Semantic: knowledge of words
o Syntactic: knowledge of structure
o Typographic: pictures, graphs, charts, glossaries, footnotes
 Use syntactic and semantic clues found in context to derive word meanings.
o Example: Mary’s quietness was in sharp contrast to Mike’s vociferousness.
o Example: Marcia’s agrizoophobia made her opt for a trip to the beach rather than
a visit to Lion Country Safari on a recent trip to West Palm Beach.
 Phobia- fear of something
 Beach/safari- beach: sun, sand, shells, people, water sports; safari: sun,
people, wild animals
 Zoo: wild animals
 Guess: fear of wild animals
 Used context, structural analysis of word, background knowledge
 Be aware of signal words.
o Example: similarly; nevertheless, however, but; thus, therefore, furthermore
o Visit http://lincs.ed.gov/readingprofiles/Signal_Words.pdf for many examples
 Problems with relying on contextual analysis: (Curtis) (Allen: Words, Words, Words)
o Increasing vocabulary by learning words from context tends to be slow.
o Not all sentences offer clear clues to meaning.
 Ex: Although Monica’s actions were subdued, her sister’s were frenzied.
Have to know either subdued or frenzied to get the meaning of the other.
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o
Students may misinterpret the context clues.
 Ex: Student thinks the word beneficial is related to finance, because he is
familiar with a company called Beneficial Finance.
 Ex: High school teacher said “cease and desist.” Student thinks the word
desist means sit down, shut up, and pay attention.
 Ex: Her flightiness caused her to end up without resources. Things that
could leave you without resources: loss of a job, illness, gambling, bad
luck, moving; flightiness makes you think moving around a lot
(Allen: Words, Words, Words)
Classifications of Context Clues (McKeown and Beck)
Four classifications to indicate range of helpfulness of contexts:
 Directive contexts: likely to lead to a correct inference about a word’s meaning. Mary
watched as Nora grew smaller and smaller and finally vanished.
 General contexts: provide enough clues to place the word in a general category. Brian
said morosely, “This miserable town will be the death of us.” Morosely indicates a
negative feeling, but could be anger, fear, or unhappiness.
 Nondirective contexts: provide little assistance in directing a reader to a particular
meaning. Freddie looked over the members of the team she had been assigned. Each
looked more hapless than the next. Hapless could mean anything, but it does describe
something a person can be.
 Misdirective contexts: seem to direct a reader to an incorrect meaning for a word. The
climb up the mountain took longer than John and Patrick expected. The cliffs were
steeper than Patrick remembered, and they had to walk an extra mile because the path
was blocked at one point. It was John’s first experience mountain-climbing, and he was
exhilarated at the end of the day. The sentence seems to hint that exhilarated means
exhausted or discouraged, not enlivened.
Some sentences do not give clues to the meaning. (Lawrence, White, Snow)
 The boy was tardy. The sentence does not provide much of a clue to meaning for a
student who does not already know what tardy means. The sentence, The boy was 10
minutes tardy, so his teacher was upset with him provides much better support to help
the learner infer meaning.
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Roots and Affixes
Teachers can teach roots, prefixes, and suffixes, and practice using them to predict the
meanings of words.
Teachers can include a range of words related to a target word and explicitly discuss how
prefixes and suffixes change its meaning.
Students can practice making known words into nouns (add –ment, -ness, -ation), into verbs
(add –ate, -ify, -ize), into adjectives (add -acious, -y, -ous).
Words do not always have a prefix and/or a suffix or a recognizable root.
Root
 A root is the main part of the word, usually in the middle.
Prefix
 Comes before the main part of a word.
 Changes the meaning of the word.
 Usually derived from Greek or Latin.
 Cannot be used alone in English.
 Some have more than one meaning (de = of or from).
 Prefixes describe number (decimal), size (macroscopic), when (afternoon), where
(midstream), amount (extravagant).
Suffix
 Comes at the end of a word.
 Cannot be used alone.
 A suffix tells quality, action, or relation of the root.
 Suffix can determine whether the word is a noun, adjective, verb, or adverb.
Words can have more than one prefix, root, or suffix.
 Example: two roots (geology); two prefixes (insubordination); two suffixes (beautifully).
Integration (Nagy)
Integrate instructed words with other knowledge.
 We understand new information by relating it to what we already know.
 Integrate new vocabulary through Semantic Mapping, Semantic Feature Analysis,
Hierarchical Arrays, Linear Arrays (see activities handout for the previous), and
Emphasis on Concepts.
o Emphasis on Concepts
 Be careful to treat new words as new concepts, not just as synonyms or
new labels.
 Example: Ancient means more than just old.
 Example: Obese means more than just fat.
 Try discussing the new concept before introducing the new term.
 Discuss examples and non-examples (where the term fits and where it
doesn’t fit).
Repetition (Nagy)
 Understanding of the word needs to be automatic.
o The reader can concentrate on comprehending the meaning of the sentence, not
remembering the meaning of each word.
 Students need enough practice with the words so they get meaning quickly and easily.
 Provide many encounters with the new word;
o But avoid only using boring paper and pencil worksheets.
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Meaningful Use (Nagy)
 The learner should be actively involved.
 The student needs to think about the word and do some meaningful processing of the
word.
 There is a difference between saying what a word means and being able to use it.
 We understand and use many words well without being able to define them.
o Can you define the word if?
 Concentrate on depth of processing.
o The more deeply the information is processed, the more likely it is to be
remembered.
 Use the word to make an inference, not just state the meaning:
o Identify the meaning of a word:
 Ex: Gendarme means: bellboy, policeman, waiter, letter carrier
o Use the meaning of a word:
 Ex: A gendarme is most likely to carry: suitcase, gun, tray, mail
o Open ended use:
 Ex: When father heard that Lisa had ripped up the letter from Steve,
father commended her for it. What do you think father thought of Steve?
 Have students complete a sentence containing the target word (in the style that a word
would usually be used in a sentence) instead of telling students to use the word in a
sentence (most words can be used in a simple sentence without a full understanding of
the word).
Promoting Word Consciousness (Curtis)
 Model enthusiasm for, and skill in using words adeptly.
 Provide opportunities to have fun manipulating looks, sounds, meanings.
 Involve learners in instructional activities in which interesting use of words is valued.
 Encourage students in research projects that investigate words.
 Provide instruction that enhances student understanding of complexity of word
knowledge and vocabulary learning.
 Report “sightings” of vocabulary words, use vocabulary words in speaking and writing
 Encourage self-selection; students nominate words to study.
Engagement (Curtis)
 Follow reading with other activities to extend understanding.
o Example: Discuss what was read
 Look for familiar contexts for words.
 Play word games puzzles: Scrabble, Boggle, crossword, word search, hangman
 Play computer games: see the Resources handout
 Have fun.
o Illustrate the word.
o Try a word cloud from text, as in Wordle (www.wordle.net).
o Make an anagram of your name, a word, or a phrase
 Try http://www.anagramgenius.com/server.html
 Example: Clint Eastwood = Old West Action
 Example: Harrison Ford = Finds a Horror
Encourage Students to Write (Lawrence, White, Snow)
To encourage students to expand their written vocabulary, teachers need to support student
experimentation and reward use of even partially known words.
In assessing student writing, include rubric categories for not only correct word usage, but also
the range of academic language used.
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Promote Independent Word Learning (Nagy)
 Spend as much time reading as possible.
o Students learn new words from reading.
 Students only learn about one in twenty of the words they read from
seeing the word in context.
 The more students read, the more words they encounter, so the more
words they learn.
 Teach context and structural analysis as strategies.
o Model and practice the strategies with realistic examples.
 Be aware of the limitations of context and structural analysis.
 Teach students how to use the dictionary.
Applying the Multisensory Approach (Geertz, NCSALL) and (Jones)
The more a learner can interact with and participate in discovering and learning the meaning of
a word, the better he/she will retain the definition.
 Multisensory learning allows the brain to receive multiple messages through a variety of
pathways so that the strong pathways can support the weak ones.
o The student can see the word by looking at it or drawings or graphic organizers
that represent it.
o The student can hear the word by listening to the teacher say it.
o The student can speak the word by saying it, pronouncing slowly, reading aloud,
saying each letter aloud as they spell, and “talking through” a concept.
o The student can do something with the word by writing it, drawing a concept for
it, acting out a meaning, tracing, forming words with their fingertips on a surface,
and manipulating tiles or alphabet cards. Underlining as they read also helps the
eyes to track across a line of print.
 Multimotor learning prompts the brain to send messages to the muscles that control the
hands, the mouth, and the eyes and using these muscles further reinforces the learning
process.
These teaching techniques are more time consuming than the traditional methods of teaching
vocabulary, but they are much more effective for retention.
Guidelines
Incorporate multisensory learning from the beginning. (Jones)
 Present an illustration or demonstration first.
o When the word is used or its meaning discussed, students have an image to
associate with the word, and are more likely to learn from the discussion as well
as from the visual presentations.
Have structure and organization behind the words you present. (Jones)
Present words in related groups.
 Example: Present words about feelings:
o Make a poster, with different words to describe being afraid or happy.
o Discuss the degrees of emotion (is terrified more than nervous or anxious,
ecstatic better than pleased).
o Discuss differences between the words (how is snicker different from guffaw,
terrified different from horrified?).
 Example: Study word parts:
o Students learn that ject means throw.
o Tackle projectile, reject and trajectory.
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Model the activities first. (Jones)
 Demonstrate these activities with vivid, familiar words first.
 Do the word with student input next.
 Finally, have the students do it on their own - perhaps in groups before working
individually.
Most work with vocabulary should be done with the meanings available. (Jones)
 If the activity involves expressing the ideas in a different form than the definition, then
the student has to think about the meaning and interpret it.
 If the student doesn't use the right meaning, they're worse than wasting their time;
they're learning the wrong things.
 Students may commit a simplified meaning to memory, but if they have a more
developed definition they will be able to think about that and use it.
Keep an ongoing list prominently posted. (Jones)
 If the words are visible and accessible to students, they are more likely to see them,
think about them, and use them.
Go beyond the definitions of the words. (Jones)
 Include the connotations of the words and the ways they are most likely to be used.
Don't limit this exploration to the "discussion" of words.
 When students are drawing or acting out words, encourage them to incorporate the
connotations or the more subtle aspects of the meanings of the words.
Ten Step Vocabulary Strategy for Teaching Unfamiliar Words (Birsh)
1. Help the students decode the word by having them use the guides they have learned
thus far.
2. Talk about the word; make it come alive with background and stories.
3. Demonstrate how the word is used in a sentence.
4. Have the students find the word in their dictionaries, and read it aloud to them, if
necessary.
5. Discuss multiple meanings.
6. Have students practice visualizing.
a. To teach the word avid, have the students picture a person they know who is
an avid reader, tennis player, or music lover engaged in the activity.
7. Have students draw the scene and write avid across the page.
8. With the students, compose a simplified, understandable definition, and write it on
the board.
9. Have the students write the word in their 4” x 6” spiral-bound notebooks with the
word on the left-hand page of the book and definition on the right-hand page.
10. Tell students that to memorize the word, they must study them three times within the
next 24 hours and at least once a day for the next week.
Six Steps to Better Vocabulary Instruction (Marzano)
1. Teacher presents a meaningful and accessible description or explanation of the word.
2. Students think about their existing knowledge and experiences, along with other words
they may already know, and develop their own description or explanation of the word.
3. Students create a visual representation of the word that reminds them of the meaning of
the word.
4. Students use the word in other contexts, for example in readings, writing, conversation.
5. Students discuss the meaning of the word with other students. This helps to clarify
meaning, break down misconceptions, and gives additional practice.
6. Students play vocabulary games. They see the word multiple times in different ways.
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General Hints to Teaching Vocabulary
 Follow typical, scaffolded steps of instruction:
o Explicit instruction of the strategy and when/how it should be used
o Teacher and/or student modeling and explanation of specific strategies
o Collaboration in the use of the strategy
o Guided practice, using a variety of text and print genres
o Independent practice with feedback
o Independent use of the strategy
o Application of strategies in real reading situations
 Keep it relevant (as for all adult instruction).
o Have students find words they want to learn.
o Use authentic text.
 Promote active involvement.
 Vocabulary instruction should involve a variety of approaches, including both direct
teaching and context-based approaches.
 Have students construct meanings for the words and visually represent the word and its
related terms.
 Define the new word using language and multiple examples which are familiar to the
students.
o Give multiple exposures to the word.
o The more interconnecting networks, the more likely the student will remember
the word.
 Teach word origins.
 Work with the structure of words: prefixes, roots, and suffixes.
o Ex: Read the word run and discuss its meaning.
 “What would that word be if you put /re/ in front of it?”
 “Have you ever seen a rerun on TV?”
o Ex: Put these into logical order: hottest, hot, hotter
 Teach word-learning strategies, such as using context clues, word relationships,
analogies, and the dictionary.
Possible Areas of Learning Differences
Perception / Reception
 Visual perception
 Visual discrimination
 Visual – Spatial processing
 Visual sequencing
 Auditory perception
 Auditory discrimination
 Auditory sequencing
 Tactile – Perception
 Tactile perception
 Kinesthetic perception
Processing
 Phonological Awareness
 Sound – Symbol relationships
 Decoding strategies
Output / Communication
Memory
 Short / Long term memory
 Memory of symbols
 Concepts / concrete rules
 Visual memory
 Auditory memory
Guidelines for Instruction for Learners with Special Needs (Blachowicz and Fisher)
 Address vocabulary as a separate subject for instruction, and in relation to other areas of
the curriculum.
 Select words carefully.
 Meanings should be made explicit and comprehensible through demonstration,
discussion, usage, and more discussion.
 Incorporate multiple modalities and avenues of expression in instruction and practice.
 Create categories; try not to teach isolated words.
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Choosing Words to Teach
5000 words account for 95% of text, but the other 5% tend to carry the meaning.
Some of that 5% are applicable to a large range of texts, and others are narrower in scope.
 Academic words that apply to a large range of texts (often Tier 2 Latin words).
 Words that hold the possibility of multiple meaningful encounters, in a variety of subjects
or contexts.
 Words that have multiple meanings in different contexts or as different parts of speech.
o Novel (book or new), produce (vegetable or make), meter (length in math,
instrument in science, timing in poetry)
 Vocabulary around a central theme or in context:
o Ex: Workplace, grocery store, household bills, leases, children’s schools
o Ex: Words about feelings or emotions
 Words necessary to comprehending specialized text:
o Words in a car manual, words in an article on health or nutrition
 Words that deepen a student’s understanding of a general concept by providing precise
and specific words for describing that concept.
 Words important in the structure of the text, such as causes, comparisons, patterns.
 Words beyond the text; words inspired by the text or discussions about the text.
 Authentic texts (i.e. material that is learner-centered, meaningful and relevant to student
needs and interests) as springboards for vocabulary instruction.
• Words from the reading material of the students. Select words that, if not understood,
would disrupt comprehension of the topic.
o Ex: “Concept” terms, such as equinox, global warming, parallel, Riviera
 Words that can be the subject or source of lessons on word analysis or word building
o Ex: Words to which affixes (prefixes and suffixes) are commonly added
 Signal words, such as but, however, while
 Figures of speech, idioms, slang, jargon, as needed for the student
 Confusing words, such as indifferent
 Words the students brings to class
 If teaching vocabulary in isolation, teach only four to ten words each lesson, depending
on the ability level of the learner. Show students how to apply these words in context.
Balancing Instruction (Nagy)
 The teacher’s goal is to find the balance between incidental word learning and explicit,
intensive vocabulary instruction.
 The balance depends on the particular student, the texts, and the words involved.
 Choose carefully the words for intensive instruction.
Intensive instruction is most appropriate for:
 Words that are conceptually difficult.
o Words representing complex concepts not part of students’ everyday experience.
 A group of words that have related meanings or relate to a single topic.
 Words that are important:
o To the understanding of the selection
o Because of their general utility in language.
 Words that are necessary for understanding the text; technical words.
 Teach tier 2 words.
o Words in text that teaching, and words related to what teaching
o Tier 1 words are usually known by native speakers.
o Tier 3 words are usually best taught within their specific domain.
Minimal instruction is appropriate for:
 Words that may be gotten from context; practice this as a post-reading activity.
 Words that are peripheral to the theme of the reading; give a definition for these words.
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Potential Problems
 You must be able to define the word in terms known to and understood by the student.
 Relying only on context clues.
 Common Errors: (Whitaker: Word Play)
o Real word substitutions: (more frequent in native speakers)
 property for prosperity
o Phonetically plausible substitutions: (more common in ESL)
 so-litary for solitary, ep-i-tome for e-pi-to-me
Things to Avoid
 Memorization of definitions
 Standard approach to vocabulary:
o Read dictionary definition.
o Use the word in a sentence.
o Move on to the next word on the list.
 Trying to teach too many words too quickly.
 Teaching words that have no relevance to the student(s).
o Selecting words randomly only because they are at the
right grade level.
o Selecting words that students will never see or hear again after that unit.
 Assigning words from the text because they are highlighted.
 Teaching words out of context
When to Teach (McKeown and Beck)
 Teach vocabulary words in formal lessons.
 Teach vocabulary when opportunities arise within the classroom routine.
 Teach vocabulary as needed for specific reading passages.
 Use more sophisticated words in discussion, explaining them when necessary.
 Comment on the use of more sophisticated words used by the students.
Special Topics
Academic Word List
Teach academic vocabulary that crosses content area. The academic word list consists of 570
word families that are not in the most frequent 2000 words of English, but which occur
frequently over a wide range of academic texts. The 570 word families are grouped into ten
subsets that reflect word frequency.
Find an academic word list; work with these words in different contexts to ensure the student
knows them.
One source is found at http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/academicwordlist/
Academic Word List: Subset 1
Analyze approach area assess assume authority available benefit concept consist
context constitute contract date define derive distribute economy environment
establish estimate evident factor finance formula function income indicate individual
interpret involve issue labor legal legislate major method percent period principle
proceed process policy require research respond role section sector significant
similar source specific structure theory vary
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Signal Words (http://lincs.ed.gov/readingprofiles/Signal_Words.pdf#page=1&zoom=auto,0,800)
 Continuation Signals (Warning—there are more ideas to come.) Ex: and, also, another
 Change-of-Direction Signals (Watch out—we’re doubling back.) Ex: although, but,
despite
 Sequence Signals (There is an order to these ideas.) Ex: first, second, third A, B, C
 Time Signals (When is it happening?) Ex: when, immediately, now
 Illustration Signals (Here’s what that principle means in reality.) Ex: for example
specifically, for instance
 Emphasis Signals (This is important.) Ex: a major development, it all boils down to, a
significant factor, most of all
 Cause, Condition, or Result Signals (Condition or modification is coming up.) Ex:
because, if, of
 Spatial Signals (This answers the “where” question.) Ex: between, below, about
 Comparison-Contrast Signals (We will now compare idea A with idea B.) Ex: and, or,
also
 Conclusion Signals (This ends the discussion and may have special importance.) Ex: as
a result consequently finally
 Fuzz Signals (Idea is not exact, or author is not positive and wishes to qualify a
statement.) Ex: almost if looks like maybe
 Nonword Emphasis Signals
o exclamation point (!)
o underline
o italics
o bold type
o subheads, like The Conclusion
o indentation of paragraph
o graphic illustrations
o numbered points (1, 2, 3)
o very short sentence: Stop war.
o “quotation marks”
Cognates
 Cognates are words from different languages that share similar form and have at least
one sense in common.
o Ex: with Spanish: democracia, necessario, labratorio, function, charlatan
o Ex: with French: different, advantage, capitaine, urgent, geometrie
o Ex: with German: milch, mathematic, aktiv, adresse, agent, aquarium
 But beware of words that are spelled the same, but have different meanings.
o Ex: advertisement (in French, warning or caution)
o Ex: also (in German, thus, therefore); brand (in German, fire, blaze)
o Ex: complexion (in Spanish, physical build)
Idioms
 An idiom is a group of words that together mean something different than what the
individual words might suggest.
 An idiom’s meaning cannot be predicted from the usual meanings of its words.
o Idioms must be understood as a whole, not as individual words.
 There are not always one-to-one correspondences between English idioms and other
languages.
Teaching Idioms
 Provide students with examples of words that have different meanings, depending on
the context in which they are used.
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


Focus on context when helping students understand idioms.
Teach the origins of idioms.
o This will help students more easily figure out their meanings.
Have students research the origins of an idiom.
Slang and Jargon
 Words and phrases typical of a particular region, field of study, occupation, culture
Teaching Vocabulary for a Particular Passage or Unit (Allen: Words, Words, Words)
Determine if you need to teach the word as incidental, offer mediated support, or provide direct
instruction.
 Which words are most important to understanding the text?
 How much prior knowledge will students have about this word or its related concept?
 Is the word encountered frequently?
 Does the word have multiple meanings? (Is it polysemous?)
 Is the concept significant and does it therefore require preteaching?
 Which words can be figured out from the context?
 Are there words that could be grouped together to enhance understanding a concept?
 What strategies could I employ to help students integrate the concept (and related
words) into their lives?
 How can I make repeated exposures to the word/concept productive and enjoyable?
 How can I help students use the word/concept in meaningful ways in multiple contexts?
The questions above help you plan vocabulary instruction at the beginning of a thematic unit or
before starting the shared reading of a novel.
Spelling
English has 1,100 ways to spell its 44 sounds.
 Words that have the same sounds but are spelled differently.
 Words that contain letters that have nothing to do with the pronunciation.
 Words that contain silent letters.
 Spelling rules that have lots of exceptions.
Strategies:
 Look at the word, say it, write it.
 Look for patterns. Write the word syllable by syllable. Think of a word that is similar.
 Sounding out the word will work sometimes, but not always.
 Use mnemonics:
o PIEce of PIE; EAt mEAt; cAr/stationAry, pEn stationEry
 Find words within words: father/ fat her
 Try to recognize Latin and Greek forms within the word.
Use Computer Technology to Help Teach New Vocabulary
(http://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/adolescent_literacy07.pdf)
Vocabulary instruction using computer technology can be particularly helpful to struggling
readers who need additional practice with vocabulary skills.
 Computer technology allows for engaging formats, such as interfaces modeled on
computer games.
 Hyperlinks allows students to click on words and icons can add depth to word learning.
 Students may find online dictionaries more useful and accessible than print dictionaries.
 Computers provide access to content-area-related websites hosted by such institutions
as museums and libraries.
 Computer program animation may hold students’ attention longer than plain text.
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Dictionaries and Thesauruses – Friends or Foes?
(ProLiteracy EdNet: A Way with Words) and other sources
Students need to learn how to use the dictionary and thesaurus.
Tips:
 Model with students how to use the dictionary, and be available for help
and guidance.
 To use the dictionary, students must have mastered these skills (at a
minimum):
o Decoding (how to pronounce the word)
o Alphabetical order
o Basic parts of speech and abbreviations
o How to use guide words
o Discerning correct definitions from choices available
 Do not send students on their own to the dictionary until they are very comfortable doing
so with you.
 Check all definitions, not just the first one or the shortest one.
 Select a dictionary carefully. For example, consider
o Dictionary specifically for adult learners, such as the New Readers Press
Dictionary
o Student dictionary intended for upper elementary or middle school students, such
as Webster’s New Explorer Student Dictionary.
o Illustrated dictionary, such as Oxford Picture Dictionary or Beginner’s Dictionary
of American English by McGraw-Hill, especially for ELL
o Large print dictionary, such as Webster’s New World Large Print Dictionary
o Online Dictionary, such as Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary
(http://www.merriam-webster.com/ )
 Avoid asking students to look up the spelling of a word in the dictionary.
Dictionaries provide the following information:
 Spelling and plural
 Capitalization and abbreviation
 How to break the word into syllables
 Pronunciation
 Different meanings
 Part of speech
 Special uses
 Origin/derivation and history
A good online tool is the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (www.ldoceonline.com),
which presents clear definitions using only the 2,000 most common words in English.
Problems with “Look It Up in the Dictionary”: (Allen: Words, Words, Words) (Curtis)
 The definition may be vague, not distinguished from similar words.
o Ex: couch: an article of furniture used for sitting or reclining.
 The definition can be inaccurate for the geographic location in which you live.
 The definition may not be understandable if applied literally.
o Ex: floozy: slovenly or vulgar woman; slovenly: messy; vulgar: lacking good taste;
gives visual image of woman with messy house and velvet Elvis pictures- sum of
parts does not equal the whole
 The definition does not contain enough information to allow someone to use the word
correctly.
o Ex: palatinate: the territory of a palatine
o Ex: remissible: capable of being remitted
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