SOUNDS OF DISSENT
PROTEST MUSIC IN THE VIETNAM WAR
By
Inge J. Oosterhoff
Major: North American Studies
Peace Movements In U.S. History
Supervised By
Dr. Scott H. Bennett
8 May 2014
Word Count
5924
Inge Oosterhoff During the Vietnam War, America rang with voices of antiwar dissent. Some of these voices
could be heard through music. Popular artists such as Joan Baez, Pete Seeger, Phil Ochs and
Tom Paxton actively spoke out against the Vietnam War in their songs.1 Protest music as a
form of nonviolent war protest has been largely neglected in research concerning antiVietnam War activism. But can music protesting the Vietnam War be seen as a legitimate
form of protest that actively encouraged antiwar dissent? To answer this question it is pivotal
to distinguish what role Vietnam War protest music played in the anti-Vietnam War
movement and whether it merely reflected the sentiment of the public or actually encouraged
antiwar dissent. This paper argues that songs protesting the Vietnam War both reflected and
encouraged antiwar dissent in American society and amongst GI’s.
Scholars of the Vietnam War era have never reached a consensus over the role music
played in the antiwar movement. Whether music is shaped by, or shapes society is a question
that scholars have never been able to answer.2 How Vietnam War protest songs influenced
American society is even more difficult to discern. Some Vietnam scholars argue that these
songs merely reflected or accompanied antiwar sentiment already spreading in American
society.3 Others suggest that it actively promoted antiwar sentiment.4 This paper combines
both views in the argumentation that Vietnam War protest music encouraged antiwar dissent,
in which the reflection of existing antiwar sentiments played a key role.
Protesting war and promoting peace through music is not unique to the Vietnam era.
Music has been used to influence war sentiment for ages and was commonly used to express
antiwar sentiments after WW1. Musicians and composers musically discussed possibilities
for peace and questioned the justness of war. Governments acknowledged music’s influence
on public sentiment, as musicians were often commissioned to compose songs for army
bands or to accompany propaganda movies. 5 However, during the Vietnam era an
2 Inge Oosterhoff unprecedented number of songs actively spoke out against the war and propagated against the
government’s agenda.6
In their promotion of antiwar dissent, Vietnam War protest songs reflected existing
sentiments of dissent in American society. Scholar and commentator Todd Gitlin claims that
the music expressed the central values of the sixties’ movement as it generally questioned the
establishment and American society.7 Additionally, the music reflected the multiplicity of the
protest culture of the 1960s and 1970s. Besides protesting the war, songs commented on
oppression of the American psyche by the government and media, social injustice,
generational conflicts and disillusionment with technology and consumerism.8 Scholars Ron
Eyerman and Andrew Jamison argue that popular music expressed the Movement’s collective
identity, comparable to the way that identity was presented in peace organizations and mass
protests. 9
By articulating existing sentiments, Vietnam War protest music actually promoted
antiwar dissent. The two should not be seen as mutually exclusive. Singer Pamela Polland
states that “The social change came first […] and the music reflected that. But the music
‘announced’ the changes to wider audiences – it heralded the changes, and in doing so, it
educated a broader public.”10 Antiwar songs could spread existing antiwar messages to
people who might not affiliate with peace organizations or active protests.11 Additionally,
songs gave validity to people’s own observations.12 Scholar and journalist Joel Garreau
claims music directly influenced his politics. He would listen to songs by Bob Dylan and
Joan Baez for hours and learned them by heart.13 Although not everyone would have had a
similar devotion or experience, Garreau’s experience illustrates the influence that antiVietnam War songs could have on individuals.
Yet Vietnam War protest music may have been more important because of its
collective influence. The protest movement of the 1960s and ‘70s was highly fragmented, as
3 Inge Oosterhoff different antiwar groups failed to agree on their approach and ultimate goals.14 However, the
music played at demonstrations and rallies was the same everywhere. Consequently, music
helped to unify the anti-Vietnam movement through a highly accessible medium.15 It was
also a popular medium with the younger generation, which was one of the most critical and
outspoken groups of the 1960s. 16 Adolescents were already actively involved in many
different forms of protest, including marches, teach-ins, sit-ins, etc.17 Music gave a common
ground on which to unite politically and emotively. 18 According to Todd Gitlin, this
established a sense of communal identification and encouraged youths to collectively protest
the Vietnam War.19
The best-known example of unification through music and protest is the Woodstock
Festival of 1969. Although often dismissed as a hippie festival, it combined music and
entertainment with political messages and antiwar protest, distributing these amongst a large
group of people.20 Some songs were mellow in their political content, but others brought
clear messages against the Vietnam War to the audience. The audience sang along and
enjoyed the performances, while being taught about the Vietnam War and being given
specific words of protest.21
Changes in the American music industry during the 1960s allowed musicians to
clearly articulate their messages of protest. Lyrics became more important and regulations
concerning controversial lyrics were relaxed.22 Musicians effectively gained more personal
say into the content of their songs. 23 This allowed musicians to not only reflect popular
sentiments, but to promote their own point of view, even if it deviated from the mainstream.
Rather than relying on the stock of existing folk songs with an anti-establishment- or antiwar
sentiment, musicians began to write their personal experiences, views and disillusionments
into their songs. 24 They commented on different social issues and on the Vietnam War in
particular.25
4 Inge Oosterhoff The freedom to express personal political beliefs in their music gave musicians a
mission for their music that exceeded money and commercial success. 26 The focus shifted
from producing bankable hit songs to producing politically conscious songs. Most antiVietnam War music never reached a high position in the music charts.27 Although this may
seem detrimental to the music’s effect on society, it actually may have worked to its
advantage, as the protesting counterculture generally rejected consumerism and the
mainstream.28
Apart from lyrical freedom, new musical genres and -techniques helped musicians
protest the Vietnam War in their songs. Different scholars have attributed significance to the
musical genres of Vietnam War protest songs.29 These genres were folk music and Rock ‘n
Roll, eventually merging together in a style of folk-rock.30 Folk music is historically linked to
social and political commentary and its dissenting role increased after it was commonly used
to express anticommunist sentiments during the 1950s.31 Artists such as Joan Baez and Bob
Dylan merged the music’s political history with the more popular rock style during the 1960s,
moving folk music into the mainstream.32 Rock ‘n Roll was already a popular music genre in
the 1960s, but during the Vietnam Era it became less concerned with themes of romance and
became more explicitly concerned with political dissent.33
The addition of the harsher sound of rock to the political character of folk helped
amplify the dissenting message of Vietnam War protest songs. The new genre of folk-rock
became immensely popular and proved a powerful genre for the promotion of antiwar
messages amongst youth.34 Additionally, the popularity of musicians such as Joan Baez and
Bob Dylan helped popularize anti-Vietnam War- and other protest songs. They released
accessible yet highly political music that was positively received by a broad public. This
helped introduce the antiwar song into the mainstream and lowered the threshold for the
public to listen to explicitly political and anti-Vietnam War songs.35
5 Inge Oosterhoff Equally important was the invention of new musical technologies, such as the electric
guitar and sound sampling. 36 Distorted sounds were used to convey the disorder and
complexity of the war. Musicians imitated or sampled realistic sounds of machine guns,
bombings, screaming people and helicopters, which gave the music a haunting and eclectic
quality. In this way, the music can be said to have brought the war home non-violently. It
brought the sounds of war into the houses and minds of American citizens.37
Jimmi Hendrix is one of the musicians who used sound to comment on the Vietnam
War. At Woodstock, Hendrix performed a version of “Star Spangled Banner” on the electric
guitar, using his instrument to imitate the sounds of air warfare.38 In his song “Machine Gun”
the electric guitar is used to imitate the sound of guns. Hendrix added antiwar meaning to this
song with lyrics, envisioning the ambiguity of warfare for both American and Vietnamese
soldiers. The feeling of destruction purveyed by the guitar is made more meaningful by the
lyrical blending of a GI’s perspective on war, used to criticize American politics and the
inhumanity of technological warfare.39
Lyrics helped to clarify and amplify musical antiwar messages. Different narrative
techniques were used to evoke the listener’s empathy and intellectual reflection. Musicians
recognized the Vietnam War as a modern war with specific problems.40 This led to a wide
range of lyrical topics, including GI’s experiences and emotional challenges of the war and at
home, stories of torn families, blaming of the government and specific politicians,
descriptions of the horrors of modern warfare, the lamenting of the enemy, etc. Several
musicians used dark humor or irony to emphasize the paradoxes of the war.41
Many anti-Vietnam War songs dealt with the question of who was to blame for the
war.42 Some songs explicitly called out politicians and the government. Others did so more
subtly. In “Waist Deep in the Big Muddy” (1967), Pete Seeger metaphorically blames the
Johnson administration for sending troops down the Mekong River. Singing about a platoon
6 Inge Oosterhoff crossing a river during WW2, Seeger describes how “the big fool said to push on.”43 Tom
Paxton more explicitly blamed president Johnson for misconduct in “Lyndon Johnson Told
the Nation” (1965). He criticizes Johnson’s hypocritical promises of preventing escalation by
narrating the experience of a soldier who was fighting a war that Johnson claimed “isn’t
really war.”44
Joan Baez personally went to Vietnam and described the atrocities she found there in
her songs. In “Oh, My Son, Where Are You” (1973), she describes the war front and laments
the parents of Vietnamese victims. She pictures soldiers’ complex emotions, battlefields, the
sound of bomb sirens, air warfare, prison camps, etc.45 She also performed her protest music
in Vietnam, dedicating her songs to “all the Vietnamese and Americans who had died in the
war, and then to all the men who had refused to fight it from the beginning, and finally to
those who had quit fighting when they had become disillusioned (or, illuminated).”46
Some songs not only promoted antiwar sentiment, but antiwar activism. For example,
different songs promoted draft resistance.47 Phil Ochs symbolically resisted the draft in his
song “I Ain’t Marchin’ Anymore” (1966). In “Draft Dodger Rag” (1965) he suggests ways in
which young men could evade the draft, such as faking illnesses or stressing their academic
careers and the need to take care of their families.48 The Byrds sang about a soldier’s doubt
whether he should trade in his home for the draft to go and kill strangers in “Draft Morning”
(1968).49 Other musicians, such as Pete Seeger, celebrated the stories of soldiers who refused
to take part in the war. In his song “Ballad of the Fort Hood Three” (1966), Seeger exposes
the soldier’s personal reasons for dissenting and their refusal to kill the enemy.50 He quotes
them as saying that going to war would be like supporting a man reminiscent of Hitler and
would deny the importance of other issues, such as poverty.51 By using these soldier’s stories
as the subject of his song, Seeger gave them a public platform to spread their messages of
dissent.
7 Inge Oosterhoff Musicians also used narrative strategies to intensify empathy and underline the
multiplicity of perspectives on the war. Some used a first-person narrative to align the listener
with the experience of the narrator, which in effect aligned the listener with the narrator’s
political views. Some musicians, like Phil Ochs, would contrast the views of the GI and his
enemy, underlining the ironies of the war’s ideology.52 Some songs affiliated with the enemy
and his pain. For example, the song “Hang in There” (1969) by Holly Near equates the
patriotism of Vietnamese rebels with that of American soldiers, both suffering because of it.53
However, not all popular music during the Vietnam era condemned the war. Country
songs in particular expressed a definite pro-war message and sentiment.54 In an ideologically
divided society, both pro- and anti Vietnam War songs were used as tools of propaganda and
both found an audience eager to receive their messages. They were played at rallies to affirm
communal beliefs and to convince adversaries of the artists’ point of view.55 One example of
a popular pro-war song is “Ballad of the Green Berets” (1966) by Staff Sergeant Barry
Sadler, which topped the American music charts.56 The song glorifies military courage and
pictures soldiers as “America’s Best.”57
Many pro-war songs contrasted the patriotic pride of American soldiers with the
cowardice of unpatriotic war-resisters. It was a sentiment popular with many Americans.58
However, most pro-war songs were unsuccessful at rendering the ideological confusion faced
by many American soldiers. The national pride and gratitude that was heralded in songs like
“Ballad of the Green Berets” was usually absent when soldiers returned from Vietnam.59
Consequently, pro-war songs did not satisfyingly translate the complex feelings and mixed
messages that GI’s were exposed to during the Vietnam War.
Anti-Vietnam War songs articulated the complex experiences of GI’s more
successfully. They worked to form a common understanding and bond amongst GI’s and
society.60 Many soldiers listened to the same music in Vietnam that people at home were
8 Inge Oosterhoff listening to. Some soldiers appropriated popular songs that were not specifically about the
Vietnam War, but that gained a meaning of dissent in the context of the battlefield. For
example, the song “We’ve Got to Get out of this Place” (1965) by The Animals, which
originally refers to poverty. GI’s regularly requested this song, along with more explicit and
sometimes banned antiwar songs.61 In his memoir Dispatches, veteran Michael Herr recalls
how he and fellow soldiers debated the futility of the war while listening to antiwar songs on
the radio.62 This illustrates how antiwar music would encourage GI’s in collective antiwar
dissent.
Some songs explicitly discussed the lack of veteran support in America. Songs such
as “Sam Stone” (1971) by John Prine and “Bummer” (1974) by Harry Chapin narrate the
meager respect that Vietnam veterans received.63 Other songs discussed the miscellaneous
reception of veterans, some receiving them as national heroes, others as traders or senseless
murderers. However, as many antiwar songs reflected soldier’s confusing experiences in
Vietnam and America, music provided GI’s with the comfort that their experiences were
heard at home. 64 Additionally, antiwar music functioned as an unofficial source of
information, as it often countered the information received through official communication
channels in Vietnam. The antiwar sentiment and -messages that reflected the sympathies
present in American society, led GI’s to question the legitimacy of their task.65
Apart from discerning the style and impact of songs, it is also important to take
musician’s personal dedication to other forms of protest into account. By personally taking
part in protests, musicians aligned musical antiwar messages with other forms of non-violent
activism. Some popular musicians were personally involved in antiwar protests, made
political statements in magazine- and newspaper interviews and commented on the war on
stage.66 Musicians such as Pete Seeger already had a foot in peace-activism.67 As the antiwar
movement grew, young musicians such as Tom Paxton, Phil Ochs and Joan Baez, who were
9 Inge Oosterhoff all outspoken antiwar activists, joined in the musical antiwar chorus.68. Although most took
part in protests on an individual basis, they also had a collective goal, specific to their
position as musical artists.
On September 24, 1965, a group of sixty musicians gathered to perform for a crowd
of 5.000 at a Sing-In for Peace at Carnegie Hall. These musicians, including Joan Baez, Pete
Seeger and Phil Ochs, came together to musically protest the Vietnam War. They sang
original songs and recontextualized existing songs such as “Stop in the Name of Love” by
The Supremes to request an end to the war.69 The concert was announced in a pamphlet, in
which the following oath was included; “The undersigned are gathered together for one
purpose: to protest the immoral, irrational and irresponsible acts of war which our
government carries out in Viet-Nam in our names.”70
The pamphlet and the sing-in itself underlined the musicians’ collective commitment
to protesting the war. Notably, war-resistance and securing peace are presented as the
inherent task of the musician:
“The artist has always been counted among the resistors of death and the celebrators of life
for this is his real work. Recognizing this, we are ready and willing to use our words, our
tunes, our spirits and our flesh to stand in opposition to those whose game is war, to raise our
voices against the screams of killers, not just for the salvation of unknown peoples in far-way
places, but so that we too, may live.”
The pamphlet additionally pictures musicians as having a specific task in protesting the
Vietnam War:
10 Inge Oosterhoff “It is our job to rescue truth, to expose and transfix the myths and legends…to show the
naked lunch at the end of LBJ’s fork…to convince as many American as we can that we are
murderers. That our taxes become transmogrified into ways to kill.”
The pamphlet illustrates that musicians did not merely see themselves as reporters of events
or public sentiments, but as informers that could guide people towards active forms of war
dissent.
Anti-Vietnam War music itself was also recognized as a form of protest. It was
usually seen as inherently non-violent. The newspaper article “Even Their Beards Will Go,”
published in the New York Times in 1968, describes how music was used as a notable and
peaceful form of protest, counter to the more antagonistic protests of the time.71 In the 1967
New York Times article “Vietnam Blues,” the growing collection of anti-Vietnam War songs
is equated with other types of non-violent protest such as “sit-ins, teach-ins, sleep-ins, walkouts, vigils, fasts and [..] marches.”72
Many anti-war musicians were personally involved in these other types of non-violent
protest. They provided entertainment and spoke out at rallies and events such as the May 2d
Movement, the April 17, 1965 rally in Washington organized by the SDS, university teachins, peace festivals etc. 73 Joan Baez was one of the most ardent protesters of antiwar
musicians during the Vietnam War.74 She evaded taxes because of her aversion to the war.75
She also organized a national tax-refusal campaign with A.J Muste in 1966.76 Additionally,
she co-founded the Institute for the Study of Non-Violence.77 Baez was not the only popular
musician committed to non-violent protest. For example, both Phil Ochs and Pete Seeger
were pacifists and promoted pacifist ideology in their music and speeches.78
The personal protest of musicians was popular with the media, as it combined famous
singers and controversy. Several musicians were involved in scandals surrounding their
music and Vietnam War protest. Pete Seeger was one of the artists who was blacklisted by
11 Inge Oosterhoff the American government and media and barred from giving performances on radio,
television, and music venues.79 Pete Seeger gave a controversial appearance on the Smothers
Brothers Comedy Hour. Some of his lyrics in “Waist Deep in the Big Muddy” that referred to
Vietnam were cut from the program.80 The song was censored because it spoke out against
president Lyndon Johnson. Seeger protested against the channel until the song was aired
again, uncensored.81
Different musicians assisted and supported peace organizations and protest groups
during trials. Songstress Judy Collins set out to perform “Where Have All the Flowers Gone”
at the Chicago Conspiracy Trial on January 22, 1970. Some famous protesters, including
S.D.S. leader Paul Potter, were being tried. The judge refused to let Collins sing. This was
not an isolated event. Over the few weeks prior to this particular incident, several musicians
active in antiwar protests had been called up as witnesses. Phil Ochs was another musician
who was refused the right to sing songs of protest in court. 82
Joan Baez made the news with her anti-war protest on several occasions. For example,
when she had a run-in with the D.A.R. due to her tax evasion. Baez was supposed to give a
paid concert in the D.A.R.’s auditorium, but the organization refused her. The D.A.R. stated
in a letter of protest that they “respectfully request that Joan Baez be denied the privilege of
using property supported by Federal taxes, since it has been reported in the press that she
refused to pay a portion of her own legal Federal taxes because of disagreement with
Government policy concerning the Vietnam war.”83 In a different article, mrs. Wiliam H.
Sullivan, president general of the D.A.R., stated, “We are directly behind out Government’s
stand on Vietnam and we are directly behind our boys who are dying there.”84 Joan Baez
responded by giving a free concert attended by 30.000 people outside of the Washington
Monument; many more than would have fit in the D.A.R.’s auditorium. In effect, Baez not
only protested the war during her concert, but also the white elite that was regularly blamed
12 Inge Oosterhoff for supporting the war. She stated that he DAR was acting “out of the same kind of fear we
all make our mistakes by.”85
Artists also reflected on their anti-war activism in interviews. Joan Baez has stated
that she performed her songs “first as a human being, second as a pacifist, and third as a folk
singer.”86 After almost being banned from performing at a Beacon high school due to protest
of over 700 people arguing that the musician was “un-American,” Pete Seeger responded to
the incident, saying “I don’t mind controversy. The human race benefits when there is
controversy and suffers when there is none.”87 Seeger also commented on the general role of
music in the Vietnam War protest, awarding a special, but important political function to
music; “There has always been a running battle between politicians and artists. […] Politics
and art are not related in the customary sense. But in the broadest sense, art, including folk
music, reflects the culture and attitudes of the society.”88 He additionally reflected on his own
role in the Vietnam War protest movement, stating that, “[i]t may seem a farfetched
comparison […] but for many years I pursued a theory of cultural guerilla tactics.”89
Phil Ochs has been described as “the most angry, bitter and uncompromising critic
whom the folk protest movement produced.”90 Phil Ochs often reported on current events, in
the tradition of the folk singer. Although he musically discussed different social issues, the
Vietnam War was his favorite topic. 91 The journalistic quality of Phil Ochs’ music is
unsurprising, as he was active as a journalist during his time as a student at Berkeley
University. In The Movement and the Sixties, Terry Anderson recalls that, “[j]ournalism
major Phil Ochs at Ohio State was slated to become editor of the school paper The Lantern,
but faculty advisers rejected him because his views were “too controversial.” He quit in his
last year and became a folk singer.”92
It is safe to say that abovementioned musicians worked hard to promote antiwar
dissent during the Vietnam era. They affirmed antiwar sentiment already present in society,
13 Inge Oosterhoff educated listeners about the Vietnam War’s specific and complex problems, begged empathy
for victims of the war on all fronts, directed blame towards America’s government and
politicians, suggested different forms of antiwar protest and backed up musical messages by
personally participating in antiwar activism. Although it is impossible to measure the actual
effect Vietnam War protest music had on American society, it can be argued that antiVietnam War music actively promoted antiwar dissent amongst the American public and
GI’s. Additionally, music had a uniquely unifying effect on the fragmented antiwar
movement and was able to spread antiwar messages amongst a large group, aiding the larger
antiwar movement. Subsequently, Anti-Vietnam War songs provided a soundtrack that
deserves to be listened to more intently by scholars of Vietnam War protest.
14 Inge Oosterhoff Endnotes
1
These are some of the most prominent musicians who protested the Vietnam War in their
music and who were personally involved in anti-Vietnam War activism. For this
reason, they have been chosen as exemplary musicians in this paper. However,
throughout this paper other musicians are quoted and mentioned where relevant.
2
James E. Perone, Songs of the Vietnam Conflict (Westport: Greenwood, 2001), 6.
3
For example: David James, Charles DeBennedetti, Charles Chatfield, Melvin Small,
Kenneth Bindas, Craig Houston.
4
For example: David A. Noebel, Jerome Rodsnitzky, Ray Pratt, Todd Gittlin, Ron Eyerman,
Andrew Jamison.
5
Ben Arnold, “War Music and the American Composer during the Vietnam Era,” The
Musical Quarterly 75.3 (1991): 316, 317.
6
Arnold, “War Music and the American Composer,” 317, 318.
7
Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam Books, 1989),
14.
8
Robert A. Rosenstone, “The Times They Are A-Changin’: The Music of Protest,” Annals
of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 382 (1969): 142.
9
Ron Eyerman and Andrew Jamison, “Social movements and cultural transformation:
popular music in the 1960s,” Media, Culture & Society SAGE 17 (1995): 452.
10
Pamela Polland, quoted in: Mitchel K. Hall, Crossroads: American Popular Culture and
the Vietnam Generation (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2005), 130.
11 Jerome
L. Rodnitzky, “The Sixties between the Microgrooves: Using Folk and Protest
Music to Understand American History, 1963-1973.” Popular Music and Society
23.4 (1999): 106.
12
Rosenstone, “The Times They Are A-Changin’,” 143.
13
Myra MacPherson. Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 104.
14
Melvin Small, Antiwarriors: The Vietnam War and the Battle for America’s Hearts and
Minds (Lanham: SR Books, 2002), 3.
15
David James, “The Viet Nam War and American Music,” Social Text 23 (1989): 126.
16
Sheila Whitely, “1,2,3 What are we fighting 4? Music, meaning and ‘The Star Spangled
Banner’” in: Remembering Woodstock (Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited,
2004), 20.
15 Inge Oosterhoff 17
Small, Antiwarriors, 7.
18
Eyerman and Jamison, “Social movements and cultural transformation,” 464.
19
Gitlin, The Sixties, 197.
20
Sarah Hill, “’This is My Country’: American Popular Music and Political Engagement in
‘1968’.” In Music and Protest in 1968, ed. Beate Kutschke and Barley Norton
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 46.
21
Hill, “This is My Country,” 50.
22
Perone, Songs of the Vietnam Conflict, 9.
23
James, “The Viet Nam War and American Music,” 126.
24
100 Vietnam War protest songs, both popular and less known, were collected in The
Vietnam Songbook, published in 1969: Dane, Barbara and Silber, Irwin. The Vietnam
Songbook (London: The Guardian/Monthly Review Press, 1969).
25
Rosenstone, “The Times They Are A-Changin’,” 133.
26
Eyerman and Jamison, “Social movements and cultural transformation,” 458.
27
Bindas and Houston, “Taking’ Care of Business,” 6.
28
Eyerman and Jamison, “Social movements and cultural transformation,” 458.
29
For example: Robert Rosenstone, David James, Terry Anderson, Jerome Rodnitzky,
Michael Kramer, et al.
30
Eyerman and Jamison, “Social Movements and Cultural Transformation,” 460.
31
Jonathan C. Friedman, trans. The Routhledge History of Social Protest in Popular Music
(London: Routhledge, 2013), 102.
32
Mitchel K. Hall, Crossroads: American Popular Culture and the Vietnam Generation
(Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2005), 122.
33
Terry H. Anderson, “American Popular Music and the War in Vietnam,” Peace &
Change 11 (1986): 51.
34
Anderson, “American Popular Music and the War in Vietnam,” 54.
35
Rodnitzky, “The Sixties between the Microgrooves,” 106.
36
Arnold, “War Music and the American Composer,” 322.
37
Ibidem, 322.
16 Inge Oosterhoff 38
Wolfbob man. “Jimi Hendrix - The Star Spangled Banner [ American Anthem ] ( Live at
Woodstock 1969 ).” YouTube video, 4:03. November 15, 2012.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sjzZh6-h9fM.
39
Michael J. Kramer, The Republic of Rock: Music and Citizenship in the Sixties Counter
Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 146.
40
Kenneth J. Bindas and Craig Houston, “’Taking’ Care of Business’: Rock Music,
Vietnam and the Protest Myth.” The Historian 52.1 (1989): 13.
41
Rosenstone, “The Times They Are A-Changin’,” 136.
42
Bindas and Houston, “Taking’ Care of Business,” 12.
43
“Pete Seeger –Waist Deep in the Big Muddy Lyrics,” SongLyrics, accessed April 14, 2014,
http://www.songlyrics.com/pete-seeger/waist-deep-in-the-big-muddy-lyrics/.
44
“Tom Paxton – Lyndon Johnson Told the Nation Lyrics,” SongLyrics, accessed April 15,
2014, http://www.songlyrics.com/tom-paxton/lyndon-johnson-told-the-nation-lyrics/.
45
“Where Are You Now, My Son?” JoanBaez.com, accessed April 15, 2014,
http://www.joanbaez.com/Lyrics/whereareyou.html.
46
Joan Baez, And A Voice to Sing With: A Memoir (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009),
198.
47
Rosenstone, “The Times They Are A-Changin,”136.
48
“Phil Ochs - Draft Dodger Rag Lyrics,” SongLyrics, accessed April 15,
http://www.songlyrics.com/phil-ochs/draft-dodger-rag-lyrics/.
49
“The Byrds ‘Draft Morning’.” OldieLyrics, accessed April 15, 2014.
http://www.oldielyrics.com/lyrics/the_byrds/draft_morning.html.
50 “Pete Seeger –Ballad Of The Fort Hood Three Lyrics.” SongLyrics, accessed April 15, http://www.songlyrics.com/pete-­‐seeger/ballad-­‐of-­‐the-­‐fort-­‐hood-­‐three-­‐lyrics/. 51
James, “The Viet Nam War and American Music,” 129.
52
Ibidem, 127.
53
Rodnitzky, “The Sixties between the Microgrooves,” 111.
54
Ibidem, 113.
55
Perone, Songs of the Vietnam Conflict, 10.
56
James, “The Viet Nam War and American Music,” 135,136.
17 Inge Oosterhoff 57
“SSG Barry Sadler – Ballad Of The Green Berets (1966) Lyrics.” SongLyrics, accessed
April 17, 2014, http://www.songlyrics.com/ssg-barry-sadler/ballad-of-the-greenberets-1966-lyrics/.
58 Perone,
Songs of the Vietnam Conflict, 10. 59
James, “The Viet Nam War and American Music,” 136.
60
MacPherson. Long Time Passing, 104.
61
Perone, Songs of the Vietnam Conflict, 11.
62
Herr, Dispatches, 138.
63 Kramer,
The Republic of Rock, 134.
64
Ibidem, 134.
65
Ibidem, 149.
66
Ian Peddie, The Resisting Muse: Popular Music and Social Protest (Harnham: Ashgate
Publishing, 2006), 6.
67
Rodnitzky, “The Sixties between the Microgrooves,” 110.
68
Anderson, “American Popular Music and the War in Vietnam,” 53.
69
James, “The Viet Nam War and American Music,” 131.
70
“Program for the Sing In For Peace, Carnegie Hall, September 24, 1965.” Last modified on
February 27, 1999, reverendgarydavis.com/carnegie.html.
71
Raymond Ericson, “Even Their Beards Will Go.” New York Times, February 18, 1968,
103.
72
Tom Phillips, “Vietnam Blues.” New York Times, October 8, 1967, 12.
73
Small, Antiwarriors,13, 16, 23, 26, 28.
74
Rosenstone, “The Times They Are A-Changin’,”133.
75
Anderson, “American Popular Music and the War in Vietnam,” 53.
76
Small, Antiwarriors, 43.
B. Drummond Ayres Jr., “30.000 In Capital at Free Concert by Joan Baez: Folk Singer
Chides D.A.R., Which Protested U.S. Site.” New York Times, August 15, 1967, 33.
77
78
Rodnitzky, “The Sixties between the Microgrooves,” 112.
18 Inge Oosterhoff 79
Friedman, trans. The Routhledge History of Social Protest in Popular Music, 103.
80
Tom Phillips, “Vietnam Blues.” New York Times, October 8, 1967, 22.
81
Rodnitzky, “The Sixties between the Microgrooves,” 110.
82
J. Anthony Lukas. “Another Folk Singer Silenced By Judge at Conspiracy Trial.” New
York Times (January 23, 1970), 15.
83
Drummond Ayres Jr., “30.000 In Capital at Free Concert by Joan Baez,” 33.
84
“Joan Baez Barred From D.A.R.’s Hall.” New York Times, August 13, 1967, 59.
85
Drummond Ayres Jr., “30.000 In Capital at Free Concert by Joan Baez,” 33.
86
Joseph Lelyveld, “Little Joan Baezes Sing U.S. Protest Songs in Japan.” New York Times,
January 17, 1967, 29.
87
Richard F. Shepard. “Seeger will Sing as Protest Fades: Objectors at Beacon Recital Say
They Won’t Picket.” New York Times, November 25, 1965, 64.
88
Pete Seeger, quoted in: “David Marcus: Seeger Cites Battle of Politics, Arts.” In: The
Pete Seeger Reader (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 156.
89
Pete Seeger, quoted in: “Gene Marine: Guerilla Minstrel.” In: The
Pete Seeger Reader (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 42.
90
Robin Denselow. “Sixties Victim.” New York Times, February 8, 1977, 8.
91
Eyerman and Jamison, “Social movements and cultural transformation,” 462.
92
Terry Anderson The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America from Greensboro to
Wounded Knee (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 258.
19 Inge Oosterhoff BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. PRIMARY SOURCES
Newspapers & Periodicals
Ayres, Drummond Jr., “30.000 In Capital at Free Concert by Joan Baez: Folk Singer
Chides D.A.R., Which Protested U.S. Site.” New York Times, August 15, 1967, 33.
Denselow, Robin. “Sixties Victim.” New York Times, February 8, 1977, 8.
Ericson, Raymond. “Even Their Beards Will Go.” New York Times, February 18, 1968,
103.
“Joan Baez Barred From D.A.R.’s Hall.” New York Times, August 13, 1967, 59.
Lelyveld, Joseph. “Little Joan Baezes Sing U.S. Protest Songs in Japan.” New York Times,
January 17, 1967, 29.
Lukas, J. Anthony. “Another Folk Singer Silenced By Judge at Conspiracy Trial.” New
York Times (January 23, 1970), 15.
Marcus, David. “Seeger Cites Battle of Politics, Arts,” Michigan Daily, April 15, 1961, 1-2.
In: The Pete Seeger Reader (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 156-157.
Marine, Gene. “Guerilla Minstrel,” Rolling Stone, issue 106, April 13, 1972. In: The Pete
Seeger Reader (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 3-42.
Phillips, Tom. “Vietnam Blues.” New York Times, October 8, 1967, SM7.
Shepard, Richard F. “Seeger will Sing as Protest Fades: Objectors at Beacon Recital Say
They Won’t Picket.” New York Times, November 25, 1965, 64.
Books & Pamphlets
Baez, Joan. And A Voice to Sing With: A Memoir (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009).
Gitlin, Todd. The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam Books, 1989).
Herr, Michael, Dispatches (New York: Random House LLC, 2011).
“Program for the Sing In For Peace, Carnegie Hall, September 24, 1965.” Last modified on
February 27, 1999, reverendgarydavis.com/carnegie.html.
20 Inge Oosterhoff Song Lyrics
“Pete Seeger –Ballad Of The Fort Hood Three Lyrics,” SongLyrics, accessed April 15, http://www.songlyrics.com/pete-­‐seeger/ballad-­‐of-­‐the-­‐fort-­‐hood-­‐three-­‐lyrics/. “Pete Seeger –Waist Deep in the Big Muddy Lyrics,” SongLyrics, accessed April 14, 2014,
http://www.songlyrics.com/pete-seeger/waist-deep-in-the-big-muddy-lyrics/.
“Phil Ochs - Draft Dodger Rag Lyrics,” SongLyrics, accessed April 15,
http://www.songlyrics.com/phil-ochs/draft-dodger-rag-lyrics/.
“SSG Barry Sadler – Ballad Of The Green Berets (1966) Lyrics,” SongLyrics, accessed April
17, 2014, http://www.songlyrics.com/ssg-barry-sadler/ballad-of-the-green-berets1966-lyrics/.
“The Byrds ‘Draft Morning’,” OldieLyrics, accessed April 15, 2014,
http://www.oldielyrics.com/lyrics/the_byrds/draft_morning.html.
“Tom Paxton – Lyndon Johnson Told the Nation Lyrics,” SongLyrics, accessed April 15,
2014, http://www.songlyrics.com/tom-paxton/lyndon-johnson-told-the-nation-lyrics/.
“Where Are You Now, My Son?” JoanBaez.com, accessed April 15, 2014,
http://www.joanbaez.com/Lyrics/whereareyou.html.
Videos
Wolfbob man. “Jimi Hendrix - The Star Spangled Banner [ American Anthem ] ( Live at
Woodstock 1969 ),” YouTube video, 4:03, November 15, 2012.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sjzZh6-h9fM.
II. SECONDARY SOURCES
Books
Anderson, Terry. The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America from Greensboro to
Wounded Knee (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
Dane, Barbara and Silber, Irwin. The Vietnam Songbook (London: The Guardian/Monthly
Review Press, 1969).
Friedman, Jonathan C. trans. The Routhledge History of Social Protest in Popular Music
(London: Routhledge, 2013).
Hall, Mitchel K. Crossroads: American Popular Culture and the Vietnam Generation
(Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2005).
21 Inge Oosterhoff Hill, Sarah. “’This is My Country’: American Popular Music and Political Engagement in
‘1968’.” In Music and Protest in 1968, ed. Beate Kutschke and Barley Norton
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013) 46-63.
Kramer, Michael J. The Republic of Rock: Music and Citizenship in the Sixties Counter
Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).
MacPherson, Myra. Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press: 2002).
Peddie, Ian. The Resisting Muse: Popular Music and Social Protest (Harnham: Ashgate
Publishing, 2006).
Perone, James E. Songs of the Vietnam Conflict (Greenwood: Westport, 2001).
Small, Melvin. Antiwarriors: The Vietnam War and the Battle for America’s Hearts and
Minds (Lanham: SR Books, 2002).
Whitely, Sheila, “1,2,3 What are we fighting 4? Music, meaning and ‘The Star Spangled
Banner’” in: Remembering Woodstock (Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited,
2004), 18-28.
Journal Articles
Anderson, Terry H. “American Popular Music and the War in Vietnam,” Peace &
Change 11 (1986): 51-65.
Arnold, Ben. “War Music and the American Composer during the Vietnam Era,” The
Musical Quarterly 75.3 (1991): 316-335.
Bindas, Kenneth J. and Houston, Craig. “’Taking’ Care of Business’: Rock Music, Vietnam
and the Protest Myth.” The Historian 52.1 (1989): 1-23.
Eyerman, Ron and Jamison, Andrew. “Social movements and cultural transformation:
popular music in the 1960s,” Media, Culture & Society SAGE 17 (1995): 449-468.
James, David. “The Viet Nam War and American Music,” Social Text 23 (1989): 122-143.
Rodnitzky, Jerome L. “The Sixties between the Microgrooves: Using Folk and Protest
Music to Understand American History, 1963-1973.” Popular Music and Society
23.4 (1999): 105-122.
Rosenstone, Robert A. “The Times They Are A-Changin’: The Music of Protest,” Annals
of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 382 (1969): 131-144.
22