Confucianism
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Confucianism
Confucianism
The Dacheng Hall, the main hall of the Temple of Confucius in Qufu
Chinese
儒家
Transcriptions
Mandarin
- Hanyu Pinyin Rújiā
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese
philosopher Confucius (Kǒng Fūzǐ, or K'ung-fu-tzu, lit. "Master Kong", 551–478 BC). It is a complex system of
moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that influenced the culture and history of East
Asia. It might be considered a state religion of some East Asian countries, because of state promotion of Confucian
philosophies.
Cultures and countries strongly influenced by Confucianism include mainland China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan and
Vietnam, as well as various territories settled predominantly by Chinese people, such as Singapore. It might be that
as many as 1.5 billion people follow Confucian ideals.[1]
In Confucianism, human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and communal
endeavour especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. A main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of
virtue and the development of moral perfection. Confucianism holds that one should give up one's life, if necessary,
either passively or actively, for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of ren and yi.[2]
Themes in Confucian thought
Humanity is core in Confucianism. A simple way to appreciate Confucian thought is to consider it as being based on
varying levels of honesty, and a simple way to understand Confucian thought is to examine the world by using the
logic of humanity. In practice, the elements of Confucianism accumulated over time. There is the classical Wuchang
(五常) consisting of five elements: Ren (仁, Humanity), Yi (義, Righteousness), Li (禮, Ritual), Zhi (智,
Knowledge), Xin (信, Integrity), and there is also the classical Sizi (四字) with four elements: Zhong (忠, Loyalty),
Xiao (孝, Filial piety), Jie (節, Continency), Yi (義, Righteousness). There are still many other elements, such as
Cheng (誠, honesty), Shu (恕, kindness and forgiveness), Lian (廉, honesty and cleanness), Chi (恥, shame, judge
and sense of right and wrong), Yong (勇, bravery), Wen (溫, kind and gentle), Liang (良, good, kindhearted), Gong
(恭, respectful, reverent), Jian(儉, frugal), Rang (讓, modestly, self-effacing). Among all elements, Ren (Humanity)
and Yi (Righteousness) are fundamental. Sometimes morality is interpreted as the phantom of Humanity and
Righteousness.[3]
Confucianism
Humanity
Ritual and filial piety are indeed the ways in which one should act towards others, but from an underlying attitude of
humaneness. Confucius' concept of humaneness (Chinese: 仁; pinyin: rén) is probably best expressed in the
Confucian version of the Ethic of reciprocity, or the Golden Rule: "do not do unto others what you would not have
them do unto you."
Confucius never stated whether man was born good or evil,[4] noting that 'By nature men are similar; by practice
men are wide apart' [5] —implying that whether good or bad, Confucius must have perceived all men to be born with
intrinsic similarities, but that man is conditioned and influenced by study and practise. Xunzi's opinion is that men
originally just want what they instinctively want despite positive or negative results it may bring, so cultivation is
needed. In Mencius' view, all men are born to share goodness such as compassion and good heart, although they may
become wicked. The Three Character Classic begins with "People at birth are naturally good (kind-hearted)", which
stems from Mencius' idea. All the views eventually lead to recognize the importance of human education and
cultivation.
Rén also has a political dimension. If the ruler lacks rén, Confucianism holds, it will be difficult if not impossible for
his subjects to behave humanely. Rén is the basis of Confucian political theory: it presupposes an autocratic ruler,
exhorted to refrain from acting inhumanely towards his subjects. An inhumane ruler runs the risk of losing the
"Mandate of Heaven", the right to rule. A ruler lacking such a mandate need not be obeyed. But a ruler who reigns
humanely and takes care of the people is to be obeyed strictly, for the benevolence of his dominion shows that he has
been mandated by heaven. Confucius himself had little to say on the will of the people, but his leading follower
Mencius did state on one occasion that the people's opinion on certain weighty matters should be considered.
Ritual
In Confucianism, the term "ritual" (Chinese: 禮; pinyin: lǐ) was soon extended to include secular ceremonial
behavior, and eventually referred also to the propriety or politeness which colors everyday life. Rituals were codified
and treated as a comprehensive system of norms. Confucius himself tried to revive the etiquette of earlier dynasties.
After his death, people regarded him as a great authority on ritual behaviors.
It is important to note that "ritual" has developed a specialized meaning in Confucianism, as opposed to its usual
religious meanings. In Confucianism, the acts of everyday life are considered ritual. Rituals are not necessarily
regimented or arbitrary practices, but the routines that people often engage in, knowingly or unknowingly, during the
normal course of their lives. Shaping the rituals in a way that leads to a content and healthy society, and to content
and healthy people, is one purpose of Confucian philosophy.
The Rites
Translations from the 17th century to the present have varied widely. Comparison of these many sources is needed
for a true "general consensus" of what message Confucius meant to imply.
Confucius argued that under law, external authorities administer punishments after illegal actions, so people
generally behave well without understanding reasons why they should; whereas with ritual, patterns of behavior are
internalized and exert their influence before actions are taken, so people behave properly because they fear shame
and want to avoid losing face. In this sense, "rite" (Chinese: 禮; pinyin: lǐ) is an ideal form of social norm.
The Chinese character for "rites", or "ritual", previously had the religious meaning of "sacrifice". Its Confucian
meaning ranges from politeness and propriety to the understanding of each person's correct place in society.
Externally, ritual is used to distinguish between people; their usage allows people to know at all times who is the
younger and who the elder, who is the guest and who the host and so forth. Internally, rites indicate to people their
duty amongst others and what to expect from them.
Internalization is the main process in ritual. Formalized behavior becomes progressively internalized, desires are
channeled and personal cultivation becomes the mark of social correctness. Though this idea conflicts with the
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Confucianism
common saying that "the cowl does not make the monk," in Confucianism sincerity is what enables behavior to be
absorbed by individuals. Obeying ritual with sincerity makes ritual the most powerful way to cultivate oneself:
Respectfulness, without the Rites, becomes laborious bustle; carefulness, without the Rites, become
timidity; boldness, without the Rites, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without the Rites,
becomes rudeness. (Analects VIII, 2)
Ritual can be seen as a means to find the balance between opposing qualities that might otherwise lead to conflict. It
divides people into categories, and builds hierarchical relationships through protocols and ceremonies, assigning
everyone a place in society and a proper form of behavior. Music, which seems to have played a significant role in
Confucius' life, is given as an exception, as it transcends such boundaries and "unifies the hearts".
Although the Analects heavily promote the rites, Confucius himself often behaved other than in accord with them.
Loyalty
Loyalty (Chinese: 忠; pinyin: zhōng) is the equivalent of filial piety on a different plane. It is particularly relevant for
the social class to which most of Confucius' students belonged, because the only way for an ambitious young scholar
to make his way in the Confucian Chinese world was to enter a ruler's civil service. Like filial piety, however,
loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes of China. Confucius had advocated a sensitivity to the
realpolitik of the class relations in his time; he did not propose that "might makes right", but that a superior who had
received the "Mandate of Heaven" (see below) should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude.
In later ages, however, emphasis was placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's
obligations to the ruled.
Loyalty was also an extension of one's duties to friends, family, and spouse. Loyalty to one's family came first, then
to one's spouse, then to one's ruler, and lastly to one's friends. Loyalty was considered one of the greater human
virtues.
Confucius also realized that loyalty and filial piety can potentially conflict.
Filial piety
"Filial piety" (Chinese: 孝; pinyin: xiào) is considered among the greatest of virtues and must be shown towards both
the living and the dead (including even remote ancestors). The term "filial" (meaning "of a child") characterizes the
respect that a child, originally a son, should show to his parents. This relationship was extended by analogy to a
series of five relationships (Chinese: 五倫; pinyin: wǔlún):[6]
The Five Bonds
•
•
•
•
•
Ruler to Ruled
Father to Son
Husband to Wife
Elder Brother to Younger Brother
Friend to Friend
Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties were also
extended to the dead, where the living stood as sons to their deceased family. This led to the veneration of ancestors.
The only relationship where respect for elders wasn't stressed was the Friend to Friend relationship. In all other
relationships, high reverence was held for elders.
The idea of Filial piety influenced the Chinese legal system: a criminal would be punished more harshly if the culprit
had committed the crime against a parent, while fathers often exercised enormous power over their children. A
similar differentiation was applied to other relationships. Now filial piety is also built into law. People have the
responsibility to provide for their elderly parents according to the law.
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Confucianism
The main source of our knowledge of the importance of filial piety is The Book of Filial Piety, a work attributed to
Confucius and his son but almost certainly written in the 3rd century BCE. The Analects, the main source of the
Confucianism of Confucius, actually has little to say on the matter of filial piety and some sources believe the
concept was focused on by later thinkers as a response to Mohism.
Filial piety has continued to play a central role in Confucian thinking to the present day.
Relationships
Relationships are central to Confucianism. Particular duties arise from one's particular situation in relation to others.
The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to
parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered
in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors.
This theme of mutuality is prevalent in East Asian cultures even to this day.
Social harmony—the great goal of Confucianism—therefore results in part from every individual knowing his or her
place in the social order, and playing his or her part well. When Duke Jing of Qi asked about government, by which
he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony, Confucius replied:
There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister is minister; when the father is father,
and the son is son. (Analects XII, 11, trans. Legge)
Mencius says: "When being a child, yearn for and love your parents; when growing mature, yearn for and love your
lassie; when having wife and child(ren), yearn for and love your wife and child(ren); when being an official (or a
staffer), yearn for and love your sovereign (and/or boss)."[7]
The gentleman
The term jūnzǐ (Chinese: 君子; literally "lord's child") is crucial to classical Confucianism. Confucianism exhorts all
people to strive for the ideal of a "gentleman" or "perfect man". A succinct description of the "perfect man" is one
who "combines the qualities of saint, scholar, and gentleman." In modern times the masculine translation in English
is also traditional and is still frequently used. Elitism was bound up with the concept, and gentlemen were expected
to act as moral guides to the rest of society.
They were to:
• cultivate themselves morally;
• show filial piety and loyalty where these are due;
• cultivate humanity, or benevolence.
The great exemplar of the perfect gentleman is Confucius himself. Perhaps the tragedy of his life was that he was
never awarded the high official position which he desired, from which he wished to demonstrate the general
well-being that would ensue if humane persons ruled and administered the state.
The opposite of the Jūnzǐ was the Xiǎorén (Chinese: 小人; pinyin: xiǎorén; literally "small person"). The character
小 in this context means petty in mind and heart, narrowly self-interested, greedy, superficial, or materialistic.
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Confucianism
Rectification of names
Confucius believed that social disorder often stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality.
Fundamentally, then, social disorder can stem from the failure to call things by their proper names, and his solution
to this was Zhèngmíng (Chinese: [正名]; pinyin: zhèngmíng; literally "rectification of terms"). He gave an
explanation of zhengming to one of his disciples.
Zi-lu said, "The ruler of Wei has been waiting for you, in order with you to administer the government.
What will you consider the first thing to be done?"
The Master replied, "What is necessary to rectify names."
"So! indeed!" said Zi-lu. "You are wide off the mark! Why must there be such rectification?"
The Master said, "How uncultivated you are, Yu! A superior man, in regard to what he does not know,
shows a cautious reserve.
If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things.
If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success.
When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music do not flourish.
When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded.
When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot.
Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately,
and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What the superior man requires is just
that in his words there may be nothing incorrect."
(Analects XIII, 3, tr. Legge)
Xun Zi chapter (22) "On the Rectification of Names" claims the ancient sage-kings chose names (Chinese: [名];
pinyin: míng) that directly corresponded with actualities (Chinese: [實]; pinyin: shí), but later generations confused
terminology, coined new nomenclature, and thus could no longer distinguish right from wrong.
Governance
To govern by virtue, let us compare it to
the North Star: it stays in its place, while
the myriad stars wait upon it. (Analects II,
1)
Another key Confucian concept is that in order to
govern others one must first govern oneself. When
developed sufficiently, the king's personal virtue
spreads beneficent influence throughout the kingdom.
This idea is developed further in the Great Learning,
and is tightly linked with the Taoist concept of wu wei
(simplified Chinese: 无为; traditional Chinese: 無為;
pinyin: wú wéi): the less the king does, the more gets
Confucian temple in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, Republic of China
done. By being the "calm center" around which the
kingdom turns, the king allows everything to function
smoothly and avoids having to tamper with the individual parts of the whole.
This idea may be traced back to early Chinese shamanistic beliefs, such as the king being the axle between the sky,
human beings, and the Earth. Another complementary view is that this idea may have been used by ministers and
counselors to deter aristocratic whims that would otherwise be to the detriment of the state's people.
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Confucianism
6
Meritocracy
In teaching, there should be no distinction of classes. (Analects XV, 39)
The main basis of his teachings was to seek knowledge, study, and become a better person.
Although Confucius claimed that he never invented anything but was only transmitting ancient knowledge (see
Analects VII, 1), he did produce a number of new ideas. Many European and American admirers such as Voltaire
and H. G. Creel point to the revolutionary idea of replacing nobility of blood with nobility of virtue. Jūnzǐ (君子, lit.
"lord's child"), which originally signified the younger, non-inheriting, offspring of a noble, became, in Confucius'
work, an epithet having much the same meaning and evolution as the English "gentleman". A virtuous plebeian who
cultivates his qualities can be a "gentleman", while a shameless son of the king is only a "small man". That he
admitted students of different classes as disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures
that defined pre-imperial Chinese society.
Another new idea, that of meritocracy, led to the introduction of the Imperial examination system in China. This
system allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring
wealth and honour to the whole family. The Chinese Imperial examination system seems to have been started in 165
BC, when certain candidates for public office were called to the Chinese capital for examination of their moral
excellence by the emperor. Over the following centuries the system grew until finally almost anyone who wished to
become an official had to prove his worth by passing written government examinations.
His achievement was the setting up of a school that produced statesmen with a strong sense of patriotism and duty,
known as Rujia (Chinese: 儒家; pinyin: Rújiā). During the Warring States Period and the early Han Dynasty, China
grew greatly and the need arose for a solid and centralized corporation of government officers able to read and write
administrative papers. As a result, Confucianism was promoted by the emperor and the men its doctrines produced
became an effective counter to the remaining feudal aristocrats who threatened the unity of the imperial state.
Since then Confucianism has been used as a kind of "state religion", with authoritarianism, a kind of legitimism,
paternalism, and submission to authority used as political tools to rule China. Most Chinese emperors used a mix of
Legalism and Confucianism as their ruling doctrine, often with the latter embellishing the former.
Influence in 17th-century Europe
The works of Confucius were translated into European languages
through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China.[8] Matteo
Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and father
Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius into
Latin in 1687.[9] It is thought that such works had considerable
importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the
Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were
interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius
into Western civilization.[9] [10]
Influence in modern times
"Life and works of Confucius, by Prospero
Intorcetta, 1687.
Important military and political figures in modern Chinese history
continued to be influenced by Confucianism, like the Muslim warlord Ma Fuxiang.[11] The New Life Movement
relied heavily on Confucianism. The Kuomintang party purged China's education system of western ideas,
introducing Confucianism into the curriculum. Education came under the total control of state, which meant, in
effect, the Kuomintang party, via the Ministry of Education. Military and political classes on the Kuomintang's Three
principles of the people were added. Textbooks, exams, degrees and educational instructors were all controlled by
Confucianism
the state, as were all universities.[12]
Criticism
For many years since the era of Confucius, there have generated various critiques against Confucianism, including
Laozi's comment and Mozi's critique. Lu Xun also criticised Confucianism heavily for shaping Chinese people into
the state they became in the late Qing Dynasty: this is greatly portrayed through his works A Madman's Diary and
The True Story of Ah Q.
In modern times, waves of critique along with vilification against Confucianism arose. Taiping Rebellion, May
Fourth Movement and Cultural Revolution are some upsurges of those waves in China. Taiping rebels described
many sages in Confucianism as well as gods in Taoism and Buddhism as bogie[?]. Marxists during Cultural
Revolution described Confucius as the general representative of class of slave owners. Numerous opinions and
interpretations of Confucianism of which many are actually opposed by Confucianism were invented.
Confucianism has a related principle idea called "He Er Bu Tong" (和而不同, peaceful but different or harmonious
while diversified). Although people have differences in opinions, interests, preferences, profiles..., they should first
keep peace, and people should live in harmony with each other and meanwhile keep their diversity. There are still
other critique related Confucian ideas, e.g. If what others say is right and your fault is true, change it. If not, be
careful of committing that kind of fault (有則改之,無則加勉), Learn others' virtues, and reflect on your own weak
points when you see others' (見賢思齊焉,見不賢而內自省).
Women in Confucian thought
Confucianism "largely defined the mainstream discourse on gender in China from the Han dynasty onward,"[13] and
its strict, obligatory gender roles as a cornerstone of family, and thus, societal stability, continue to shape social life
throughout East Asia. Confucians taught that a virtuous woman was supposed to uphold “three subordinations”: be
subordinate to her father before marriage, to her husband after marriage, and to her son after her husband died. Men
could remarry and have concubines, whereas women were supposed to uphold the virtue of chastity when they lost
their husbands.[14] Chaste widows were revered as heroes during the Ming and Qing periods,[13] and were deemed so
central to China’s culture and the fate of all peoples, the Yongle Emperor distributed 10,000 copies of the
Biographies of Exemplary Women to various non-Chinese countries for their moral instruction. The Biographies of
Exemplary Women, or Lienü Zhuan, served as Confucianism's seminal textbook for Chinese women for two
millennia, but cementing the "cult of chastity" as an exemplar of Chinese superiority also condemned many widows
to lives of "poverty and loneliness."[13]
However, recent reexaminations of Chinese gender roles suggest that Daoism and the ying-yang dichotomy played
an even greater part in stifling female roles, and that many women flourished within Confucianism.[13] During the
Han dynasty period, the important Confucian text Lessons for Women (Nüjie), was written by Ban Zhao (45-114
CE): by a woman, for women.
She wrote the Nüjie ostensibly for her daughters, instructing them on how to live proper Confucian lives
as wives and mothers. Although this is a relatively rare instance of a female Confucian voice, Ban Zhao
almost entirely accepts the prevailing views concerning women's proper roles; they should be silent,
hard-working, and compliant. She stresses the complementarity and equal importance of the male and
female roles according to yin-yang theory, but she clearly accepts the dominance of the yang-male. Her
only departure from the standard male versions of this orthodoxy is that she insists on the necessity to
educate girls and women. We should not underestimate the significance of this point, as education was
the bottom line qualification for being a junzi or "noble person,"...her example suggests that the
Confucian prescription for a meaningful life as a woman was apparently not stifling for all women. Even
some women of the literate elite, for whom Confucianism was quite explicitly the norm, were able to
flourish by living their lives according to that model.[13]
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Confucianism
Debate over classification
There is debate about the classification of Confucianism as a religion or a philosophy. Many attributes common
among religions—such as ancestor worship, ritual, and sacrifice—apply to the practice of Confucianism; however,
the religious features found in Confucian texts can be traced to traditional non-Confucian Chinese beliefs (Chinese
folk religion). The position adopted by some is that Confucianism is a moral science or philosophy.[15] The problem
clearly depends on how one defines religion. Since the 1970s scholars have attempted to assess the religious status of
Confucianism without assuming a definition based on the Western model (for example, Frederick Streng's definition,
"a means of ultimate transformation"[16] ). Under such a definition Confucianism can legitimately be considered a
religious tradition.[17]
Ahmadiyya view
Mirza Tahir Ahmad, the fourth Caliph of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, in his book Revelation, Rationality,
Knowledge & Truth, has argued that Confucianism was a religion and elaborates further in attempting to explain
through particular references that the religion in its original pristine form was a monotheistic religion divinely
revealed to Confucius who he describes as a prophet of God.[18]
Names
Strictly speaking, there is no term in Chinese which directly corresponds to "Confucianism." Several different terms
are used in different situations, several of which are of modern origin:
•
•
•
•
•
"School of the scholars" (Chinese: 儒家; pinyin: Rújiā)
"Teaching of the scholars" (Chinese: 儒教; pinyin: Rújiào)
"Study of the scholars" (simplified Chinese: 儒学; traditional Chinese: 儒學; pinyin: Rúxué)
"Teaching of Confucius" (Chinese: 孔教; pinyin: Kǒngjiào)
"Kong Family's Business" (Chinese: 孔家店; pinyin: Kǒngjiādiàn)[19]
Three of these use the Chinese character 儒 rú, meaning "scholar". These names do not use the name "Confucius" at
all, but instead center on the figure or ideal of the Confucian scholar; however, the suffixes of jiā, jiào, and xué carry
different implications as to the nature of Confucianism itself.
Rújiā contains the character jiā, which literally means "house" or "family". In this context, it is more readily
construed as meaning "school of thought", since it is also used to construct the names of philosophical schools
contemporary with Confucianism: for example, the Chinese names for Legalism and Mohism end in jiā.
Rújiào and Kǒngjiào contain the Chinese character jiào, the noun "teach", used in such as terms as "education", or
"educator". The term, however, is notably used to construct the names of religions in Chinese: the terms for Islam,
Judaism, Christianity, and other religions in Chinese all end with jiào.
Rúxué contains xué 'study'. The term is parallel to -ology in English, being used to construct the names of academic
fields: the Chinese names of fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, political science, economics, and sociology
all end in xué.
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Confucianism
References
[1] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=oOYQbqxfIk4C& pg=PT193& dq=1. 5+ billion+ confucianism& hl=en&
ei=KqpiTcz6O8y28QOP-YXyCA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CCsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=1.
5%20billion%20confucianism& f=false
[2] Lo, Ping-cheung (1999), Confucian Ethic of Death with Dignity and Its Contemporary Relevance (http:/ / arts. hkbu. edu. hk/ ~pclo/ e5. pdf),
Society of Christian Ethics,
[3] "Yuandao" by Han Yu: Ren and Yi are specific names, Dao and De (Dao De means morality) are phantom
position(韓愈《原道》：仁與義，為定名；道與德，為虛位。)
[4] Homer H. Dubs: 'Nature in the Teaching of Confucius', p. 233
[5] Lun Yu (Yang Huo) 13 May 2009 (http:/ / www. confucius. org/ lunyu/ cd1702. htm)
[6] Chinese Legal Theories (http:/ / ias. berkeley. edu/ orias/ summer2004/ summer2004Chinalegal. htm)
[7] 孟子：人少，則慕父母；知好色，則慕少艾；有妻子，則慕妻子；仕則慕君
[8] The first was Michele Ruggieri who had returned from China to Italy in 1588, and carried on translating in Latin Chinese classics, while
residing in Salerno
[9] "Windows into China", John Parker, p.25, ISBN 0890730504
[10] The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, John Hobson, pp 194–195, ISBN 0521547245
[11] Stéphane A. Dudoignon, Hisao Komatsu, Yasushi Kosugi, ed (2006). Intellectuals in the modern Islamic world: transmission,
transformation, communication (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MJzB6wrz6Q4C& pg=PA251& dq=ma+ fuxiang+ military+
academy& hl=en& ei=_AadTPPfNIP78AaV-OVR& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CDgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=ma fuxiang confucianism northern& f=false). Taylor & Francis. p. 250. ISBN 00415368359. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[12] Werner Draguhn, David S. G. Goodman, ed (2002). China's communist revolutions: fifty years of the People's Republic of China (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=0Caknr1VAqMC& dq=ma+ bufang+ communist+ saw& q=riding+ it+ of+ western+ texts+ and+
models#v=onepage& q=it of western texts and models confucian& f=false) (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 39. ISBN 0700716300. .
Retrieved 2011-04-09.
[13] Adler, Joseph A. (Winter 2006). "Daughter/Wife/Mother or Sage/Immortal/Bodhisattva? Women in the Teaching of Chinese Religions"
(http:/ / www2. kenyon. edu/ Depts/ Religion/ Fac/ Adler/ Writings/ Women. htm). ASIANetwork Exchange, vol. XIV, no. 2. . Retrieved May
18, 2011.
[14] Vohra, Ranbir (1999). China's Path to Modernization: A Historical Review from 1800 to the Present 3rd edition. Prentice Hall.
ISBN 0130807478.
[15] Centre for Confucian Science (Korea) (http:/ / terpconnect. umd. edu/ ~tkang/ welcome_files/ religion. htm); Introduction to Confucianism
(http:/ / urantiabook. org/ archive/ readers/ 601_confucianism. htm)
[16] Streng, Frederick, "Understanding Religious Life," 3rd ed. (1985), p. 2
[17] Taylor, Rodney L., "The Religious Dimensions of Confucianism" (1990); Tu Weiming and Mary Evelyn Tucker, eds., "Confucian
Spirituality," 2 vols. (2003, 2004); Adler, Joseph A., "Confucianism as Religion / Religious Tradition / Neither: Still Hazy After All These
Years" (2006) (http:/ / www2. kenyon. edu/ Depts/ Religion/ Fac/ Adler/ Writings/ AAR-Still Hazy. pdf)
[18] http:/ / www. alislam. org/ library/ books/ revelation/ part_2_section_3. html
[19] This phrase of a certain negative context became popular after its usage in many Anti-Confucianism movements in China, most notably the
May Fourth Movement and the Cultural Revolution. See (http:/ / guoxue. zynews. com/ News/ 2009/ 11104. html) and (http:/ / bbs1. people.
com. cn/ postDetail. do?boardId=14& treeView=1& view=2& id=91865332) for more details.
Further reading
• Creel, Herrlee G. Confucius and the Chinese Way. Reprint. New York: Harper Torchbooks. (Originally published
under the title Confucius—the Man and the Myth.)
• Fingarette, Herbert. Confucius: The Secular as Sacred ISBN 1-57766-010-2.
• Ivanhoe, Philip J. Confucian Moral Self Cultivation. 2nd rev. ed., Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
• Nivison, David S. The Ways of Confucianism. Chicago: Open Court Press.
• Max Weber, The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism.
• Xinzhong Yao (2000) An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Confucianism
Translations of Texts Attributed to Confucius
The Analects (Lun Yu)
• Confucian Analects (http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/conf1.htm) (1893) Translated by James Legge.
• The Analects of Confucius (1915; rpr. NY: Paragon, 1968). Translated by William Edward Soothill.
• The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation (New York: Ballantine, 1998). Translated by Roger T.
Ames, Henry Rosemont.
• The Original Analects: Sayings of Confucius and His Successors (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998).
Translated by E. Bruce Brooks, A. Taeko Brooks.
• The Analects of Confucius (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997). Translated by Simon Leys
• Analects: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2003). Translated by
Edward Slingerland.
External links
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry: Confucius (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confucius/#ConPol/)
• Interfaith Online: Confucianism (http://www.interfaith.org/confucianism/)
• Confucian Documents (http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/index.htm) at the Internet Sacred Texts Archive.
• Oriental Philosophy, "Topic:Confucianism" (http://philosophy.lander.edu/oriental/confucism.html)
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Article Sources and Contributors
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
file:Dacheng Hall.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dacheng_Hall.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Gisling
Image:Lotusconfuciustemple2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lotusconfuciustemple2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Mamin27 (and me, who
transferred it to COMMONS: SAE1962)
Image:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Prospero
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