Food Consumption in the European Union:
Main Determinants and Country Differences
A. Gracia
Unidad de Economía Agraria, Servicio de Investigación Agroalimentaria
(DGA), Apdo. 727, 50080 Zaragoza, Spain. E-mail: [email protected]
L.M. Albisu
Unidad de Economía Agraria, Servicio de Investigación Agroalimentaria
(DGA), Apdo. 727, 50080 Zaragoza, Spain. E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Consumers in the European Union are involved in integration processes that head towards homogenization of food consumption patterns+ Several factors are encouraging these homogenization trends
based on consumers’ similarities and corporate activities+ In this article a review of the food consumption structure, across European Union countries, is undertaken+ First, food consumption trends
in different countries are described and, second, factors, which determine consumer choices, are
presented+ Despite the fact that European consumers face more homogeneous food market conditions, food consumption differences exist because preferences and food habits are still different
among European consumers, and the market is fragmented ~EconLit: L660!+ © 2001 John Wiley &
Sons, Inc+
1.
INTRODUCTION
The European Union ~EU! is an area characterized by a high development status under an
internal integration process and, at the same time, external internationalization opening+
Any continuous integration process carries on a parallel convergence, but still consumption differences exist among countries and regions in Europe ~Gil & Gracia, 1998!+ It is
important to shed light on the extent of those differences and the reasons behind them+
Consumers are becoming wealthier, and they are affluent enough so that they demand
food not only for nourishment reasons but also for enjoyment, preference, ethics, culture,
safety, prestige, impulse, and other factors that have been revealed to be very important in
building final food choices+ Economic, social, and demographic characteristics, as well
as food consumer choice and behavior, should be considered for a better understanding of
European food consumers+
In this article, some quantitative comparisons and qualitative explanations are presented to know better food consumption in the different countries of the European Union+
The analysis is based on previous works undertaken by several authors, at a European
level, and our own knowledge about the subject+ There is a section dealing with general
statistical trends and country differences+ The next section presents some explanations
Agribusiness, Vol. 17 (4) 469–488 (2001)
© 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
469
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FOOD CONSUMPTION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
about why and how actual food consumption patterns occur in Europe+ Some concluding
remarks are offered at the end+
2. FOOD CONSUMPTION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION: GENERAL
STATISTICAL TRENDS AND COUNTRY DIFFERENCES
In the last 15 years, the evolution of food consumption in European countries has been
analyzed by several authors ~Besch, 1993; Blandford, 1984; Caiumi, 1992; Combris, 1991;
Frank & Wheelock, 1988; Gracia & Albisu, 1994; Meulenberg and Viane, 1993; Ritson &
Hutchins, 1991; Wheelock & Frank, 1989!, and some general conclusions can be outlined
from those works+
Food consumption in the European Union countries can be summarized in four major
trends: ~1! a decrease in the proportion of expenditure allocated to food already reaching
very low levels; ~2! a maximum level in total food consumption, in quantity terms, ~3! a
shift in the food consumption structure; and ~4! an increase in the proportion of food
consumed away from home+ The first trend is not surprising, and it follows any macroeconomic growth, as has been the case for all European+ The second trend is the result of
a situation that occurs in wealthy countries where quantity is surpassed by quality concerns; people want to eat better as their daily intake requirements diminish+ The third
trend is not as homogeneous, and it differs from country to country, according to many
distinctive aspects, but also based on their cultural and historical evolution+ The last trend
is also common for all countries, but its intensity varies among countries and labor
circumstances+
Total food consumption in the EU has increased less than 2% in a 5-year period ~from
1991 to 1996!, and it is expected to increase in the same amount in the next 5 years ~from
1996 to 2001! ~Table 1!+ The food products that showed the highest increase were fish
and seafood ~6%!, and the processed and convenience foods ~processed meat ~4%!, cheese
~6%!, yogurt and desserts ~9%!, chocolate ~8%!, and snacks ~15%!!+ In the near future, an
increase in the consumption of all food products but more moderate than in the previous
period is expected ~except for fresh meat, which consumption will increase once the BSE
crisis has finished!+
These general trends can be expanded by a more detailed analysis+ It may happen that
while a group of food products could have an increasing or decreasing trend, there might
be specific food products, in each group, with a strong opposite reaction+ Moreover, food
consumption evolution differs from country to country+
There are European Union countries where overall food consumption has slightly increased ~in the range from 1 to 5% from 1991 to 1996! ~Table 2!+ In other countries there
is a decrease, such in Greece ~20+3%!, Spain ~23%!, and United Kingdom ~22%!+ It is
surprising to notice that in the latter group there are two countries among the lowest
income per capita of all Europe+
Different trends can be observed for products in different countries+ Figures on food
consumption by product and countries from 1991 to 1996 have been gathered from AgraEurope ~1997!+ Percentage changes correspond to the evolution in the whole period+ Table 3
shows per capita food consumption by product and countries in 1996 ~the rest of the
information is available from the authors upon request!+
Average EU fresh meat consumption has decreased by 2%, mainly due to the beef
disease, but processed meat consumption has increased by 4%, with particular emphasis
in Austria ~12%!, Belgium–Luxembourg ~11%!, Greece ~7%!, and Italy ~4%!+ However,
GRACIA AND ALBISU
TABLE 1+
471
EU Food Consumption by Main Category ~Thousand Tons!
Fresh and other produce
Fresh meat
Processed meat
Fish and seafood
Cereal products
Drinking milk
Milk powders
Yellow fats
Cheese
Cream milk
Yogurt and desserts
Chocolate confectionery
Sugar confectionery
Snacks
Soups, sauces and oils
Total food
1991
1996
2001 a
199601991
%
200101996
%
91535
19699
9624
7485
61958
28533
2571
4175
5575
2243
6320
1825
1439
1091
9032
253105
92007
19349
10020
7921
63237
28850
2461
4142
5940
2293
6921
1976
1378
1254
9358
275107
92898
20143
10572
8133
63767
29152
2522
4177
6096
2334
7158
2068
1433
1335
9570
261358
0+52
21+78
4+11
5+82
2+06
1+11
24+28
20+79
6+55
2+23
9+51
8+27
24+24
14+94
3+61
1+58
0+97
4+10
5+51
2+68
0+84
1+05
2+48
0+85
2+63
1+79
3+42
4+66
3+99
6+46
2+27
1+65
Source: AgraEurope ~1997!+
a
Forecast+
the consumption of both types of meat has increased in Denmark ~2 and 9%, for fresh and
processed meat, respectively!, Germany ~2 and 9%!, Ireland ~7 and 4%!, The Netherlands
~11 and 5%!, Portugal ~4 and 20%!, and Sweden ~12 and 10%!+ Only in two countries,
Finland and Spain, did total meat consumption decrease, 3 and 8%, respectively, for fresh
meat, and 6 and 2% for processed+ The only clear outcome from those figures is that
TABLE 2+
EU Food Consumption by Country ~Thousand Tons!
Austria
Belgium-Luxemb+
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
The Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
Source: AgraEurope ~1997!+
a
Forecast+
1991
1996
2001
199601999
%
200101996
%
5472
7774
4451
3547
39039
49598
8899
3093
41244
11498
7451
30318
5803
34918
5544
8168
4644
3588
39492
51081
8871
3138
43123
11919
7877
29490
5957
34211
5572
8347
4761
3664
40295
52359
8975
3176
43610
12243
8056
29864
5998
34438
1+32
5+07
4+34
1+16
1+16
2+99
2+031
1+45
4+56
3+66
5+72
22+73
2+65
22+02
0+51
2+19
2+52
2+12
2+03
2+50
1+17
1+21
1+13
2+72
2+27
1+27
0+69
0+66
Ireland
Italy
119+77
65+29 65+99
45+65
79+71
79+17
47+04
31+18
29+22 25+68
34+43
7+12
29+44
25+46
87+83
18+82 21+76
13+69
12+69
23+33
18+69
138+78 117+06 144+10 137+18 157+21 140+56 265+59
120+34 177+65 84+61
81+25
78+27 150+28
62+36
15+59
12+75 22+78
18+58
21+54
6+67
21+44
22+05
24+90 29+40
23+17
11+92
13+61
8+51
21+86
10+39 10+12
15+84
7+21
15+83
5+81
30+61
23+14 17+88
23+01
31+25
21+11
14+90
10+84
8+43 12+27
12+22
2+98
13+61
23+15
54+94
46+27 58+70
63+08
98+08
50+56 119+96
4+18
5+29
3+89
6+77
11+06
8+06
2+21
88+78
47+45 61+77
33+13 184+13 166+39
52+19
5+32
3+33 18+55
11+48
16+63
14+72
3+85
7+22
4+71
7+37
4+41
2+50
7+22
4+99
68+82
62+35 37+53
53+33
79+52
86+67
27+53
0+76
1+57
1+11
1+43
5+10
4+17
3+63
2+47
3+33
2+05
2+74
1+15
2+22
1+05
37+64
35+69 33+79
29+82
32+88
26+94
34+73
13+88
5+88 14+57
13+26
12+02
11+11
12+12
882+89 703+53 673+92 624+46 852+98 871+67 755+22
1+71
1+57
2+13
1+31
0+87
2+22
1+42
8+75
4+90 16+57
8+20
2+69
8+06
5+62
348+67 184+90 253+55 417+52 184+33 288+33 271+70
1242+02 894+90 946+18 1051+49 1040+87 1170+28 1033+96
Austria Bel+-Lux+ Denmark Finland France Germany Greece
Per Capita Food Consumption in the EU by Products and Countries in 1996 ~kg!
Carcass meats
91+23 104+71
Meat products
35+43
22+06
Fish and shellfish
10+62
17+94
Cereal products
95+43 178+04
Total milk
74+81
85+59
Cheese
9+01
17+16
Yogurt and desserts
15+31
13+73
Confectionery and snack
14+07
16+27
Total oils
29+14
33+04
Soups, sauces and pickles
10+12
21+86
Fresh fruit
91+23
80+59
Preserved fruit
5+31
6+47
Fresh vegetables
78+77
39+80
Canned vegetables
8+77
31+18
Frozen vegetables and fruits
3+21
5+39
Total potatoes
60+49
61+76
Pulses and beans
0+99
4+22
Jams and preserves
1+36
1+96
Total sugar
35+56
44+31
Eggs
13+58
14+71
Total food
684+44 800+78
Baby food
0+62
1+67
Pet food
9+51
13+04
Beverages
364+20 366+57
Total food and beverages
1058+77 1182+06
TABLE 3+
28+85
23+69
17+83
142+29
137+71
15+61
39+62
16+82
29+68
33+57
103+63
4+71
31+08
11+72
3+06
66+05
2+55
1+46
39+17
10+06
759+17
1+59
12+04
233+50
1006+31
Spain
74+34
41+07
14+85
21+12
30+40
43+48
163+13
243+20
69+06
76+85
5+56
6+70
9+60
15+33
4+95
7+41
14+65
26+12
5+45
7+03
102+02
89+09
1+52
7+92
145+45
49+24
2+32
2+97
2+22
5+51
95+35
57+34
6+87
5+56
1+21
1+07
38+48
29+11
8+18
12+39
795+66
748+48
0+81
0+81
1+72
3+88
198+79
261+27
996+97 1014+44
Netherlands Portugal
36+74
26+97
33+37
122+02
126+52
16+40
21+80
13+82
26+74
10+22
57+87
4+83
37+75
8+65
4+38
65+96
1+24
5+28
38+76
10+00
669+33
1+35
7+64
187+64
865+96
34+70
28+00
14+01
133+01
119+97
8+62
10+53
18+29
15+23
20+65
32+14
5+50
34+72
11+92
7+66
47+66
2+31
1+39
28+96
5+59
580+83
1+60
23+74
288+35
894+52
Sweden U+ Kingdom
472
FOOD CONSUMPTION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
GRACIA AND ALBISU
473
European heterogeneity is the most remarkable characteristic+ There are no clear relations
between the absolute level of meat consumption and consumption trends+ However, the
proportion of processed meat on total meat consumption has increased in all countries
except Finland, Ireland, The Netherlands, and Sweden, although this share varies among
countries, with the highest values for The Netherlands ~46%!, United Kingdom ~43%!,
and Germany ~41%!, and the lowest for Greece ~8%! and Portugal ~15%!+ Each country
is facing particular circumstances and movements among different kinds of meats that
are more important than overall meat consumption+ Thus, poultry and pork meat consumption have increased because of the problems with meats, and also because poultry
meat is highly considered based on health concerns+
Fish consumption in the EU has increased by 6%, mainly due to the healthy attributes
stressed by food specialists and the reinforcement of consumers’ awareness+ There are
only two countries, Finland and Sweden, where fish consumption has decreased by 8 and
11%, respectively+ The increase in the rest of the countries is quite high, in the range from
8 to 19% except for France, Spain, and United Kingdom, where consumption has gone up
by 3, 2, and 6%, respectively+ It seems that some countries, with a high level of consumption, have reached a peak, like in the case of Sweden, Spain, and France, while in others,
consumption is still increasing, like in Denmark and Portugal, because of the positive
consumption benefits+
The evolution of dairy product consumption differs according to the type of product+
While EU milk consumption has held up, the consumption of cheese and yogurt and
desserts has increased by 6+6 and 9+5%, respectively+ The consumption of milk has even
decreased in Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Sweden, and United Kingdom but, in all
countries, low-fat consumption has increased+ In general, a clear distinction can be undertaken between drinking milk and dairy consumption products, which is expected to
continue to increase and to have more diverse supply because of the search for consumers’ convenience+ The expansion of well-known agri-food and distribution multinationals
has made dairy products accessible to a great part of the population+
Overall, EU cereal and baked products consumption has slightly increased by 2%, and
the same trend can be observed for all the countries except for Ireland, where consumption has decreased ~4+3%!, and Denmark, where the increase in consumption accounts for
11%+ A more thorough breakdown could give us some hints about these general trends+ In
general terms, bread consumption has decreased in many countries while the greatest
increases correspond to breakfast cereals, cakes, pasta, and rice+ Cereals consumption
may be enhanced by introducing products that reinforce some healthy and nutritional
attributes of the product such as high fiber content, low-calorie contents, etc+ The last
trend may be the leading forces behind the change+
Confectionery products and snack consumption have increased by 3 and 15%, respectively+ This increasing trend has been a general pattern in all countries with the highest
rates corresponding to Portugal ~36%!, Spain ~30%!, Denmark ~17%!, Greece ~10%!,
Italy ~10%!, and France ~10%!+ This is a group of food products with a similar positive
trend and, in general, countries with the weakest agri-food industry have developed the
most+
In general, consumption of soups and sauces in the EU has increased by 3%+ It has
increased, in all the countries, with highest increases in Greece ~20%!, Portugal ~23%!,
and Spain ~14%!+ In this case, it is clear that the main expansion has occurred in the
southern Mediterranean countries as a result of moving from home-made to industrial
products+
474
FOOD CONSUMPTION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
The consumption of oil in the EU is held up, but a variety of tendencies can be observed among countries+ The consumption of oil has slightly decreased in Denmark, France,
Greece, Spain, and United Kingdom+ In the rest of the countries, oil consumption is held
up or has increased slightly ~except in Portugal, with an increase of 9%!+ In this group a
similar situation to meat consumption occurs, where the consumption change among oil
is more important than the overall consumption+ A common trend has been the change
from animal to vegetable oils and the introduction of new vegetable oils+ For example,
olive oil has taken the part of the market share that was occupied by other oils, because it
is known as being healthier+
The average consumption of eggs in the EU has decreased by 3+5% mainly because of
the cholesterol-increasing concern, although consumption has increased in Ireland, Italy,
and Portugal+ The decrease in the Spanish egg consumption ~14%! is important+ The quantity of cholesterol-free egg consumed has risen, and the expansion of multinationals in
the south is a recent movement+
The consumption of fruits, vegetables, and pulses in the EU has increased except for
preserved fruit+ However, although fresh fruit and vegetable consumption has increased
by 2 and 0+6%, respectively, frozen fruit and vegetable consumption has risen by 13%+
This increasing trend can be observed for all countries ~except for United Kingdom!, and
in some cases the increase in the consumption of frozen fruits and vegetables is more than
30%+ Pulse consumption has increased in all countries except in Austria, France, and
Sweden+ Fresh fruit and vegetable consumption has increased in all EU countries except
in the case of vegetables in Greece, Sweden, and United Kingdom, and in Spain, where
the consumption of both fruits and vegetables, has decreased by 15 and 17%, respectively+ The evolution of canned fruits and vegetables varies greatly among countries, but
follows a decreasing trend+ It seems that Mediterranean countries, somehow, are moving
away from the typical Mediterranean diet, whereas other countries are approaching toward those patterns by increasing the amount of fruits and vegetables consumed+
As a summary, in general, the consumption of some food products has held up ~milk
and oils! or slightly decreased ~fresh meat and eggs! while the consumption of other products has increased ~cheese, yogurt, confectionery, snacks, soups, fruits, and vegetables!+
Altogether, food consumption in quantity terms is help up, although the diet is changing+
Consumers cannot and are not willing to eat more, but their food demand is shifting among
different products+ Nowadays, food consumption is a matter of choice, and great efforts
must be carried out to attract consumer food choice+ The situation of the agri-food industry and the distribution channels in each country also affect consumption patterns and
trends in Europe+
3.
EUROPEAN FOOD CONSUMPTION DETERMINANTS
Food consumption determinants are plenty, and the importance of them in explaining
food consumption, over time and space, is changing very rapidly+ Those factors come
from different levels in the food chain: consumers, food manufactures, and retailers+
3.1. Consumers
Consumers are the final agents in the food choice process, and their characteristics, attitudes, and behavior are very important food consumption determinants+ Several issues
related to European food consumers can be outlined+
GRACIA AND ALBISU
475
3.1.1. Heterogeneity versus Homogeneity. A great debate has been opened concerning the “heterogeneity versus homogeneity” of European food consumers+ Since the
pioneer work of Blandford ~1984!, who stated that European diets were converging or,
more precisely, were getting closer, an important number of analyses have tried to demonstrate whether or not food consumption structures are getting similar+ Blandford concluded that despite differences in income and in relative prices, the composition of diets
showed considerable similarities, and differences in consumption patterns among countries were diminishing over time+ Gracia and Albisu ~1994! stated that differences in food
consumption across European countries are becoming smaller, and Reig ~1992! reached
the same conclusions+ Gil, Gracia, Pérez y Pérez ~1995! and Herrmann and Röder ~1995!
used different approaches to shed some light on the convergence or approximation of
food consumption structures among countries+ These research works studied just the evolution of food consumption structure for aggregated food product categories among countries+ Moreover, those data were not enough to perform disintegrated analyses, which
would give more clarifying results+
Askegaard and Madsen ~1995! have moved one step ahead+ They analyzed how homogeneous or heterogeneous Europeans are with respect to food behavior and attitudes
by using questionnaires at a national level+ Results indicate that the most homogenous
countries are Belgium, Portugal, Greece, and Italy+ Countries like Spain, Ireland, Norway, and Austria stand out as rather heterogeneous+ However, heterogeneity is caused by
different circumstances in different countries+ For example, in Greece, there are great
differences in the product behavior, while in Portugal and Spain, the main difference
correspond to the food product style+ The main conclusion is that despite the globalization food process, Europe can not be definitely considered a homogeneous block with
respect to food culture+ National boundaries supplemented by language boundaries are
still the best predictors of differences in food-related behavior+
3.1.2. Economic and Socio-demographic Characteristics. From 1991 to 1996,
food consumption, in quantity terms, has increased slightly, but total expenditure on food
has risen by around 7% ~AgraEurope, 1997!+ The reason of this different evolution is that
the increase in sales of prepared and convenience foods has occurred at a greater rate
~6+8%! than the sales of other food products+ This increase has also been greater in Portugal, Spain, and Denmark+ European consumers are increasingly turning to more convenient and processed food and, therefore, to more added value products+ The consumer’s
wealth but also the changing demographic and social characteristics of European consumers are reasons behind that trend+ Per capita food consumption, in quantity terms, has
not changed much in the EU+ Although European consumers do not eat more, they buy
more added value+
European population growth is held up, with less potential consumers and more aged
people+ The most important demographic factor is the rate of population growth, which
was 0+3%, as average from 1991 to 1996+ However, the forecast EU population growth is
around a 3+7% increase from the entire period of 1995 to 2010+ The most significant
changes will occur in the 20–29 age group, with a large decline in population of 218+2%,
and in the 65 and over age group, with a large increase of 20+9%+ However, individuals
aged 30– 44 years will appreciably decline, and the greatest increase will correspond to
those aged 75 years and over ~AgraEurope, 1997!+
Older consumers have a tendency to reduce the energy value of their diets and are more
conservative and prefer the food products they used to eat in the past+ They rarely try
476
FOOD CONSUMPTION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
either new food products or ready-to-eat meals, and they infrequently eat away from home+
Also, because of their health concerns, they eat more fruit and vegetables and less fats+
Their per capita income is relatively high, and they allocate an important part of their
income to buy food products, although they eat less quantity than younger people do+
The average household size in the EU is diminishing, although the total number of
households is increasing+ Therefore, the number of single-person households is increasing, and it accounts for 11% in Spain up to as much as 41% in Sweden in 1995+ Those
households can be split into two categories: pensioners who live alone, or single young
people+ The latter usually eat more often away from home or at workplace, and they buy
more often ready-to-eat meals and try new products+
The proportion of working women is increasing, and it accounts for over 40% in most
countries except Luxembourg, Greece, Ireland, Italy, and Spain+ Therefore, household
income levels have increased, and the amount of time available for cooking has been
reduced+ The main consequence is the increasing use of convenience food, ready-to-eat
meals, and the increasing number of meals consumed away from home ~at the workplace,
children at school!+ Steenkamp ~1997! found a positive correlation between the percentage of working women and the consumption of frozen foods+ The same could apply to
other time-saving food products+ Despite the large number of women involved in professional activities, they are still largely responsible for family nutrition, and they are the
main family meal planners+
Previous changes in consumer characteristics ~rising income, aging population, smaller
household, women labor participation, etc+! have caused European consumers to demand
more added-value food products+ In particular, they demand higher quality and more diversify products+ Consumers acting in this environment are facing important changes and
challenges+ They are exposed to an increasing number and more diversified quality food
products+
3.1.3. Consumers Concerns and the Demand for Quality. There are many definitions of “quality,” but we follow an approach that takes into account more aspects than
the technical or objective quality parameters+ In our case, consumers’ quality evaluation
is the result of their perceptions about the extent to which products achieve their consumer’s needs+ In this sense, there are many features that can contribute to the quality of
a food product and that satisfies different consumers’ needs+ Many of them might not be
closely related to the product, but they are also linked to the place where it is sold or to the
numerous services incorporated with the product+ This final perception is closely linked
to the price paid by consumers as a good barometer of their acceptance+
Consumers build decisions depending on the different food attributes+ The attributes
more often identified to influence consumption decisions are healthy and nutritive values, appearance, taste, convenience, packaging, and safety ~Jensen & Basiotis, 1993!+ On
the other hand, consumers are becoming more interested, more knowledgeable and, therefore, more critical towards food ~Wheelock, 1992!+ Moreover, they are increasingly concerned on the many different aspects of food intake, but mainly on health problems
associated with the diet and on the safety of food products+
Quality is a market requirement, and all participants in the agri-food chain state that
market demands quality products+ But quality, at the same time, is a complex word that
involves many different aspects+ We present quality attributes related to product development, convenience, origin of production, health, and safety concerns+ All of them influence consumer’s quality perception+
GRACIA AND ALBISU
477
Improve quality through product development: food products assemble many different
components, which are constantly improved to give consumers’satisfaction+ New food products with physical transformations ~new ingredients, different flavors, better smell, etc+! are
introduced in the market to meet consumer’s needs+ For instance, consumers might want a
light version of a product but with the same original taste+ The European market may not be
so prone as the U+S+ market to new products but constantly introduces them, although many
of them do not become successful+ In Europe, there is a tendency to incorporate food products from other cultures, because of the many crosscultural expositions, which are adapted
to each particular country+ Massive movements of emigrants and tourists help to induce the
introduction of new products based on other cultural experiences+ There is a new fusion recipe culture that incorporates ingredients and ways of cooking from different ethnic groups+
Process innovation has been a greater source to create new products than proper product innovation ~Grunert et al+, 1992!+ That means that suppliers industries and their technological breakthroughs have been a determinant factor+ These technological improvements
are rapidly acquired by big firms but also by small and medium firms, to the extent that
they have the necessary capital to incorporate technological novelties+ Large multinationals spread their new products all over Europe and product innovation is controlled by
agri-food industries; however, the contribution of food distribution chains through their
own brand is not very important+
Quality is also improved with a new or an improved package, as it is becoming an
important component of the product appreciation+ For example, food products are modified to increase their quality, with a special packaging according to their final use, such
as a small package size for individual needs, or reusable containers taking into account
environmental concerns+ It is also part of the attraction to buy a new product or an old
product but with a new message+ Other aspects that add quality to the product are the
freshness, which has helped peri-urban agriculture in many European countries, and it
has made compulsory the use of refrigerated transportation, and the use of traditional
methods of production to provide the idea of a safety outcome+ This is the reason why
organic products, integrated agriculture, and nongenetically modified organisms have a
better acceptance in Europe than elsewhere+ New product developments gather all new
ideas around products and consumers’ perceptions+
Improve quality through convenience: the growing value of time, mainly due to women
participation in the labor market, has induced the demand for more convenience food
products+ Therefore, the consumption of ready-to-eat, highly prepared foods ~bakery, yogurt, and frozen food! has increased significantly+ From 1991 to 1996, the consumption
rate growth of more prepared or processed food grew four times more than the total
food consumption, and it was expected to rise two times faster in the next 5 years
~AgraEurope, 1997!+
The expenditure on processed food represents 43+5% of total food expenditure in the
EU, and it was expected to rise by 7+4% ~at constant exchange rate! from 1996 to 2001+
The largest consumption, in volume, corresponds to dairy products, followed by processed meats and cereals+ The highest increases have been predicted in the consumption
of snacks ~15%!, frozen vegetables ~10+8%!, and cereals ~8!+
The highest consumption of processed foods corresponds to Germany, France, the United
Kingdom, and Italy+ However, the greatest increase of processed food consumption has
occurred in Portugal ~14+8%!, Denmark ~9+8%!, Greece ~9+6%!, Italy ~9+6%!, and Spain
~8+7%!, from 1991 to 1996+ It is also estimated that the greatest increase will be in Portugal ~8+3%!, Ireland ~7+2%!, Spain ~6+8%!, and Greece ~6+5%! by 2001+
478
FOOD CONSUMPTION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
This trend has noteworthy constraints, not only because of the disposable income of
consumers or culinary habits, but also because of the available space in the house to put
in equipment for frozen food or microwaves+ Modern buildings incorporate all facilities
but already built apartments have more difficulties+ It is important to realize that European apartments are rather small, and a great part of the population lives in urban areas
and not in the city surroundings+ The distribution chains adapt their offer to their consumers’ facilities+
Improve quality trough origin of production: by nature, food products have a landbased, and therefore, regional or geographic origin ~Kuznesof, Tregear, & Moxey, 1997!+
Socio-cultural factors and availability of the products have shaped food consumption habits+ Although globalization, increasing trade, and consumer exposure to new products
through travel and information have eroded the relation between food and territory, the
interest in food with a place or region of origin has been renewed+ Although it has to be
admitted that technical advances in agricultural food production have led to enormous
benefits in Europe, it is also true that there is a trend towards the disappearance of products associated with local traditions and the fruit of a long process of selective evolution
~Peri & Gaeta, 1999!+ However, this interest has been maintained in the Mediterranean
European countries, mainly in France, Italy, and Spain+
The European Union regulation allows the application of a Designation by means of a
Protected Denomination of Origin ~PDO! or a Protected Geographical Indicator ~PGI! to
a food product with a geographic origin+ Since 1996, all the European Union countries,
except Ireland, obtained the EU Designation of Origin ~EUDO! for different food products+ France has the highest number of EUDO food products ~101!, followed by Italy
~99!, Portugal ~76!, Greece ~72!, and Spain ~40!+ It is important to remark that the Denomination of Origin occurrence is closely related to the Mediterranean countries+ Other
countries have less number of EUDO food products: United Kingdom ~23!, Austria ~11!,
The Netherlands ~4!, Belgium ~3!, Denmark ~3!, Finland ~1!, and Sweden ~1! in 1998
~European Commission, 2000!+
The aim of those products is to be perceived as high-quality food produced in a specific
area with certified methods of production, which ensure quality and traceability+ Although 30% of European consumers, on average, tend to buy Designation of Origin products, the proportion varies among countries+ In France and Spain, 85 and 79% of consumers,
respectively, buy such products, in contrast with Sweden with only 8%+ On average, 39%
of European consumers consider that typical products are also quality products+ In some
countries, the proportion of consumers who think that typical products are associated
with quality is greater than 50% ~e+g+, 58% in France and 62% in Italy!+ In a survey
undertaken in five European countries, Trognon, Bousset, Brannigan, and Lagrange ~1999!
found that consumers’ knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes are as important in explaining behavior patterns towards regional food products as the socio-demographic factors+
Recent food frauds have occurred in the last few years, and they have reinforced consumers’ appreciation about total quality control from production to consumption+ Producers who are able to sell their products in the market are in a better position to
communicate consumers about all the process+ Designation of Origin jointly with traceability is a great asset for producers of raw materials who are able to transform products+
European producers are aware of it, and wines have already taken advantage of the new
situation, but also many other typical products+
Improve quality through health: the increasing health-related food problem information has increased consumers’ concerns about the type of products they eat+ Moreover, the
GRACIA AND ALBISU
479
major nutritional worry has focussed on the relationship between diet and the major chronic
diseases+ Therefore, consumers have very important reasons to follow an adequate and
varied diet to maintain good health and prevent diet-related disease+ The characterization
of most adequate diets creates controversy, and the comparison with existing traditional
diets, considered to be healthy, has been one approach+
Traditional Mediterranean and Asian diets are excellent models of healthy eating
~Trichopoulou & Lagiou, 1997!+ Both are associated with low rate of a number of diseases, usually related to food intake, such as coronary diseases, and some types of cancer+
Both are high in cereals, vegetable, and fruit content, and thus rich in antioxidants and
fiber, and low in saturated fat and animal products+ Roza ~1997! considers a healthy diet
as: “high in fresh fruit and vegetable consumption, a balance between proteins and unsaturated fats, a high consumption of fishery products and a low consumption of saturated fats, salt and sugar+”
In general, studies on the relation between health and diets have increased in Europe,
but there exist different views among them+ However, the increasing awareness on the
healthy characteristics of the diet is affecting consumer food choice+ There is a clear linkage between nutritional aspects, health awareness, and pharmaceutical reinforcements
added in food products+ As a consequence, there are different changes in food consumption: ~1! shift in food consumption structures ~i+e+, increasing consumption of fresh fruit
and vegetables!; ~2! purchasing nutritionally modified foods; and ~3! buying foods that
provide health benefits+
In the early 1960s, the diet in European Mediterranean countries ~Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Spain! was considered healthy and representative of the Mediterranean diet+
However, the trend in food consumption in these countries has moved away from such a
diet ~Gracia & Albisu, 1999!+ Public and private institutions in those countries are concerned about the changes in preferences towards unhealthy diets, and are making efforts
to inform and educate consumers about the healthy characteristics of the Mediterranean
diet+ Furthermore, some northern countries are changing their food demand towards healthy
characteristics+ For example, meats do not receive such a great consumer recognition as
it used to be before, and animal fats are not as largely consumed+
European consumers demand a variety of healthier products such as organic, homeproduced, natural, low-fat, fortified, and functional food products+ Organic food products
represent a small market share+ Integrated agricultural products seem to have a more prominent future, but the lack of clear regulations prevents a wide spreading+ Distribution chains
are working hard to compensate for it and to improve market coverage with their own
distribution brands+
Improve quality through safety: food safety issues constitute a growing concern in all
EU countries, especially the relation between food safety and health problems+ This uneasiness has been latent, but has been revealed as an important issue when some food
safety incidents occur, such as BSE and dioxin+ After such accidents, there is an increase
of information on food safety risks, and consumers loose confidence on food production
and they become very worried about everything related to food+ As a related issue, environmental effects related to agricultural production and agro-food transformation is also
a high priority for consumers+ Safety consumer appreciation depends on their risk assessment, and it requires a sound scientific evidence and interpretation of safety standards,
which are usually different among European countries ~McCrea, 1998!+
In recent years, public confidence in the safety of food products has been damaged by
numerous scares, such as the BSE epidemic, scrapie, salmonella, and swine fever+ As part
480
FOOD CONSUMPTION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
of a special battery of questions concerning this issue, a special study within the framework of a Eurobarometer survey asked respondents to state how they feel about the safety
of a number of food products+ Bread and bakery products are considered the safest ~86%
of respondents!+ Confidence is also high when it comes to fruit and vegetables and dairy
products+ People are somewhat less likely to believe that animal products such as fresh
fish and fresh meat are safe, and a significant proportion of the population questions the
safety of frozen and canned foods+ The most widespread concern is found for precooked
meals ~39%! and other prepacked foods ~42%! ~European Commission, 1998!+ There are
significant variations between the Member States+ On average, more than 8 every 10
people in Sweden, The Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Finland consider food products to be safe+ In Greece, Germany, and Portugal, less than 6 every 10 people share this
view+
Nowadays, European consumers have lost their confidence of food production, and
they are mainly concern with two aspects of food safety: food contamination, and the
safety of new technologies ~Genetic Modified food products—GM!+ In the first case, the
appearance of some safety incidents such as the BSE induces a rapid change in food
choice ~beef consumption decreased by around 30%, in all the European Union countries,
in 1996!+ Moreover, those incidents also induced consumers’ claims about information
related to food production and inspection, with special emphasis on new technologies+ In
this case, biotechnology has been an important issue for European consumers+ Once they
knew about products derived from genetically modified organisms, the first reaction was
to be against them+ GM food products have generated a great debate among European
consumers+
There are several reasons behind this reaction+ Some consumers closely relate those
products to big multinationals without a serious concern about consumers+ Food control
has not been effectively undertaken in many European countries, and in this incidence
there is the risk of not having performed enough scientific experimentation+ This perception is quite different among countries, as the northern countries are not prone to food
certifications—just the opposite of what happens in the south+ Many consumers are extremely ignorant about the meaning of genetically modified organisms, but the media has
spread a permissive view of this issue+
We live in the so-called information society+ Consumers demand more information+
Food labeling has been an old interest of EU policy makers since the Directive 7901120
EEC devoted to the labeling of foodstuffs+ Any single survey undertaken in the EU reveals that consumers are eager to get more information+ Nutritional labeling on the package
is highly valued, but there is a lack of trust+ According to Davies ~1998!, there is an
increasing reliance on labels because consumers eat more processed food; the ingredients
are no longer what consumers expect; shopping is done in a hurry; there is an increasing
interest in health; claims are more complex, so marketing methods and more people ask
for special diets+ There are many ways for the consumers to get information ~telephone,
e-mail, internet sites, in-store touch screens, bar code scanners radio linked to in-store
computers, etc+!; however, the product label is still by far the most powerful means of
informing consumers about the attributes of products, but it should not be overloaded
~Hunt, 1998!+
3.1.4. Preferences, Lifestyles, and Eating Patterns. Preferences and attitudes
have had a great effect on food consumption+ They have built differences on food behavior between countries and consumers segments+ Cultural values, learned preferences, and
GRACIA AND ALBISU
481
lifestyles each have a significant impact on food consumption+ Attitudes and preferences
for food products are shaped during the process of habit formation, and these habits continue over time+ Many international differences in dietary patterns are the consequence of
physical availability and local production in the past ~Ritson & Hutching, 1991!+
For instance, the Mediterranean cuisine includes olive oil, whereas the Norwegian does
not because of the location of the geographical production of olive trees+ Consumers develop a preference for the food products they are used to eating, and even if other products are available they show persistence in their consumption+ Olive oil is now widely
available in northern Europe, at prices similar to those in Mediterranean countries, but
consumption levels have not increased much because of different tastes and preferences+
In 1995, in Spain, the price of olive oil increased sharply because of the harvest scarcity,
but consumption only decreased slightly, as olive oil is a traditional ingredient in the
Spanish cuisine+
Lifestyles, and how people live and spend their time and money, determine food consumption patterns and identify consumer segments+ Different schemes have been developed to detect European consumer segments+ Following the Euro-Sociostyles scheme
~AGB0Europanel! findings were reported about consumer responses in 15 European countries+ Five major lifestyle segments were identified: “fast fun lovers,” “controlled elitists,” “neotraditionalists,” “traditionalists,” and “explorers” ~Steenkamp, 1997!+ The
“traditionalists” are, on average, older, and they prefer traditional foods+ This segment,
with the “neotraditionalists” are likely to be most receptive to their own regional products+ On the other hand, the profile of “controlled elitists” suggests that this segment will
be particularly open to global products and brands and high-quality products+ “Fast fun
lovers” and “explorers” are likely to be more open to new products+ Grunert et al+ ~1993!
developed an instrument to measure lifestyles related to foods+ This instrument has been
applied to different European countries, and the following broad conclusions are drawn:
French consumers are high-quality conscious, whereas Germans are more concerned about
health and the environment ~Bredahl & Grunert, 1997; Brunso, Grunert, & Bredahl, 1996!+
Brunso et al+ ~1996! classified food consumers ~French, German, British, and Danish!
into five segments: “uninvolved,” “careless,” “rational,” “conservative,” and “adventurous+” “Uninvolved” shopping behavior is characterized by a low degree of stability, low
brand loyalty, and high susceptibility to price+ The “careless” consumers are very interested in new products, which are easy to cook+ They are not interested in new product
characteristics such as healthiness, taste, or freshness+ “Rational” consumers are more
receptive to higher quality food products in terms of their characteristics, healthiness,
freshness, and naturalness0ecology+ Quality must also be linked to price+ “Conservative”
consumers like looking and shopping, but they are against food habit changes and trying
new products+ “Adventurous” consumers are interested in product characteristics and price,
but they are especially inclined to consider self-fulfilment, creativity, and social events+
Eating patterns are changing in all the EU countries+ First, people consume more meals
away from home, especially youngsters, and secondly, eating patterns at home are also
changing+ As a result of changing socio-demographic characteristics, the number of meals
eaten at home is decreasing, and conversely, increasing at restaurants, schools, and workplaces+ According to eating patterns at home, European food consumers can be split into
two groups: northern consumers, whose meals consist of a single dish, mainly meat, accompanied with vegetables, and southern European consumers, whose meals are largely
composed of multiple small dishes ~Askegaard & Madsen, 1995!+ Although this distinction is still valid, in the 1990s, eating patterns are changing in some countries+ For in-
482
FOOD CONSUMPTION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
stance, in Great Britain, traditional breakfast is becoming similar to continental breakfast
and, during the weekend, the American “brunch” sometimes replaces the traditional Sunday lunch ~“roastbeef”!+
However, in Spain, Italy, and France, eating patterns have not changed much+ Spanish
families prefer to eat together and to have a main meal, at lunchtime, consisting of different dishes ~salad, meat, and dessert!+ Italian breakfast is light, like the Spanish, and
they eat a main meal with different dishes ~salad, pasta, and meat!+ They are very traditional, and “fast food” has not penetrated much in the Italian culture+ The majority of
French consumers follow the traditional way of eating ~three meals: breakfast, lunch,
dinner!, with a very structured composition of the two main meals ~starter, main dish,
cheese, and dessert! ~Yon & Bernaud, 1993!+ But the number in this group of people is
decreasing, and a group, which does not follow this way of eating, is growing+ The latter
group often misses a meal ~81%!, eat between meals ~84%!, or consume “light products”
~82%!+ German consumers are not very traditional, and easily adopt dishes from other
countries+ They eat many fruits and organic products because they are very concerned
about health+
The typical consumer does not exist anymore, but there are consumers who behave in
a different fashion depending on their circumstances ~Giannetto, 1998!+ Then, their attitude in a normal shopping behavior might be totally different from the food bought in a
convenience shop or on weekends or on special occasions+ It is important to determine
the amount of money the consumer spends in those different circumstances+ Thus, petrol
stations might have a profitable return from their food sold at their premises+ European
processors and retailers try to accommodate to a new consumer breed, living in wealthy
countries and saturated markets+
3.2. Food Manufacturing and Retailing
Food manufactures and retailers structures and strategies in Europe have been changing
dramatically in the last few years+ Both of them are becoming more concentrated, and
must face an increasing competitiveness in saturated food markets+ Moreover, their activities are strongly interrelated, but the power relationship between them is shifting from
manufacturers to retailers+ One of the main reasons of this new balance of power is the
growth of own-label products at the expense of the branded ones ~Poole, 1997!+ The
extreme concentration that has occurred lately presents a new scenario where few and
huge retailers have only a very limited number of suppliers who are able to accommodate
their requirements+ This introduces a new situation where it is almost impossible to have
bitter confrontations but it is necessary to reach agreements and to plan together the future+
In Europe, the importance of the own-label products varies greatly among countries,
from 2+6% market share in Greece to 29+7% in United Kingdom in 1999 ~Table 4!+ It has
been estimated that, on average, the price of own-label food products in Europe is 25%
lower than brands+ Although European consumers demand more added-value food products, in particular, higher quality, many of them are not willing to pay a high premium for
this higher quality+ In this context, retailers are offering own-label products with a perceived high quality at lower prices+ It is expected that the market share for own-label food
products will increase because of their low prices and similar quality ~Steenkamp, 1997!+
However, in the European market, there are an increasing number of consumers segments
demanding different types of food products; in particular, some groups of consumers still
assess and relate brands name with higher quality and prestige+ Therefore, the largest
GRACIA AND ALBISU
TABLE 4+
483
European Retailers Characteristics by Country in 1998
Own
Label
Sales
~%!
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
6+9
25+8
19+1
6+7
16+8
11+3
2+6
Ireland
Italy
The Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
12+0
8+4
17+8
11+9
16+2
9+7
29+7
Three TOP Retailers
BML0SPAR0ADEG
GIB0DELHAIZE0COLRUYT
FOB0DANSKSUPER0DAGROFA
KESKO0SOK0SUOMEN0SPAR
INTERMARCHE0LECLERC0AUCHAN
EDEKA0REWE0ALDI
MARINOPOULUS0VEROPOULUS0
SKLAVENITIS
TESCO0DUNNES0SUPERVALUE
COOP0INTERMEDIA0EUROMADIS
AHOLD0SUPERUNIE0VENDEX
SONAE0JMR0AUCHAN
PROMODES0EROSKI0PRYCA
ICA0KF0D GROUP
TESCO0SAINSBURY0ASDA
Number
Hard
Soft
TOP3 of Outlets Discount Discount
Sales per 1000
Sales
Sales
~%! Habitants
~%!
~%!
56
62
63
80
44
53
25
0+9
1+2
0+7
0+8
0+7
0+9
1+6
11
11+5
4+5
—
7+4
20+3
1+6
5+5
13+2
15+5
11+5
—
9+2
—
54
38
80
55
35
95
52
2+5
2
0+4
3+1
1+8
0+7
0+6
n+a+
2+7
7+6
9+2
1+3
—
3+4
n+a+
7+7
4+9
—
7+8
11
8
Source: AC Nielsen+
n+a+: not available+
food manufactures in Europe can still invest to reinforce the brand of the company, and
this is especially true for brand leaders+
The food and drink manufacturing sector is the largest in Europe in terms of output
value, and the second in terms of employment+ However, more than 80% of food manufacturing enterprises employ less than 10 workers, and only 0+3% employ more than 500
~Traill, 1998!+ Therefore, the majority of food companies are Small and Medium Enterprise ~SME! ~less than 250 employees according to the European Commission definition!, but the largest firms employ 29% of the workers and represent 40% of the turnover+
Moreover, there are structural differences between countries+ The United Kingdom, Denmark, and Sweden have high-concentration industries ~more than 50% of output from
large enterprises!, Germany and France have medium levels of concentration ~30–50% of
output from large enterprises!, and Italy, Portugal, Belgium, Greece, and Ireland have
low levels ~less that 30% of output from large enterprises! ~Traill, 1997!+
The SME food group must focus their strategies on reaching the different European
consumers+ Medium enterprises, in order to take advantage of economies of scales, can
produce own-label products to retail companies but they can also sell their company brand
food product+ In the latter case, food manufactures must become consumer-oriented and
respond to consumers’ demands instead to induce consumers’ patterns+ Small European
manufacturers must focus on producing a highly specific product for a particular consumer segment ~Gilpin & Traill, 1999!+
Retailers’ increasing concentration is also an important reason for the rising retailing
power in the food market+ The concentration index calculated for the three most important retailers in the country shows that the food distribution sector is highly concentrated+
In Denmark, Belgium, Austria, and France more than half of the sales correspond to the
three most important retailers ~Table 4!+ The latest figures have even increased the concentration rates because of the constant merging of retailer companies+
484
FOOD CONSUMPTION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
In the past, European consumers had to shop in a large number of small independent
food sellers ~grocery, bakery, butcher, etc+!+ However, in the 1970s in northern countries
~earlier in some countries, such as Germany!, and more recently in southern countries,
the food retail structure underwent great changes, and the number of food shops decreased but the size of the stores increased+ This process has taken place in different
stages and at different times across Europe ~Meulenberg, 1993!+
In Germany, the transition towards self-service took place at the beginning of the 1950s,
and supermarkets emerged in the 1960s ~Besch, 1993!+ The retail concentration process
in The Netherlands and the United Kingdom happened in the middle 1970s, and in France
in the early 1980s ~Dawson, 1995!+ In southern European countries, this process is on
going, as it started later+ For instance, in Spain, in 1975, there were only eight hypermarkets and 400 supermarkets; their importance increased quickly, and in 1999 there were
279 hypermarkets and 4,310 supermarkets+ The attractiveness of such large shops is based
on good prices, long opening hours, a great variety of food products, and shopping convenience ~time saving!+
Most retail outlets in Europe are located in five countries, Italy ~25%!, Germany ~14%!,
Spain ~14%!, France ~12%!, and Great Britain ~11%!, although, two-third of sales correspond to German, French, and British enterprises ~Davada, 1997!+ The merging between
the two biggest French companies, Promodes and Carrefour, has created the second largest group in the world, and it has been a clear reaction against the entrance of Wal-Mart+
After the merging, the 10 TOP food retailers in Europe are lead by the Carrefour group
~Table 4!+ It can be observed that 46% of sales correspond to five German companies,
38% to three French, and the remaining 16% to the British+ These last three countries
have created different distribution systems, which have been spread over the rest of Europe+ Distribution channels in Europe are moving, in a homogenous way, towards concentration, internationalization, and modernization, but the distribution systems still differ
among countries+
The first difference is the number of retail outlets per inhabitant ~Table 4!+ The higher
number of retailers correspond to southern countries ~Portugal, Italy, Spain, and Greece!
and Ireland+ The second difference is the importance of different retail outlets across
European Union countries+ Thus, in Germany the “hard discount” is the outlet with a
greater implementation ~Table 4!+ Those outlets minimize the amount of services they
offer, and sell a limited number of food products at a low price+ Hypermarkets or big
supermarkets have developed with a great strength in France ~Table 5!+ They provide a
great variety of food products and shopping services, but price is still the main attraction+
Commercial malls quite often have a hypermarket as their main attraction+ In England,
supermarkets have a relatively great impact; major supermarket chains pay great attention to services, and retailers brand are highly used+ European buying centrals have an
extraordinary power because of the great amount of supermarkets and other sort of outlets, which are under their influence+
It has been considered that consumer food choice consists of the decision to select a
specific product; however, it seems more reasonable to think that the consumer first decides the shopping place and, once in the outlet, he chooses the food product to purchase
among the available products in the store ~Albisu & Gracia, 1998!+ Consumers have a
tendency to go to the store because of proximity, convenience, and services, but retailers
try to attract consumers’ fidelity by offering them personal cards but also specific quality
products from the region and other incentives+ Social class and age are two basic variables to distinguish customers profiles among distribution stores ~Gentles, 1997!+
485
GRACIA AND ALBISU
TABLE 5+
Percentage of Food Sales by Type of Retail Outlet in the EU Countries in 1998
Hypermarket
Large
Supermarkets a
Small
Supermarkets b
Self-Service
Traditional
12
15
17
23
51
25
9
11
14
5
41
34
13
45
15
43
22
25
24
18
14
32
18
29
18
11
35
29
40
30
36
26
20
36
32
10
21
54
11
15
32
13
29
8
22
22
5
16
22
41
24
11
11
19
17
8
4
5
2
4
0
6
23
6
22
1
19
21
3
5
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
The Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
Source: AC Nielsen, 1998+
a
1000 to 2500 m 2+
b
400 to 1000 m 2+
Distribution systems vary across European countries, and consumers in different countries seem to adapt to different stores and their supply+ Therefore, consumers’ food choices
depend on retailers’ strategies+ Probably it does not have much influence in their diets, as
the variety of food products is large all over Europe, but it has an impact on assortment,
services, and prices+
The new electronic commerce ~e-commerce!, which means selling food products through
the Web, has not yet in Europe reached a remarkable impact+ In 1998, Andersen Consulting conducted a survey with American and European firms managers about their opinions
and attitudes towards e-commerce+ Results indicated that 77% of Americans against
39% of European managers say that e-commerce is an important part of their business
activities+ However, in Europe, e-commerce is mainly used as a way to advertise food
products, although regional and typical food products rely on their expansion in this
new outlet+ The most important distribution chains are also putting together services to
please their customers+ So far, business-to-business is far more spread than business-toconsumers’ relationships+ Those retailers who will supply the home buying market will
need to maintain parallel channels of traditional in-store shopping and home delivery
capability ~Röhm, 1997!+ Typical products from remote rural areas rely their expansion
also in mail order business, as they are unable to fully use the modern distribution
channels ~Mai & Ness, 1997!+
4.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Markets in the European Union are highly saturated+ Quantities consumed have reached
a peak in most countries, and the agri-food system persistently searches for new products
and services, which will add value+ In this competitive environment, consumers are the
focus, and knowledge about their consumption patterns is of crucial significance+
486
FOOD CONSUMPTION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
Globalization has encouraged enterprise concentration of agri-food and distribution
firms+ Multinationals dominate the present business scene and they try to spread their
experiences from country to country+ They are eager to repeat their organization and products in different countries+ The European Union is an excellent area to expand their food
premises, but they need a good knowledge about food consumption in different countries+
This article shows the similarities and dissimilarities that exist in different countries+
Some of them are related to classical economic factors, others to actual lifestyles, and
many others to socio-demographic characteristics, just to mention some+ Consumption
patterns differ among European countries, although there are common trends, and constitute a good example of how to find a compromise between global and local trends+
Probably the distribution system incorporates the most powerful elements to homogenize consumer’s reactions in front of a similar offer all over different European countries+ Quality consumer’s perception, in an intricate environment, will be crucial, and
country differences will be almost impossible to avoid in the short run+ As a result agrifood industries will accommodate their production lines to a more common demand but
also to specific country requirements+ Consumers will search for specialties and convenience through the new commercial electronic means and other distribution novelties+
Altogether, the European Union shows the complexity of dealing with diverse and wealthy
consumers+
REFERENCES
AgraEurope+ ~1997!+ European food and drink market+ Brussels: AgraEurope+
Albisu, L+M+, & Gracia, A+ ~1998!+ L’influence des systèmes de distribution sur le choix des consommateurs des produits alimentaires+ In J+L+ Rastoin ~Eds+!, Mondialisation et géostrategies
agroalimentaires+ Montpellier, France: Actes du colloque AIEA2–SFEA+
Askegaard, S+, & Madsen, T+K+ ~1995!+ European food cultures: An exploratory analysis of food
related preferences and behaviour in European regions+ MAPP working paper 26+
Besch, M+ ~1993!+ Agricultural marketing in Germany+ In M+ Meulenberg ~Eds+!, Food and agribusiness marketing in Europe ~pp+ 5–35!+ London: International Business Press+
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Luis Miguel Albisu is a researcher at and head of the Agricultural Economics Unit (SIA-DGA),
Zaragoza. He earned his PhD in Agronomy Engineering in Madrid, Spain in 1982 and a PhD in
Agricultural Economics from Cornell in 1981. He earned his MSc in Agro-food Marketing at the
University of Newcastle in 1973. His current research interests include Agro-food Marketing, Agrifood SME’s, and consumer attitudes.
Azucena Gracia is researcher at the Agricultural Economics Unit (SIA-DGA), Zaragoza. She earned
her PhD in Economics at Zaragoza University in 1994 and her Bachelor in Economics at Zaragoza
University in 1989. Her current research interests include food demand and food consumer behavior, agribusiness (SME’e enterprises and internationalization), and market requirements for quality food products (consumption, distribution, and agri-food business).