MayanCivilization
Section1-Introduction
Inthisreading,youwilllearnaboutsomeofthemost
importantachievementsoftheMayancivilization.This
civilizationlasted3,500years,fromabout2000B.C.E.to
1500C.E.Atitspeak,itincludedpresent-daysouthern
MexicoandlargeportionsofCentralAmerica.Visitorscan
stillseetheruinsofsomeamazingstonecitiesbuiltbythe
Mayas(MY-uhz).TheruinsoftheancientcityofTikal(teeKAHL),shownbelowliedeepinthejunglesofpresent-day
Guatemala.
Pictureyourselfstandingattheheartof
thiscityintheyear750C.E.Youareina
large,openplazasurroundedbyeight
soaringtemple-pyramids.Onthe
ground,asfarasyoucansee,are
structuresonraisedplatforms.The
structuresarepaintedinbrightcolors.
Nearby,inthecenterofthecity,you
seelargepalacesmadeoflimestone
blocks.Thesepalacesarethehomesof
theruler,priests,andnobles.Fartheroutarethestonehousesofthemerchantsand
artisans.Attheveryedgeofthecityarethousandsofsmall,thatched-roofhousemoundswherethepeasantslive.
TikalwasonlyoneofmorethanfortyMayancities.HowdidtheMayascreatesuch
greatcitiesandsuchanadvancedcivilization?Inthisreading,youwilltracethe
developmentofMayancivilization.Thenyouwilltakeacloserlookatseveralaspectsof
Mayanculture,includingclassstructure,familylife,religiousbeliefsandpractices,and
agriculturaltechniques.
Section2–DevelopmentofMayanCivilization
TheMayaswerecreatinganadvancedcivilizationintheAmericasaroundthesametime
theRomanEmpirewasdeclininginWesternEurope.Mayancivilizationreachedits
heightbetween300and900C.E.Duringthistime,Mayanculturespreadoveragreat
dealofMesoamerica,includingpartofpresent-daysouthernMexico,Belize,mostof
Guatemala,andpartsofHondurasandElSalvador.
ThelandscapeinwhichtheMayaslivedvariedgreatly.Inthesouth,pineforests
coveredthemountainhighlands.Inthenorthernandcentralregionswererainforests,
grasslands,andswamps.Theseregionsareknownasthelowlands.Thickjunglecovered
thesouthernpartofthelowlands.Today,thisareaiscalledthePetén(pay-TAYN)region
ofGuatemala.ItistheareainwhichMayancivilization
reacheditshighestdevelopment.
TheOriginsofMayanCivilization TheMayasbuilttheir
civilization,inpart,onideastheyinheritedfromapeople
calledtheOlmecs.TheOlmecslivedinthejungleareas
ontheeastcoastofMexico.Theircivilizationreachedits
peakbetween1200and500B.C.E.
Likeearlycivilizationsinotherpartsoftheworld,the
Olmeccivilizationwasbasedonagriculture.By2000
B.C.E.,peopleinpartsofMexicohadturnedfrom
huntingandgatheringtofarmingastheirmainsourceof
food.Aparticularlyimportantcropatthetimewas
maize,orcorn.
FarmingallowedtheOlmecstocreatepermanentsettlements.TheOlmecsestablished
farmingvillagesthroughouttheregion.Theyalsocreatedtraderoutesthatstretchedfor
hundredsofmiles.
By1400B.C.E.,theOlmecshadacapitalcitythatboastedpalaces,temples,and
monuments.TheywerethefirstMesoamericanstodeveloplargereligiousand
ceremonialcenters.Theywerealsothefirsttouseasolarcalendar,oracalendarbased
onthecyclesofthesun.TheMayaswouldbuildonalltheseachievements.
ThreePeriodsofMayanCivilization Mayancivilizationbegantodevelopineastern
andsouthernMexicoaround2000B.C.E.HistoriansdividethehistoryofMayan
civilizationintothreemainperiods:Pre-Classic,Classic,andPost-Classic.
ThelongPre-Classicperiodlastedfromabout
2000B.C.E.to300C.E.Duringthistime,the
Mayasfarmedthelandandlivedinsimple
housesandcompounds,orgroupsof
buildings.
Gradually,Mayanculturebecamemore
complex.AstheMayanpopulationgrew,
settlementsbecamelarger.TheMayasbegan
constructingpublicbuildingsforgovernmentalandreligiouspurposes.Possiblyasearly
as300B.C.E.,theybegantoadaptthewritingsystemoftheOlmecsandtodeveloptheir
ownsystemofhieroglyphicwriting(writingthatusespicturesassymbols).Mayan
civilizationreacheditspeakduringtheClassicperiod,fromaround300to900C.E.The
achievementsyouwillstudyinthisreadingdatefromthistime.
DuringtheClassicperiod,theMayasadaptedanddevelopedotherideastheyhad
learnedfromtheOlmecs.Forexample,theyimprovedonOlmecbuildingtechniques.
EventhoughtheMayaslackedmetaltoolsandhadnotdiscoveredthewheel,theybuilt
enormousstonecitieswithelaborateandhighlydecoratedtemple-pyramidsand
palaces.TheMayasalsobuiltobservatoriesforstudyingthesky.Theychartedthe
movementsofthemoon,stars,andplanets.Theyusedtheirknowledgeofastronomy
andmathematicstocreatecomplexandhighlyaccuratecalendars.
MayansocietyduringtheClassicperiodconsistedofmanyindependentstates.Each
stateincludedfarmingcommunitiesandoneormorecities.Atitsheight,theMayan
Empireincludedmorethanfortycities,includingTikal,Copan(kaw-PAHN),ChichénItzá,
andPalenque(pah-LENG-kay).
Around900C.E.,theClassiccivilizationcollapsed.TheMayasabandonedtheircitiesin
thesouthernlowlandarea,andtheoncethrivingcommunitiesfellintoruininthe
jungle.Nooneknowsforcertainwhythishappened.Attheendofthisreading,wewill
lookatsometheoriesthatmayexplainthemystery.
Tothenorth,ontheYucatán(you-kuh-TAN)Peninsula,Mayancitiescontinuedto
prosperduringthePost-Classicperiod.Thisperiodlastedfromabout900C.E.to1500
C.E.Duringthistime,theMayascontinuedtheirwarfareandempirebuilding,butthey
hadfewergreatartisticandculturalachievements.
Evenattheheightoftheirempire,theMayaswerenotoneunifiednation.Instead,they
livedinmanycity-stateswiththeirowngovernments.WhatunitedthemasMayaswas
theircommonculture:theirsocialsystem,languages,calendar,religion,andwayoflife.
Section3-ClassStructure
WithineachMayancity-state,societywasstructuredlikeapyramid.Therulerofeach
city-statewasatthetopofthissocialpyramid.TherestofthemembersofMayan
societywereorganizedintoaseriesofranksbelowtheruler.
TheRuler Thehighestauthorityinthestatewasthehalachuinic(hah-lachWEE-nik),a
Mayanphrasethatmeans“trueman.”Heruledthestatewiththehelpofhisadvisers.
Hedecidedwhenandwithwhomtogotowar.
TheMayanrulerwasconsideredagod-king.Duringreligiousceremonies,heworea
headdressthatwasastallasaperson.Whenhedied,asonoranotherclosemale
relativesucceededhim.Mayanrulerswerealmostalwaysmen,butscholarsbelievethat
somewomenhadconsiderableinfluence,probablythroughfamilyrelationships.
NoblesandPriests Thenextlayerinthesocial
pyramidwasmadeupofnoblesandpriests.They,
alongwiththeruler,weretheonlymembersof
Mayansocietywhoknewhowtoreadandwrite.
Thenoblesservedasscribesandofficials,and
oversawtheadministrationofthestates.They
gatheredtaxes,supplies,andlaborforprojects,
suchastheconstructionoftemples.Noblesled
peasantarmiesintimesofwar.Duringbattles,theyworeelaboratecostumes,including
goldjewelryandanimalrobesmadefromtheskinsofjaguars.
Priestswereimportantbecauseitwastheirjobtomaintainfavorwiththegods.Like
nobles,priestsinheritedtheirpositionfromtheirfathers.Priestsledrituals,offered
sacrifices,andforetoldthefuture.Theywereconsultedtodeterminethebestdaysfor
goingtobattle.Inadditiontotheirreligiousduties,priestswereoftenmathematicians,
astronomers,andhealers.
MerchantsandArtisans AlthoughtheMayaneconomywasbasedmostlyonfarming,
tradeandcraftswerealsoimportant.Thesefunctionswerecarriedoutbymerchants
andartisans.
TheMayaswereaccomplishedtraders.Theytraveledbysea,river,andwell-constructed
roadstotradewithothercity-states.Merchantsinthelowlandsimportedvaluable
productsfromthehighlands.Theseproductsincluded
stonessuchasobsidianandjade;copal,atreesapthatthe
Mayausedasincenseduringreligiousceremonies;and
quetzals,birdswhoseshinygreenfeatherswereusedin
headdresses.
Mayanartisansmadeawidevarietyofobjects,manyof
themdesignedtopaytributetothegods.Theypainted
booksonpapermadefromthebarkoffigtrees.Artists
paintedmuralsofMayanlife,importantbattles,andother
majorevents.Theycreatedsculpturesfortemplesand
decorativedesignsonpalacewalls.TheMayaswerealso
skilledweaversandpotters.
Peasants ThepeasantswerethebackboneofMayansociety.Theyworkedhardonthe
land,growingmaize,squash,beans,andothercropstofeedthepopulation.Duringthe
growingseason,menspentmostofthedayinthefields,farmingwithwoodenhoes.
Womenusuallystayedclosertohome,preparingfood,weaving,andsewing.
Whentheywerenotfarming,peasantshadtospendtimebuildingpyramidsand
temples.Inexchangefortheirwork,theysometimesattendedroyalweddingsand
religiousevents.Peasantsalsoservedassoldiersduringwars.
Slaves Atthebottomofthesocialpyramidweretheslaves.Slavesperformedmanual
laborfortheirowners.Somewerebornintoslavery,butfreepeoplesometimesbecame
slaves.Somechildrenbecameslaveswhentheirparentssoldthemtofeedtherestof
thefamily.Warprisonersofhumbleoriginwereenslaved.(Thoseofhigherrankwere
sacrificedtothegods.)Andsomepeoplewereenslavedasapunishmentforserious
crimes.
Ingeneral,theMayasdidnotmistreatslaves.Sometimes,slavesactuallyhadeasierlives
thanpeasants,dependingonwhatjobstheydidandtheirowners'socialrank.Butslaves
werenotfreetocomeandgoastheypleased.Often,theyweresacrificedwhentheir
ownersdied.
Section4-FamilyLife
Incity-stateslikeCopan,locatedinpresent-dayHonduras,Mayanpeasantslivedinoneroomhutsbuiltofinterwovenpolesandcoveredwithdriedmud.Severalfamilyhouses
wereoftengroupedaroundasharedcourtyard.Aseparatekitchenbuildingmightbe
directlybehindthemainhouse.Peasantfamiliesworkedhard,butceremoniesand
ritualsprovidedabreakfromworkandachancetocelebrateimportantevents.
DutiesofFamilyMembers LifeforMayanpeasantfamilieswasnoteasy.Mayan
womenrosebeforedawntogetthefireburninginthefireplace.Withthehelpofher
daughters,aMayanwomancleanedthecornthathadbeenboiledandlefttosoakand
softenovernight.Thenshesettoworkatthegrindingstone,poundingcornintomeal.
Shepattedthemealintotortillas(tawr-tee-uhs),aSpanishwordmeaning“little
breads,”ortamales(tuh-MAH-leez)andcookedthemoverthefire.Thesemightserve
asthemorningmealortheymightbesavedfordinner.Onspecialdays,thefamily
mightalsohavehotchocolate,adrinktheMayasmadefromcacao(kuh-KAY-oh)beans.
Duringtheday,womenandoldergirlscaredforsmallchildrenandforthefamily'sfew
animals,likeducksandturkeys.Theyswepttheirhomes,andtheygathered,spun,and
wovecottonintocloth.
Mayanfathersandsonsatetheirmorningmealquicklybeforeleavingtoworkinthe
fields.Whentheyweren'tbusywiththecrops,menandboyshuntedandtrapped
animals.
SpecialOccasions Mayanfamiliestooktimetocelebratetheimportanteventsintheir
lives.Thebirthofachildwasatimeforrejoicing.Assoonaspossibleafterthebirth,the
familycalledinapriesttoperformaceremonymuchlikebaptism.Thepriestforecast
thebaby'sfutureandgaveadvicetohelpguidetheparentsinraisingthechild.
Atthreemonthsofage,girlswentthroughanotherceremony.Thenumberthreewas
specialtoMayanwomenbecauseitrepresentedthethreestonesofthehomehearth,
orfireplace.Inthethree-month
ceremony,thebabygirlwasintroducedto
thetoolsshewouldusethroughouther
life.Smallitemswereplacedinthebaby's
hands,suchastoolsforspinningand
weaving,carryingwaterandcooking,and
soakingandgrindingmaize.
Asimilarceremonywasheldforboysat
fourmonthsofage.ThenumberfourwasspecialtoMayanmen.Itrepresentedthefour
sidesoftheplotoflandwhereaboywouldspendhislife.Thebabyboywasgiven
farmer'stools,suchasaxesandplantingsticks,andthespears,knives,andtrapsofa
hunter.
AnotherimportanteventineveryMayanchild'slifewasthe
coming-of-ageceremony.Girlswentthroughthisceremony
atage12,boysat14.Thelongceremonyinvolved
confessing,cleansingwithwater,andrecitingtherulesof
behavior.Finally,thepriestcutawhitebeadfromtheboys'
hairandremovedastringofredshellsfromaroundthegirls'
waists.Boysandgirlshadwornthesesymbolsofinnocence
sincetheywerequiteyoung.
MarriageCustoms Thenextbigmomentinthelifeofa
Mayanyouthwasmarriage.Menusuallymarriedaround
age20.Womenmarriedwhentheywereasyoungas14.
Thebrideandgroomdidnotchooseeachother.Instead,marriageswerenegotiatedby
thevillageatanzahab,ormatchmaker.Familieshadtoagreeonhowmuchfoodand
clothingwouldbegiventothebride'sfamily.Theyalsohadtoagreeonthenumberof
yearsayoungmanwouldworkforhisnewwife'sfamily.
Oncethedetailsofamarriagewereworkedout,thevillagersbuiltahutforthecouple
behindthehomeofthebride'sparents.Whenthehomewasready,thebrideand
groomputonclothingwovenfortheoccasion.Afterapriestblessedthemarriage,the
villagerscelebrated.
Section5-ReligiousBeliefsandPractices
ReligionwasveryimportanttotheMayas.Theybuilt
theircitiesaroundreligiousandceremonialcenters.
Theirmagnificenttemple-pyramidsrosehighabovethe
junglecanopy,likemountainsreachingintothesky.
Templeplazasprovidedgatheringplacesforpeopleto
attendritualsandceremonies.
ScholarshavelearnedabouttheMayanreligionfrom
studyingpresent-dayMayanpractices,ancientartifacts,
anddocumentswrittenduringthePost-Classicperiod.
Herearesomethingstheydiscovered.
BeliefsandRituals TheMayanreligionwaspolytheistic,whichmeansitincludedmany
gods.TheMayasbelievedinmorethan160gods.TheprimaryMayangodswereforces
orobjectsinnaturethataffectedpeople'sdailylives,suchasrain,corn,anddeath.
Manygodshadanimalcharacteristics.Thejaguarwasespeciallyimportanttothe
Mayas.
TheMayasbelievedthatthegodshadcreatedtheworldandcouldinfluenceoreven
destroyit.Thesamegodthatsentlife-givingraincouldalsoruinthecropswith
hailstones.So,itwasextremelyimportanttohonorthegods.
AccordingtoMayanbeliefs,onlypriestscouldexplaindivinesignsandleadpeople
throughritualsaimedatpleasingthegods.Priestsperformedsacrificesandconducted
ceremonies.Theyconsultedsacredbooks,readomens,interpretedsigns,andpredicted
thefuture.Nodecisionwasmadewithoutseekingthegods'advice.Noactionwastaken
withoutfirsthonoringthegods.
TheMayashonoredtheirgodswithofferingssuchasplants,food,flowers,feathers,
jade,andshells.TheMayasbelievedthatbloodgavethegodsstrength,sotheyalso
madebloodofferingsbysacrificinganimalsand,sometimes,humans.Thepeoplewho
weresacrificedwereusuallyorphans,slaves,ornoblescapturedduringwar.
Humansacrificealsoplayedaroleinan
ancientMayangamecalledpok-a-tok.
EveryMayancityhadatleastoneball
courtwherethegametookplace.
Scholarsbelievethatthereweretwo
teamsofnobles.Playerstriedtohita
solidrubberballthroughastoneringby
usingtheirleather-paddedelbows,wrists,
andhips.PeoplefromalllevelsofMayansocietyattendedthepopulargames.However,
theoutcomeoftenhadseriousresults.Survivingartfromtheballcourtsshows
membersofthelosingteambeingsacrificedandthecaptainofthedefeatedteambeing
beheaded.
TheSacredCalendar TheMayasusedtheirknowledgeofmathematicsandastronomy
todevelopacomplexcalendarsystem.Theyusedtwomaincalendarsforreligiousand
otherpurposes.Thefirstwasadailycalendar,basedonthesolar(sun)year.Itdivided
theyearinto18monthsof20dayseach,plus5“unlucky”days.Thistotaled365days,as
ourcalendardoes.
Thesecondcalendarwasthesacred,orritual,calendar.Itwascalledthetzolkin(TSAWLkeen),orSacredRound.TheSacredRoundwasbasedon13monthsof20dayseach,
making260daysinall.Ithadtwocyclesthatworkedtogethertoidentifyaparticular
day.Onecyclewasmadeupofthenumbers1to13.Theothercyclewasasetof20day
names.Eachofthedaynamesrepresentedaparticulargod.Every260days,agiven
combinationofnumbersanddaynames,suchas1Ik,wouldoccur.
Onlypriestscould“read”thehiddenmeaningoftheSacredRound.Priestsusedthe
sacredcalendartodeterminethebestdaystoplant,hunt,cure,dobattle,andperform
religiousceremonies.Tothisday,therearecalendarpriestsinsouthernMexicowhostill
usethe260-daycalendarinthisway.
LikeMayanartandarchitecture,thecalendarsystemreflectsahighlyadvanced
civilization.ThishighlevelofcivilizationwaspossibleduetotheabilityoftheMayasto
createastablefoodsupply.
Section6-AgriculturalTechniques
TheMayaswerecreative,skillfulfarmers.Theyusedtheirknowledgeofcalendarsand
seasonalchangetohelpthembecomeevenbetteratgrowingfood.ButMayanfarmers
facedmanychallenges.Intheend,cropfailuremayhaveplayedakeyroleinthe
collapseoftheClassicMayancivilization.
ChallengesFacingMayanFarmers TheprimaryMayanfoodwasmaize,orcorn.Other
typicalMayancropswerebeans,squash,andchilipeppers.Fortunately,beansand
squash,wheneatenwithcorn,supplypeoplewithanaturallyhealthfulandbalanced
diet.
OneofthemostdifficultchallengestheMayasfacedwashowtogrowenoughfoodto
feedtheirgrowingpopulation.Farmingwasnoteasyintheregionswheretheylived.
Theirlandincludeddenseforests,littlesurfacewater(suchaslakesorstreams),and
poorsoil.
TheMayasrespondedtothischallengebydevelopingdifferentagriculturaltechniques
forthevariousenvironmentsinwhichtheylived.Inthemountainoushighlands,they
builtterraces,orflatearthensteps,intothehillstomakemorelandavailablefor
planting.Intheswampylowlands,theMayasconstructedraised-earthplatforms
surroundedbycanalsthatdrainedoffextrarainwater.Thistechniquehelpedthemto
growmorefoodwithouthavingtoconquerorclear
moreland.
Adifferenttechniquewasusedinthedenselyforested
lowlandareas.Incity-stateslikePalenque(inpresentdayMexico),theMayasusedslash-and-burn
agriculture.First,theyclearedthelandbycuttingand
burningplantsandtrees.Thentheyplantedtheircrops.
Unfortunately,thistypeoffarmingwearsoutthesoil.
Lowlandsoilwasnotveryrichtobeginwith,solandthat
wasplantedfortwotofouryearshadtobelefttorest
fortwototenyears.Slash-and-burnfarmershadtohave
alotofland,sinceeachyearsomeareaswereplanted
whileotherswererecovering.
TheMayanagriculturalsystemworkedaslongassettlementswerespreadoutandnot
toolarge.Aspopulationsincreased,theMayashadtroubleraisingenoughfoodtofeed
everyone.Intheconstantquestforland,theydrainedswampsandclearedhillsides.
Theyalsousedhouseholdgardensinthecitiestohelpsupplementthefoodsupply.
TheEndoftheClassicPeriod Creativeagriculturaltechniqueswerenotenoughtosave
ClassicMayancivilization.Foraboutsixhundredyears,thegreatcitiesofthesouthern
lowlandsthrived.Then,inthespaceoffiftytoonehundredyears,thecivilizationthat
supportedthesecentersfellapart.By900C.E.,theMayashadabandonedtheirlarge
citiestothejungle.
ThecollapseofClassicMayancivilizationisone
ofthegreatmysteriesofMesoamerican
history.Manytheorieshavebeenofferedto
explainwhathappened.Somehistorians
believethatthepopulationsofthecitiesgrew
fasterthantheMayanfarmingsystemscouldsustainthem.Scholarshavealsoproposed
thatlongperiodsofdroughtcausedmassivecropfailure.
AnotherpossiblecauseoftheMayas'downfallwasuncontrolledwarfare.Inthe
centuriesafter300C.E.,theskirmishesthatwerecommonamongcity-statesgrewinto
full-fledgedwars.AfinalpossibilityisthatinvadersfromcentralMexicohelpedto
destroytheMayancity-states.
PerhapsacombinationoffactorsendedtheClassicperiod.Whatwedoknowisthatthe
greatcitiesdisappeared.TheMayasmigratedawayfromtheoldMayanheartlandand
returnedtovillagelife.Stonebystone,thejunglereclaimedthegreatpyramidsand
plazas.
AlthoughthegreatMayancitiesareruinstoday,Mayancultureliveson.Abouttwo
millionMayasstillliveinthesouthernMexicanstateofChiapas.Millionsmoreare
spreadthroughouttheYucatánPeninsulaandthecitiesandtheruralfarmcommunities
ofBelize,Guatemala,Honduras,andElSalvador.
Summary
Inthisreading,youlearnedabouttheMayancivilization,whichexistedinwhatisnow
CentralAmericabetweenabout2000B.C.Eand1500C.E.
TheDevelopmentofMayanCivilization TheMayas'greatestachievementscameinthe
Classicperiod,between300and900C.E.Withawritingsystemandbuildingtechniques
adaptedfromtheearlierOlmecs,theMayasbuiltcomplex,stonecities.Atitsheight,
theirempireconsistedofmorethanfortycity-statesandcoveredmuchofCentral
America.
ClassStructureandFamilyLife Mayansocietywasasocialpyramid,withtherulerat
thetop.MostMayaswerepeasants.Womenandgirlscaredforsmallchildren,kept
house,andcookedthemeals.Menandboysworkedinthefieldsorhunted.Mayangirls
celebratedreachingadulthoodat12;boysatage14.Marriageswerearrangedbya
matchmaker.
ReligiousBeliefsandPractices Mayanreligionwaspolytheistic.Thegodswereforcesof
naturewhocouldinfluenceordestroytheworld.Onlypriestscouldunderstanddivine
signsandreadthesacredcalendar,andnodecisionsweremadewithoutfirstconsulting
thegods.
AgriculturalTechniques Farmingtechniques,suchasterraces,slash-and-burn
agriculture,andraised-earthplatforms,allowedtheMayastocreateastablefood
supply.