઼ ϲ ੼ ฯ र ቑ ̂ ጯ
高雄師大學報 2012, 32, 35-48 財富之刃：論《北奧武甫》中的富者
鄭詠之 1
摘 要
從象徵性的層面來說，
《北奧武甫》可以說是一個寓言（parable）
，一個原本是日
爾曼英雄的故事，在基督教詩人的改寫下，成為一個傳達唯有擁有勇敢、智慧、和堅
強意志的英雄，才能擁有財富的基督教寓言故事。
在《北奧武甫》中，財富主要是以與黃金相關財寶的面貌存在的。不論詩作的開
始、中間、或結束的部分，都有與黃金相關財寶的細節，與黃金相關財寶的描繪、出
現、得到與失去的細節等，也在作品中佔有重要的地位。詩作的開頭，羅瑟迦
（Hrothgar）前輩生前的成功，以及他自己年輕時的英勇，聚積了大量的財寶，鹿廳
的完工是財富累積的明證。北奧武甫英勇地解決鹿廳的大患，因而得到羅瑟迦大量財
寶的賞賜，詩作結尾處，年老卻仍勇於面對問題的北奧武甫，在部下的幫助下殺死了
惡龍，獲得惡龍佔據的大量財寶。這些情節呈現了財富和此作品主題上的相關性。
本論文在前言部分簡單論述《北奧武甫》的基督教寓言特質之後，討論的重點有
四：一、《北奧武甫》中有關財富的細節及其暗示，二、勇敢與財富的關係，三、智
慧地處理贏得來的財富的方式，四、年老卻擁有堅強意志的異教徒除能贏得大量財富
外，也能得到後世英名。整體而言，《北奧武甫》一作可說是融合了基督教和異教財
富觀的寓言。
關鍵字：
《北奧武甫》、財富、基督教寓言、日爾曼英雄
投稿日期：2012/03/20；接受日期：2012/06/29
1
國立東華大學英美語文學系助理教授
36 高雄師大學報
第三十二期
The Blade of Fortune: On the Rich in
Beowulf
Yung-chih Cheng*
Abstract In the symbolic sense, Beowulf is a parable. Originally a story about an Anglo-Saxon
hero recreated by a Christian poet, Beowulf becomes a Christian parable, conveying the
theme that only those who have bravery, wisdom, and strong will can possess both wealth
and fortune.
In Beowulf, gold-related images play an important role in the whole poem. The
appearance, description, getting and losing of treasures lead to the theme of this parable;
they concern the rise and fall of the plot in the poem. Beowulf is endowed with a lot of
fortune because of his achievement of ridding Heorot of monsters-Grendel and his
mother. Near the end of the story, Beowulf, though old but undaunted, boldly faces the
dragon with a strong will and wins the dragon’s hoard after a tough fight. These details
imply that fortune plays a key role in the theme of this parable.
In this paper, after a brief discussion about the elements of Christian parable in
Beowulf in the Introduction, four parts come before the conclusion: one, details about
fortune and their implications in Beowulf; two, the relationship between bravery and
fortune; three, the wise way of dealing with laboriously-won fortune; four, with strong will,
an old pagan hero’s chance to win an everlasting hero’s name besides fortune. In short,
Beowulf, as a Christian parable, blends the views of fortune both from the Christians and
pagans.
Keywords: Beowulf, fortune, Christian parable, Anglo-Saxon hero
*
Assistant Professor, Department of English,National Dong Hwa University.
財富之刃：論《北奧武甫》中的富者 37
Introduction: The Unsaid of Beowulf
A profound literary text is usually multi-dimensional; Beowulf can be regarded as a Christian
parable though it has long been considered a dragon-slaying heroic poem. From the fact that the
Beowulf-poet is very likely a Christian,1 the fortune of Heorot is “lost and found” because of
Beowulf’s bravery, and the wisdom of dealing with fortune concerns a lot in the whole poem, Beowulf
can be termed a Christian parable.
The story in Beowulf conforms in a sense to the definition of a Christian parable. The term
parable is defined, “An illustrative story teaching a lesson. A true parable parallels detail for detail, the
situation that calls forth the parable for illustration…” (Holman & Harmon 341). This definition
presents the basic quality of a parable, which, when applied to any piece of writing, allows of
variations because of the freedom of creation. The story in Beowulf shows the poet’s creativity in the
point that Germanic heroic elements are combined with Christian mentality into a parable.
So far some scholars have pointed out that Beowulf has connections with the New Testament.
Christopher Cain believes that “…around 700, the monks of Lindisfarne produced one of the marvels
of the medieval world-the Lindisfarne Gospels” (229). As to whether the Beowulf-poet is influenced
by the New Testament, Cain believes “…the Christian poet of Beowulf (in the form we’ve received it)
knew something of the Bible is a donnée” (227). On the other hand, John Niles also points out that
“When Hrothgar praises Beowulf by saying that whoever the woman was who bore him, “the
everlasting Lord was gracious to her in her child bearing (945-46a), the words have been thought to
recall Luke 11:27- ‘‘Bless is the womb that bore thee, and the paps that gave thee suck”’ (90). This
shows that Beowulf has something to do with the parables in the New Testament.
From the surface to the allegorical of a text is usually what a scholar has to be engaged in for
reading in depth. The Roman scholars of hermeneutics also devoted themselves to the same work. St.
Augustine, proclaiming the necessity of applying allegorical readings to any text, promoted the
studying of both secular and sacred literatures for biblical hermeneutics. He contributed to the
acceptance and transmission of the Old Testament by means of the allegorical reading.2 This implies
that the New Testament was actually considered a “safer” text for readers at that period of time. So far,
it is already generally believed that Beowulf has a lot to do with the Old Testament; however, its
relationship with the New Testament, especially parables, needs more attentions.
For better understanding, Beowulf should be explored, besides its literal, from its allegorical
angle. The unsaid aspects of this text entice readers to undertake deeper investigations. Beowulf is
1
2
Robison says, “The Old English poem to which we have assigned the name Beowulf was composed,
apparently, by a Christian poet-some say a monk or a priest-who was concerned to extol the virtues of
ancient Germanic heroes…” (3). Fred C. Robinson, The Tomb of Beowulf and Other Essays on Old English,
Oxford: Blackwell, 1993.
Godden points out that St. Augustine made, because of his doctrine of allegorical reading, the Old Testament
“safe for Christian readers or [made] it consonant with the New Testament by discovering Christian doctrines
such as Trinity hidden within it” (qtd. in Cain 231).
38 高雄師大學報
第三十二期
endowed with highly symbolic significances especially when the narration of the gold-related details,
prevalent throughout the whole poem, is taken into account. The general social and historical
background of Beowulf should be briefly covered for readers’ deeper comprehension.
So far, scholars have not reached a consensus about when Beowulf was composed; even so, they
at least agree that it was written somewhere from the eighth to tenth centuries (Robinson 41).3 Due to
its length and profundity, Beowulf provides us with a cultural picture and a basic understanding of the
Anglo-Saxons, who had been continually migrating to Britannia since about the fifth century. During
this period of time, Britain, a Roman province, had experienced the rule and retreat of the Romans.4
The Anglo-Saxons then began to attack and migrate to this island and gradually became the main body
of its society. Later, Christianity and Germanic warrior codes confronted each other in this island and
underwent the process of reconciliation. Generally speaking, Beowulf presents a survey of the society
and culture of the Anglo-Saxon through the eyes of a Christian poet.5
In Anglo-Saxon warrior society, the king and his warriors were at the top, and only they had the
chance to possess fortune-in the form of gold, treasure, and the hoarding of valuable things. In this
society, thanes were the group of people who could also accumulate gold besides the king. Their
fortune came from plundering in battle and the king’s endowment. Only those warriors (thanes) who
fought bravely and survived the battle could get fortune from their kings. This means that those who
fought in battle bravely could become rich. As a parable about fortune, Beowulf symbolically presents
the idea that warriors with bravery, wisdom, and strong will can amass wealth and become rich.
3
4
5
In The Tomb of Beowulf and other Essays on Old English, Fred C. Robinson says, “All but a few partisans of
extremely early or extremely late dating would in any event accept the limits AD 750 to 950 for the time of
Beowulf’s compositions…” (41). In “Scyld Scefing and the Dating of Beowulf-Again,” Meaney points out
that “… for the composition of Beowulf vary from the seventh century-an old idea and now largely
discounted-right up to the early eleventh;...” (23). In the later part of the article, Meaney says, “I find the
arguments for an earlier tenth-century date convincing,…” (72). Saying that Beowulf was written about from
8th to 10th century is an appropriate dating. Fred C. Robinson, The Tomb of Beowulf and other Essays on Old
English, Cambridge: Blackwell, 1993. Audrey L. Meaney, “Scyld Scefing and the Dating of
Beowulf-Again,” Textual and Material Culture in Anglo-Saxon England, ed., Donald Scragg, Cambridge:
D.S. Brewer, 2003.
According to A Cultural History of the English Language, “Before the Roman legions left Britain, the east
coast of England was already being subjected to raids from Saxon invaders from beyond the North Sea. In the
course of the next century, the newcomers began to settle permanently” (Knowles 1). Besides, in Discovering
Anglo-Saxon England, Welch believes that “… the entire Anglo-Saxon period which covers nearly seven
centuries (c. AD 400-1066)” (9).
In “Old English heroic literature,” Bremmer, Jr. talks about the reconciliation between Christ’s non-violence
teachings with Germanic warrior codes. He said, “… the new religion had accommodated the ancient warrior
code…. Beowulf in its own peculiar way is the work of a Christian, even though Christ is never mentioned”
(87). Besides, in “The Ideal of Kingship in Beowulf,” Schücking, when discussing the virtues of an ideal
Germanic king, points out that “…Germanic warrior-ideals flow together with Stoic-Christian ones” (48).
This blending of Germanic and Christian ideas also applies to other aspects presented in Beowulf. Rolf H.
Bremmer, Jr., “Old English Heroic Literature,” Readings in Medieval Texts: Interpreting Old and Middle
English Literature, eds., David F. Johnson & Elaine Treharne, New York: Oxford UP, 2005. Levin L.
Schücking, “The Ideal of Kingship in Beowulf,” An Anthology of Beowulf Criticism, ed., Lewis E. Nicholson,
Notre Dame: Notre Dame UP, 1976.
財富之刃：論《北奧武甫》中的富者 39
I. Fortune in Beowulf
Represented most of the time by gold and treasures, fortune plays an important role in Beowulf.
Readers can find fortune-related details scattered throughout this parable. These details about the
gaining and losing of fortune push the development of the story in Beowulf. In the beginning, it is a
narrative about the success of Hrothgar’s precursors and his own efforts when young; a lot of wealth is
therefore accumulated and quite a few warriors are drawn to his side. For the purpose of hosting these
warriors and for some other purposes, Hrothgar, with the fortune he has succeeded in acquiring,
decides to build a golden hall-Heorot. Because the noise of the feasting in Heorot arouses Grendel’s
attacks and no one can solve this problem, the news spreads to the country where Beowulf lives. He
resolves to help Hrothgar get rid of this monster to repay Hrothgar’s kindness to his father a long time
ago. Having killed Grendel and Grendel’s mother, Beowulf gets a lot of treasure as a reward from
Hrothgar. Back in his own country, he wisely manages all the wealth he has brought back to Hygelac
and thereby wins Hygelac’s trust and gets land and the throne in return. Long after Beowulf has
become king, a poor person’s theft of a golden cup from a fire-breathing dragon triggers the dragon’s
devastation of his country. Though old, Beowulf still plucks up his courage to fight the dragon. Before
he dies for his efforts, Beowulf is sure that the dragon is dead and the dragon’s treasure will go to his
people for a better future.
The theme of fortune in Beowulf has so far explored by some scholars. In “Gold and Its
Significance in Beowulf,” Patricia Silber talks about the function, influence, and meaning of gold in
Beowulf. Silber finds that “T[t]here are fifty-three occurrences of the word ‘gold’ and its compounds
in Beowulf” (9). Gold appears and is used a lot in Beowulf as women’s decorations (such as queen’s
necklaces), armor (such as warriors’ helmets and sword hilts), architecture (such as the ornaments in
the golden hall Heorot), treasure for the dead in funerals (such as Hrothgar’s ancestors’), kings’
treasure, dragon’s hoards, and the like (Silber 9). In brief, gold represents fortune; its existence in
Beowulf cannot be neglected.
Gold has a positive quality in Anglo-Saxon society; it is even one of the main standards of
evaluating a man’s virtue. In her article, Silber points out that “…he [Beowulf] remains the best of
men, certainly the best man in the poem. But he must accept the values of his system, and it is a
system that measures virtue in gold and acquires gold by plunder” (18). Gold, then, “has a positive
moral value” (Silber 5). In a society like this, any person (especially a king and his thanes) with gold
should also know when to give it to others. If he only knows how to accumulate it and never wants to
benefit others at suitable times, he is actually damaging his own virtue.
A “hero’s treasure hoard represents more than just his financial solvency,” quotes Silber from
Michael D. Cherniss (5). Cherniss believes “treasure and individual merit in the heroic society are
interdependent… the better man is the richer man” (Silber 5). Since gold is usually plundered, Silber
finds that “we may characterize the poet’s view of gold as a metal carrying within it the seeds of doom
and destruction” (16). Silber believes Beowulf’s death at the end of the poem is the result of the curse
40 高雄師大學報
第三十二期
on the dragon’s treasure.
“In Goldyfan or Goldwlance: A Christian Apology for Beowulf and Treasure,” Joseph E.
Marshall, after pointing out some scholars’ prejudice and negative views about Beowulf (1-3), defends
him with reference to Christian saints’ teaching. Though Kemp Malone considers Beowulf an ideal
hero, Malone still believes Beowulf seems to love the symbol of secular vanity: gold. E. G. Stanley
also considers that Beowulf commits the sin of avarice because of his intention of seeing his gold
before his death. Margaret Goldsmith concludes her paper with the view that Beowulf incurs, because
of the gold, the dragon’s sin-arrogance and covetousness-and therefore his life is forfeited. After
a few years, Goldsmith declares in another paper that Beowulf, as an insensible old man, is, out of his
folly, to exchange the most valuable thing (life) with the most worthless (dragon’s treasure). Eugene J.
Crook also believes that Beowulf’s facing the dragon is a “cursed course of action” (qtd. in Marshall
3). Crook finds that St. Gregory’s and St. Boniface’s attack on fortune supports his view. Crook
condemns Beowulf for capturing “the futility of trying to bind men to their honor with gold-giving”
(qtd. in Marshall 3). For Crook, the pagan concept of gift exchange can only cause war and death.
More harshly than them all, Alan Bliss criticizes Beowulf’s motivation: he believes that Beowulf, both
greedy and arrogant, is led to his own death and the destruction of his clansmen because of his impure
motives (Marshall 3).
Marshall details his own opinion after reviewing scholars’ views about Beowulf; I feel his
opinion is more pertinent. Marshall believes that “Beowulf demonstrates not avarice but a thoroughly
Christian attitude toward wealth” (4). In “addition to understanding Beowulf’s wisdom at the
beginning of part 2,” Marshall continues, “the Beowulf-poet also emphasizes Beowulf’s ideal lordship
by describing his penchant for dispensing treasure” (4). Marshall also takes St. Augustine’s and St.
Ambrose’s views on fortune to support his ideas: wealth is actually a means to an end, not the end
itself. What is more, in Christianity, fortune is not innately evil. Only when it is misused, it begins to
incur an evil quality (8).
Marshall also points out that wealth is not censured in the Bible, which actually teaches people to
wisely make use of fortune; this is far different from Goldsmith’s explanation. In The Old Testament
in Ecclesiasticus 29:13, it is written: “Lose thy money for thy brother and thy friend: and hide it not
under a stone to be lost” (qtd. in Marshall 9). Furthermore, Marshall finds a parable of how to wisely
use money in “Matthew” in The New Testament. Only the servant who buries underground the money
given by his master is deemed evil, lazy, and useless. Marshall infers that the Beowulf-poet must have
read these stories in the Bible. Gregory the Great had, in his homily, compared the travelling master to
Jesus and the five talents to the five senses. Gregory the Great was an important missionary who
spread Christianity to the Anglo-Saxon world; many of his homilies appeared not only in early
medieval manuscripts but also in poetry. Marshall therefore claims that the Beowulf-poet might have
read his homilies and been influenced by his thoughts because just “like the faithful servants in the
parable, Beowulf increases his own reputation and the reputation of his lord through his willingness to
use his gifts properly” (12). In short, in his article, Marshall reviews previous scholars’ prejudice
財富之刃：論《北奧武甫》中的富者 41
against Beowulf and then forcefully supports his own defense for Beowulf’s honorable qualities.
The above brief review of scholars’ comments shows for-and-against attitudes toward the
character of Beowulf. What should be kept in mind is that fortune, in Anglo-Saxon culture, is like a
good sword with a sharp blade. Only those who are qualified to wield this sword can long enjoy its
advantages; otherwise, it will cause disasters and tragedy. Beowulf the parable passes on this message
indirectly.
II. Fortune and Bravery
In the Anglo-Saxon society, only a hero with bravery owns the status to possess and enjoy
fortune. Heorot in Beowulf is built under the condition that the fortune has been accumulated to a
certain degree by Hrothgar’s courageous predecessors. It is narrated in the poem that because Shield
Sheafson is of such extraordinary ruling ability that in “the end each clan on the outlying coasts/
beyond the whale-road had to yield to him and begin to pay tribute…” (Heaney 9-11). And due to the
massing of a great amount of fortune, Shield can bear a lot of treasure in his funeral ship after death:
“For-fetched treasures/ were piled upon him, and precious gear…” (Heaney 36-7). When Hrothgar
succeeds to the throne, because of his precursors’ “blessings,” he is endowed with a great fortune:
The fortunes of war favored Hrothgar.
Friends and kinsmen flocked to his ranks,
young followers, a force that grew
to be a mighty army. So his mind turned
to hall-building: he handed down orders
for men to work on a great mead-hall
meant to be a wonder of the world forever;…. (64-70)
Under the order of Hrothgar, Heorot is soon built. This great hall is surely the symbol of fortune and
power though it is in reality the place where Hrothgar’s thanes get together for feasting, boasting,
merry-making and the like. Heorot the hall is completed due to the success of Hrothgar’s ancestors
and his own efforts when young.
It is true that Heorot stands solidly on the ground, but it also puts Hrothgar and his thanes to the
test. Do they have the ability to sustain the everlasting joy in Heorot and to be the masters of this
golden hall forever? Without doubt, a lot of prerequisites pave the foundations for the accomplishment
of this outstanding hall. However, the carousing of the warriors attracts the attention of Grendel the
monster, who wanders in the darkness. Night after night, he visits this hall and begins his killing spree.
Although Hrothgar and his thanes still live there, they are no longer the owners of this hall. When
night comes, Hrothgar moves to some other room with his queen, and most of his thanes stay
somewhere else. Those who dare to linger in the hall are all devoured by Grendel. This condition
means they do not have the power to substantially own the hall.
42 高雄師大學報
第三十二期
Grendel’s appearance and existence is a great challenge to the success and accumulated fortune
of Hrothgar’s family and his thanes. As a result of his old age, Hrothgar does not have the courage to
fight against Grendel.6 Though some of his thanes boast of avenging their comrades who have been
gobbled up by Grendel, all of them fail. For a long time, therefore, they all, the king and his warriors,
live under the shadow of Grendel’s nightly attacks. In the end, even though the gold decorations on
Heorot’s roof are still shining under the sun and the golden hangings inside the hall still glittered,
Heorot becomes the embodiment of desolation and depression. Besides, neither the king nor his thanes
are the masters of the golden hall any longer.
Obviously, Hrothgar is not brave enough to face Grendel, and none of his thanes who dare to
sleep in the hall are strong enough to survive Grendel’s “visits”. In this condition, Beowulf, coming
from the other side of the sea, is both strong and brave enough to challenge Grendel and his mother.
Beowulf’s slaying of them proves that he is really extraordinary. In Anglo-Saxon society, only
warriors who can survive all kinds of tests can make a name for themselves. Hrothgar is Danish;
Beowulf, a Geat. Beowulf does not have the obligation to take the risk to help Hrothgar. However, I
believe Beowulf goes on the journey to test both his courage and ability. What is more, he hopes to
reward Hrothgar for assisting his father by settling a blood feud long time ago.
Beowulf has to rely on his own bravery and judgment in fighting even though he has thirty men
at his disposal. Without courage, he cannot defeat Grendel and his mother even though he has
extraordinary innate strength. Not long after their arrival at Hrothgar’s court, Beowulf and his
followers sleep in the hall of Heorot. When Grendel comes again to the hall that very night and after
swallowing one of them, Grendel feels pressure the moment he wants to eat another warrior:
“…Venturing closer, / his talon was raised to attack Beowulf/ where he lay on the bed, he was bearing
in with open claw when the alert hero’s/ comeback and armlock forestalled him utterly” (Heaney
744-48). Without enough bravery, dare Beowulf sleep in the hall? Without enough strength, can he
fight against Grendel when the latter begins to attack him? Only Beowulf can tear off one of Grendel’s
arms; no other warrior among Hrothgar’s and Beowulf’s followers can succeed it. Without an arm,
Grendel surely will die.
Beowulf’s bravery is shown more clearly in his active attack on Grendel’s mother. After realizing
that Grendel’s mother has assaulted Heorot out of revenge, Beowulf goes quickly out to find her lair
instead of waiting for another night or another attack from Grendel’s mother. Readers can sense that
he cannot wait to avenge Hrothgar’s adviser. When Beowulf and his followers come to the lair of
Grendel and his mother, they find it to be a dangerous place: “The water was infested/ with all kinds
of reptiles. There were writhing sea-dragons/ and monsters slouching on slopes by the cliff, serpents
and wild things such as those that often/ surface at dawn to roam the sail-road/ and doom the voyage”
(Heaney 1425-30). Fearlessly, Beowulf jumps into the water. Using his wits, in a dire situation, he
decisively and smartly seizes an old sword on the cave wall and therefore completely ends Heorot’s
6
This condition poses a great contrast to that of old Beowulf. This will be discussed later.
財富之刃：論《北奧武甫》中的富者 43
long harassment after his life-and-death struggle with Grendel’s mother.
Because of his great effort, Beowulf gets a lot of reward from Hrothgar after this fight. Passages
about the fortune can be found in the narrative of Beowulf’s talk with Hygelac when he returns to his
home country. When Beowulf and his followers are on the ship back home, “the mast stood high/
above Hrothgar’s riches in the loaded hold…” (Heaney 1998-99). And when detailing what has
happened at Hrothgar’s court to Hygelac, Beowulf says, “I got lavish rewards from the lord of the
Danes/ for my part in the battle, beaten gold and much else…” (Heaney 2101-03). To be sure, to gain
fortune is not Beowulf’s original and primary intention, but it is the social custom to reward a brave
hero.
III. The Way of the Rich: Wisely Dealing with Fortune
In the Anglo-Saxon society, the rich should know how to wisely manage their wealth-sharing
and giving it to others in the proper situations; otherwise, they might be hurt by the blade of fortune.
That is to say, only those who are really brave and smartly know how to deal with riches can they
keep their fortune, which may become a double-edged sword if they are not courageous enough and
do not know how to deal with it. I believe that Beowulf was also written to convey this message.
A really wise king or thane had better not accumulate a lot of fortune at his side but know how
and when to share it with others. For showing his courage in Hrothgar’s court, Beowulf has
accomplished a great deal: he proves his talents by killing Grendel and his mother, pays his debt, in a
sense, to Hrothgar for his own father, gains respect from his fellow Geats, who have been looking
down upon him, and wins renown as a hero. Materially, he also gains a lot of treasure. Beowulf does
not personally retain this fortune but gives it all away to others-to his followers, to the ship’s guard,
and, most of all, to Hygelac. It is worth mentioning that the ship’s guard only dutifully watches over
Beowulf’s ship; even he too gets a great reward from Beowulf- “The guard who had watched the
boat was given/ a sword with gold fittings, and in future days/ that present would make him a
respected man/ at his place on the mead-bench” (Heaney 1900-03). From this short episode, we see
Beowulf’s generosity after he becomes rich.
Returning to his country, Beowulf wisely gives Hygelac all of what he has, leaving almost
nothing for himself. He is therefore rewarded a lot more in return:
The battle-famed king, bulwark of his earls,
ordered a gold-chased heirloom of Hrethel’s
to be brought in; it was the best example
of a gem-studded sword in the Geat treasury,
This he laid on Beowulf’s lap
and then rewarded him with land as well,
seven thousand hides; and a hall and a throne.
Both owned land by birth in that country,
44 高雄師大學報
第三十二期
ancestral grounds; but the greater right
and sway were inherited by the higher born.
(2190-2199)
Apart from getting rewarded by Hygelac, Beowulf also gains Hygelac’s trust. This means he gets far
more than what he originally had. Beowulf must not have expected this. It is not difficult to imagine
what would have happened if Beowulf had only presented to Hygelac part of his fortune or had kept
most of what he had received from Hrothgar. Certainly, if that had been the case, Beowulf would not
have found trust in Hygelac but would have incurred a blood feud or other disasters. That is to say,
Beowulf would not thereby lead a stable and peaceful life with the title of a lord and master of “a hall
and a throne”! It is well put by Marshall:
The proper use of God’s endowments is implied in the overall meaning of the poem,
so like the parable and Beowulf, The Gift of Men provides additional evidence
testifying to the importance of gift-exchange and the need to dispense those gifts
wisely in the early Middle Ages. (12)
As readers, we see the importance of kings and thanes knowing how to deal wisely with their riches.
On the other hand, we can also find that Beowulf knows when to surrender his fortune as well.
After killing Grendel’s mother, Beowulf finds a lot of treasure in her cave. Beowulf is not moved by it
at all: “The Geat captain [Beowulf] saw treasure in abundance/ but carried no spoils from those
quarters/ except for the head and the inlaid hilt/ embossed with jewels; its blade had melted…”
(Heaney 1612-15). Beowulf thereafter gives this inlaid hilt to Hrothgar instead of keeping it. Other
kings or thanes, if they had seen the treasure, would think of returning to Grendel’s lair to get the rest
of it. However, this never occurs to Beowulf. From this episode, we know that Beowulf has the
wisdom to deal with fortune and riches.
IV. Fighting Against All the Odds: Fortune and the Strong Will
Would Beowulf, a brave and wise hero who knows how to deal with fortune, incur the curse from
the dragon’s treasure because of his “avarice”? A positive answer to this question is superstitious with
a prejudice against Beowulf! Would the Beowulf-poet, generally deemed to be a Christian, like to
endow his work with superstitious messages? A lot more questions accompany this question: Do all
treasures carry a curse? If Beowulf actually does not die from the curse, what claims his life? Why
does Beowulf want to have a look at the dragon’s treasure before he dies? If Beowulf cares so much
about treasure, how can he be termed a hero wisely knowing how to deal with fortune? If we can look
at these questions from another point of view and are not limited by the literal meanings of words,
what does the fight between Beowulf and dragon signify? And, from this respect, what does his desire
to see the dragon’s treasure before he dies signify? These questions are the main body of what follows.
Old Beowulf’s fight with the dragon is employed to pose a contrast to the relationship between
old Hrothgar and Grendel. In the poem, when the dragon wakes, Beowulf has been king and “ruled it
財富之刃：論《北奧武甫》中的富者 45
[the kingdom] well for fifty winters…” (Heaney 2208-09). If he becomes king at about 30 years old,
he must have been about 80 years old when the dragon begins to ravage his country. The master of
Heorot, Hrothgar, must be of nearly the same age when Grendel comes to harass Heorot almost every
night. The dragon may be more threatening than Grendel because the dragon would move about day
and night spitting fire to destroy everything in sight. Old Beowulf still plucks up his courage to fight
the dragon. Hrothgar, on the other hand, dare not face Grendel at all. “What distinguishes the two,”
Jane Robert believes, “is Beowulf’s greater courage. Towards the end of his life he is ready to
confront a sudden adversary that flies far and wide spewing flame and is intent on leaving nothing
alive” (249). Even if young Beowulf has the strength of thirty people, his power would have become
weaker when he is old. Before facing the dragon, Beowulf is “…sad at heart,/ unsettled yet ready,
sensing his death” (Heaney 2419-20). Even so, Beowulf still has his strong will. Indeed, old Beowulf
is spiritually stronger than Hrothgar.
Besides, Beowulf, though old, still maintains his habit of actively solving problems just as when
he was young; he would never eschew problems as Hrothgar does. Though Beowulf predicts his death
before the fight, he still insists upon facing the problem as quickly as possible. However, some
scholars-such as Malone, Stanley, and Goldsmith-think Beowulf is too fond of gold. Goldsmith
believes that “Beowulf, like Hygelac before him, was tainted with the sins of the dragon, arrogance
and love of treasure” (qtd. in Marshall 2). They deem it not wise to face the dragon because they think
Beowulf fights for gold. In fact, Beowulf decides to fight for his people’s survival, not gold. What is
more, one condition is neglected in the argument: Beowulf will die sooner or later. His clansmen
cannot rely on him forever; one day they have to have days without Beowulf. If another strong hero
shows up, their tribe would survive. If not, they have to face the reality that they might be defeated
and/or destroyed by other tribes. Historical documents can be found to support the condition that the
Geats were devastated after a hero like Beowulf passed away, but it can never be the fault of the hero
for his decision to fight the dragon. Can Beowulf neglect the dragon problem when it is destroying his
country? If the dragon problem is not dealt with as quickly as possible, can his people have a
comfortable life? Answers to these questions are very obvious. In brief, the Geats disappear from
history because of the fact that there is no longer a hero like Beowulf, who dies in the process of
defeating the dragon.
Besides, it is superstitious to believe that Beowulf dies because of the curse on the dragon’s
hoard. John Tanke in “Beowulf, Gold-Luck, and God’s Will” declares that “the poet has conceived of
the curse in a thoroughly plausible, pagan-Germanic context as a protective spell laid upon a
sacrificial treasure, and that death and not damnation is the fate assigned to its victim” (358). Can it be
possible that the Beowulf-poet tries to convey the message that Beowulf dies of a pagan curse? This
view of damnation contradicts the Beowulf-poet’s Christian doctrines; what is more, it underrates the
heroic element of Beowulf’s death. His facing the dragon is the most tragic moment in the parable. It
is a fight doomed to fail, but Beowulf insists upon joining battle with the dragon. He dies in the
46 高雄師大學報
第三十二期
process of getting rid of his people’s great threat, not because of the curse!7
Then, why does Beowulf want to have a look at the dragon’s treasure before he dies? Stanley
comments that old Beowulf reveals his greed when he wants to see the dragon’s gold before he dies
(Gwara 335). It seems Beowulf, as a hero, cannot reveal his essence as a man except by being a
superman! He has been striving very hard to solve the Geats’ life-threatening problem and to obtain a
great fortune for their better future (though he is a little bit naïve on this point). He thinks he has
finally realized his goal and therefore wants to see the treasure, in Gwara’s terms, “to die comforted”
(337). Is it fair to accuse him of committing the sin of avarice?
The dragon hoard Beowulf wins by sacrificing his life is for his people. Certainly, he cannot
enjoy the treasure at all. It must be Beowulf’s dying wish to leave it all to his tribesmen; here lies
Beowulf’s greatness-his self-sacrifice and unselfishness. The dragons’ treasure is symbolically a
reward to an old but brave Beowulf with a strong will.
Conclusion: Christianity and the Dialectical View of Fortune
Under the clash of Christianity and paganism, the Beowulf-poet presents his creatively dialectical
view of fortune. In Luke 18: 22-27 in the New Testament, Jesus says, “It is easier, in fact, for a camel
to get through the eye of a sewing needle than for a rich man to get into the kingdom of God.”
However, the parable of the talents in Gospel of Matthew “illustrates how the faithful use of one’s
gifts from God will lead to participation in the kingdom of heaven, while lazy inactivity will lead to
the exclusion from it” (Marshall 10). On the other hand, for a Christian, that pagans get treasure by
plundering (the common way the pagans seize fortune) is not at all appreciative, neither the way of
taking tributes from other tribes as what Hrothgar usually does. Nevertheless, it is admirable if a
pagan gets fortune by bravely helping others, voluntarily contributing treasures to his kings, and
fighting the evil even in old age; these are what Beowulf has done. Beowulf can be seen as the
symbolic representation of the poet’s fruit of thought after his long musing on combining Christian
and pagan views of fortune.
The Christian, non-violent, effort-based view and the pagan, violent, valor-and-wisdom based
view of fortune are both combined in Beowulf. This pagan brave hero with wisdom wins a great
amount of fortune through his whole life because of his altruistic motivation; Beowulf is without
doubt a Christ-like pagan hero. As far as fortune is concerned, Christianity, the thesis, and paganism,
the antithesis, are dialectically combined into a new culture. Beowulf shows the result of this
synthesis.
Beowulf reveals, I believe, its author’s intentional efforts to subsume both Christian and
7
In “A Note on the Hoard in Beowulf,” Woolf believes, “…elsewhere in the poem we are told of the curse
resting on the treasure, but Lawrence has indicated the way in which the Christian poet deemphasized the
pagan notion of the curse; and it is hardly to be assumed that even a heathen would believe every treasure to
be under a spell” (114). The writer of this paper agrees very much with Woolf’s opinion. Henry Bosley Woolf,
“A Note on the Hoard in Beowulf,” Modern Language Notes 58.2 (1943): 113-115.
財富之刃：論《北奧武甫》中的富者 47
Germanic views of fortune. The Beowulf-poet must have been familiar with the story and tradition of
the parables in the Bible. In the narration tone of a Christian, this story about the pagan hero carries
the following significance: with the wisdom of how to deal with treasure properly, a pagan hero can
get fortune justly with a strong will. This hero should know when to take and when to give, so that he
would not be hurt by the blade of fortune but remain really “rich.” Thanks to the Christian
Beowulf-poet’s creative presentation of both Christian and pagan culture about fortune allegorically,
the story of Beowulf is transformed into a parable.
References
Bremmer, Jr. Rolf H. (2005). Old English Heroic Literature. Readings in Medieval Texts: Interpreting
Old and Middle English Literature. Ed. David F. Johnson & Elaine Treharne. New York: Oxford
UP.
Cain, Christopher M. (1997). Beowulf, the Old Testament, and the Regula Fidei. Renaissance, 49(4),
227-240.
Gwara, Scott. (2008). Beowulf 3074-75: Beowulf Appraises His Reward. Neophilologus, 92, 333-338.
Heaney, Seamus. Trans. (2002). Beowulf: A Verse Translation. Ed. Donoghue, Daniel. New York: W.
W. Norton.
Holman, Hugh C. and Harmon, William. Ed. (1986). A Handbook to Literature. 6th Edition. New York:
Macmillan.
Knowles, Gerry. (1999). A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold.
Marshall, Joseph E. (2010). Goldgyfan or Goldwlance: A Chastain Apology for Beowulf and Treasure.
Studies in Philology, 107(1), 1-25.
Meaney, Audrey L. (2003). Textual and Material Culture in Anglo-Saxon England. Ed. Donald Scragg.
Cambridge: D. S. Brewer.
Nile, John D. (1983). Beowulf: The Poem and Its Tradition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP.
Robert, Jane. (2003). Hrothgar’s Admirable Courage. Unlocking the Wordhord: Anglo-Saxon Studies
in Memory of Edward B. Irving, Jr. Ed. Mark C. Amodio & Katherine O'Brien O'Keeffe. Buffalo:
Toronto UP.
Robinson, Fred C. (1993). The Tomb of Beowulf and Other Essays on Old English. Cambridge:
Blackwell.
Schücking, L. Levin. (1976). An Anthology of Beowulf Criticism. Ed. Lewis E. Nicholson. Notre
Dame: Notre Dame UP.
Silber, Patricia. (1997). Gold Its Significance in Beowulf. Annuale Mediaevale, 18, 5-19.
Tanke, John. (2002). Beowulf, Gold-Luck, and God’s Will. Studies in Philology 99.4, 356-379.
Welch, Martin. (1993). Discovering Anglo-Saxon England. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State UP.
Woolf, Bosley Henry. (1943). A Note on the Hoard in Beowulf. Modern Language Notes 58.2,
113-115.
48 高雄師大學報
第三十二期