Non-Conventional
Energy Resources
G.S. Sawhney
Non-Conventional
Energy Resources
G.S. SAWHNEY
Professor and Head
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Accurate Institute of Management and Technology
Greater Noida
Formerly Professor and Head
Department of Mechanical Engineering
GNIT, Greater Noida and LKIE, Ghaziabad
New Delhi-110001
2012
NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES
G.S. Sawhney
© 2012 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from
the publisher.
ISBN-978-81-203-4609-3
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Baba Barkha Nath Printers, Bahadurgarh, Haryana-124507.
CONTENTS
Preface
xi
1. ENERGY RESOURCES AND THEIR UTILISATION
1.1
1.2
Introduction
1
Energy Resources
1.2.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
11
12
12
Significance of Non-Conventional Energy Resources
Energy Policy in India
13
World Energy Status
14
Indian Energy Scenario
15
Environment Aspects of Energy
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.7
11
Energy Intensity
Energy Elasticity
Indian and Global Energy Resources
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.5.4
2
3
Thermal Energy
3
Hydel Energy
4
Nuclear Energy
5
Solar Energy
5
Wind Energy
6
Tidal Energy
8
Geothermal Energy
9
Ocean Energy
10
Energy Parameters
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.5
1
Classification of Energy Resources
Types of Energy Resources
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
1.3.6
1.3.7
1.3.8
Pollution
25
Greenhouse Effects
Energy Chain
12
25
25
26
2. SOLAR RADIATION
2.1
2.2
1–26
27–54
Introduction
27
Radiation Spectrum from Sun and Earth
iii
27
iv
CONTENTS
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
Extraterrestrial Radiation and Solar Constant
29
Latitude and Longitude
33
Basic Sun–Earth Angles
34
Angle between Incident Beam and Normal to Inclined Surface (q)
Local Apparent Time
38
Sunrise, Sunset and Solar Day Length
39
Intensity of Terrestrial Radiation
42
Solar Radiation Data
43
37
2.10.1 Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation ( H g ) on Horizontal Surface
44
2.10.2 Monthly Average Daily Diffuse Radiation on Horizontal Surface
45
2.10.3 Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation on Tilted Surface ( HT )
45
2.11 Measurements of Solar Radiation Data
50
3. SOLAR ENERGY
3.1
3.2
Introduction
55
Solar Collectors
55
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.5
3.2.6
3.2.7
3.2.8
3.2.9
3.2.10
3.2.11
3.2.12
3.2.13
3.2.14
3.3
Classification of Solar Collectors
56
Flat Plate Collector
59
Modified Flat Plate Collector
60
Compound Parabolic Concentrator
61
Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator
61
Linear Fresnel Lens Collector
62
Fixed Mirror Solar Concentrator
63
Paraboloidal Dish Collector
64
Hemispherical Bowl Mirror Concentrator
64
Circular Fresnel Lens Concentrator
65
Central Tower Receiver Collector
66
Comparison between Flat and Focussing Collectors
Orientation of Flat Plate Collector
67
Collector Performance Testing
67
Solar Energy Storage
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
55–86
66
69
Classification of Solar Energy Storage System
Sensible Heat Storage
70
Latent Heat Storage
72
69
Solar Pond
74
Solar Water Heater
75
Solar Thermal Pump
76
Solar Furnace
77
Solar Passive Heating
78
Solar Passive Space Cooling
79
Solar Refrigeration and Cooling System
80
Solar Vapour Compression Refrigeration and Cooling
Solar Cookers
83
Solar Distillation
84
Solar Thermal Power Plants
84
Solar Greenhouse
85
82
CONTENTS
4. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
4.1
4.2
Introduction
87
Solar Cell Fundamentals
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
87
Solar Cell
91
Solar PV Module
Solar PV Panel
Solar PV Array
94
Voltage–Current Characteristic of p-n Junction (Solar Cell)
Energy Losses of Solar Cell
97
Maximising the Performance
99
Materials for Solar Cells
Solar PV Systems
102
4.6.1
4.6.2
4.6.3
4.6.4
4.6.5
4.6.6
4.6.7
4.6.8
4.6.9
91
92
93
93
Solar Cell Characteristics
4.4.1
4.4.2
4.4.3
87–105
Semiconductors
88
Photovoltaic Effect
90
Solar Cell, Module, Panel and Array
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
95
100
Central Power Station System
102
Stand-Alone System
102
Grid Interactive Solar PV System
103
Small Consumer Systems
103
Hybrid Solar PV System
104
Advantages and Disadvantages of PV System
Solar PV System and Cost
104
Solar PV Programme in India
105
Energy Payback Period of a Solar Cell
105
104
5. BIOGAS
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
Biogas
5.4.1
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.4
5.4.5
5.4.6
5.4.7
5.4.8
5.4.9
5.4.10
5.4.11
5.5
106–127
Introduction
106
Photosynthesis
106
Biomass
107
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
Biofuels
107
Biomass Resources
109
Advantages and Disadvantages of Biomass Energy
109
110
Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
110
Anaerobic Digestion
110
Classification of Biogas Plants
114
Application of Biogas in IC Engine
118
Models of Biogas Plants
118
Biogas Plant in Hilly Area
118
By-Product of Digestion
119
Location of Biogas Plant
120
Size of Biogass Plant
120
Problems and Constraints in the Use of Biogas
Community Biogas Plants
122
Biomass Conversion Technologies
5.5.1
5.5.2
5.5.3
5.5.4
5.5.5
v
121
122
Biomass Gasification
124
Energy Recovery from Urban Waste by Landfill Reactors
Power Generation from Liquid Waste
125
Biomass Resource Development and Energy Plantation
Biomass Energy Programme in India
127
124
126
vi
CONTENTS
6. WIND ENERGY
6.1
6.2
Introduction
128
Origin of Winds
128
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
6.2.6
6.3
6.4
134
Energy Available in Wind
134
Terms and Definitions of Fluid Mechanics
135
Principle of Power Generation
139
Axial Thrust on Turbine
143
Torque Generated by Wind Turbine
145
Tip Speed Ratio for Maximum Output
146
Aerodynamic Considerations
147
Types of Windmills
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3
6.5.4
6.5.5
6.5.6
6.5.7
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
Global Winds
129
Local Winds
129
Distribution of Wind Energy
129
Nature of Wind
130
Meterological Data about Wind Speed
130
Wind Speed Variations with Height
132
Wind Turbine Siting
134
Wind Turbine Aerodynamics
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4
6.4.5
6.4.6
6.4.7
6.5
128–160
150
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
150
Rotors of HAWT
152
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
153
Rotor of VAWT
154
Comparison of HAWT and VAWT
155
Savonius Rotor
156
Darrieus Rotor
156
Wind Energy Storage
157
Environmental Impacts of Wind Turbines
Recent Development
158
Wind Energy Programme in India
159
157
7. ELECTROCHEMICAL EFFECTS AND FUEL CELLS
7.1
7.2
Introduction
161
Fuel and Oxidant
161
7.2.1
7.3
Primary and Secondary Fuel Cells
Fuel Cell
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.6
7.3.7
7.3.8
7.3.9
7.3.10
7.3.11
7.3.12
164
164
Principle of Fuel Cell
164
Efficiency of Fuel Cell
166
Types of Fuel Cells
169
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell
Alkaline Fuel Cell
173
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
174
Solid Oxide or Ceramics Fuel Cell
175
Regenerative Fuel Cell
176
Performance Limiting Factors of Fuel Cell
Losses of a Fuel Cell
177
Advantages and Limitations of a Fuel Cell
Application of a Fuel Cell
178
172
177
178
161–178
CONTENTS
8. HYDROGEN ENERGY
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
179–186
Introduction
179
Hydrogen as a Source of Renewable Energy
Production of Hydrogen
180
Storage of Hydrogen
182
8.4.1
8.4.2
8.4.3
8.4.4
8.4.5
8.4.6
8.4.7
179
Advances in Storage of Hydrogen
183
Hydrogen Powered Vehicles and Storage
184
Cost of Hydrogen Storage
184
Transportation or Delivery of Hydrogen
185
Hydrogen as Fuel and Safety Issues
185
Conversion of Hydrogen
186
Applications of Hydrogen
186
9. THERMOELECTRIC SYSTEMS FOR DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION
9.1
9.2
9.3
Introduction
187
Important Physical Effects
Thermoelectric Generator
9.3.1
9.3.2
9.3.3
9.4
9.5
Materials for a Thermoelectric Generator
192
Characteristics of a Thermoelectric Generator
192
Applications of a Thermoelectric Generator
192
193
Principle of Operation of an MHD Generator
193
MHD Generator
195
Seeding of Carrier Gas in MHD Generator
196
Overall Power Cycle with MHD Converter
196
MHD Systems
197
Open Cycle Systems
197
Closed Cycle System
198
Materials for MHD Generators
200
Thermionic Power Conversion
9.5.1
9.5.2
200
Merits of Thermionic Converter
201
Applications of the Thermionic Converter
201
10. TIDAL POWER
203–211
10.1 Introduction
203
10.2 Origin of Tides
203
10.3 Tidal Energy
205
10.3.1
10.3.2
10.3.3
10.3.4
10.3.5
187–202
187
190
Magnetohydrodynamic Power Conversion
9.4.1
9.4.2
9.4.3
9.4.4
9.4.5
9.4.6
9.4.7
9.4.8
vii
Modes of Operation of Tidal Power Plant
207
Components of the Tidal Power Plant
207
Feasibility of the Tidal Power Plant
208
Merits of Tidal Energy
208
Limitations of Tidal Energy
208
10.4 Classification of Tidal Plant
10.4.1 Single Basin System
10.4.2 Double Basin System
209
209
210
10.5 Site Requirements
211
10.6 Tidal Power Development in India
211
viii
CONTENTS
11. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
212–222
11.1 Introduction
212
11.2 Resources of Geothermal Energy
11.3 Geothermal Power Plants
214
212
11.3.1 Hydrothermal Resources
214
11.3.2 Hot Dry Rock Resource
217
11.3.3 Comparison of Geothermal Power Plant with Convention
Thermal Power Plant
218
11.3.4 Non-Electrical Applications of Geothermal Energy
218
11.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy
219
11.3.6 Materials for Geothermal Plant Equipment
219
11.3.7 Environmental Problems from Geothermal Energy
220
11.3.8 Criteria for Selection of Geothermal Site
220
11.3.9 Potential of Geothermal Energy in India
221
11.3.10 Exploration and Development of Geothermal Resources
221
12. WAVE ENERGY
223–230
12.1 Introduction
223
12.2 Wave Energy and Power
223
12.3 Wave Energy Devices
228
12.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wave Energy
230
13. OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
231–235
Introduction
231
Working Principle of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems
233
Status of OTEC Plants
234
Merits and Demerits of OTEC Plant
234
14. ENVIRONMENT AND KYOTO PROTOCOL
14.1 Introduction
236
14.2 Environmental Aspects
14.2.1 Greenhouse Effect
14.2.2 Global Warming
14.3 Kyoto Protocol
236–238
236
236
237
237
15. SMALL HYDRO RESOURCE
15.1 Introduction
239
15.2 Conversion of Hydropower
239–248
240
15.2.1 Turbines
241
15.2.2 Speed Control of Turbines
241
15.2.3 Suitability of Turbines
242
15.3 Small Hydropower Plants
15.3.1
15.3.2
15.3.3
15.3.4
15.3.5
231
242
Demerits of Small Hydropower Sources
243
Merits of Small Hydropower Resources
243
Bulb Turbine
244
Components of a Small Hydropower Plant
244
Designing of a Micro Hydel Scheme
245
CONTENTS
15.4 Concept and Potential of Micro Hydel in India
246
15.5 Research and Development in India
246
15.6 Micro Hydropower for Socio-Economic Development
247
16. ENERGY MANAGEMENT
16.1 Introduction
249
16.2 Energy Economics
16.2.1
16.2.2
16.2.3
16.2.4
16.2.5
16.2.6
16.3.1
16.3.2
16.3.3
16.3.4
16.3.5
249–265
250
Definitions
250
Energy Commodities and Energy Resources
250
Energy Conversion Processes
251
Demand for Energy
251
Energy Demand Substitution
252
Energy Efficiency Standards to Optimise Consumer Choices
16.3 Energy Conservation
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
252
253
Aspects of Energy Conservation
Principles of Energy Conservation
Energy Conservation Act
256
Cogeneration
257
Combined or Binary Cycle Plants
16.4 Energy Management and Audit
16.4.1
16.4.2
16.4.3
16.4.4
16.4.5
16.4.6
16.4.7
16.4.8
ix
253
254
258
260
Definition and Objectives of Energy Management
260
Energy Audit and Need
261
Types of Energy Audit
262
Preliminary Audit 262
Detailed Energy Audit 262
Methodology for Detailed Audit
263
Energy Efficiency in Indian Industry 264
Status of Energy-Efficient Technologies in India
264
267
269–272
Non-Conventional Resources Of
Energy
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Publisher : PHI Learning
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Author : SAWHNEY, G. S.
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