Track & Field Technical
Certification
Fundamentals of Training
Design for Track and Field
Physical Performance Components
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The Primary Physical Performance Components. The physical abilities needed to perform at
high levels in athletics can be organized into five primary areas. These are:
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Strength. Strength is the ability to produce large amounts of force.
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Speed. Speed is the ability to move the body and/or its parts rapidly.
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Flexibility. Flexibility is the ability to display high amplitudes of movement.
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Coordination. Coordination is the ability to perform motor skills with precision.
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Endurance. Endurance is the ability to perform large workloads and resist fatigue
An Expansion of the Physical Performance Components. There are many other performance
components that can be considered combinations or subcategories of the primary physical
performance components. We can expand each category into the following lists.
o
Strength Components

Absolute Strength. Absolute Strength is the ability to produce large amounts of
force, regardless of speed of motion. Tasks requiring great absolute strength
typically require large amounts of force, and are associated with slow speeds or
an absence of motion. Heavy weight exercises are examples of training activities
that address absolute strength.

Power. Power is the ability to produce force quickly. Power related tasks
involve high speeds of movement, yet require some resistance to be overcome.
Uphill sprinting or high speed weight exercises are examples of training
activities that address power.

General Strength. General Strength is the ability to overcome the resistance
one’s body inherently provides, as well as the ability to effectively move and
manage one’s bodyweight. Tasks that develop General Strength typically require
movement or stabilization of the body, are strength building in nature, yet
require no external loading. Pushups and situps are examples of exercises that
address general strength.
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o
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Reactive Strength. Reactive Strength is the ability to produce force and elastic
energy using the body’s stretch reflex. Reactive Strength related tasks involve
muscle tissue stabilizing in an isometric contraction, then stretching
eccentrically under the force of impact, then contracting concentrically to
perform work. Jumping activities are examples of activities that train reactive
strength.
Speed Components
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Accelerative Power. Accelerative Power is the ability to effectively move the
body from rest and approach maximal velocities.
When examining
performance, most athletes, from a stationary start, are capable of reaching
maximal velocity in 30 to 40 meters. For this reason, training tasks for
developing accelerative power consist of short, intense sprints.

Absolute Speed. Absolute Speed is the ability to demonstrate high maximal
locomotive velocities. When examining performance, most athletes, from a
stationary start, are capable of reaching maximal velocity in 30 to 40 meters and
are capable of maintaining it for approximately 3 seconds. For this reason,
training tasks for developing absolute speed require an acceleration period of
30-40 meters and require the athlete to sprint at high intensity for periods of
less than 3 seconds in duration.

Speed Endurance. Speed Endurance is the ability to resist the degradation that
inevitably occurs once the body has reached maximal velocity. When examining
performance in maximal sprinting, this degradation typically occurs after 60 to
80 meters. For this reason, training activities addressing speed endurance
typically consist of intense sprinting over distances of 80 meters or more.
Flexibility Components
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Static Flexibility. Static Flexibility is the ability to attain large ranges of motion
in the joints. Static Flexibility is typically developed with traditional stretching
routines that require holding the body for extended periods of time in positions
that challenge one’s flexibility limits.
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o
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Dynamic Flexibility. Dynamic Flexibility is the ability to move through high
amplitudes of motion. Dynamic flexibility differs from static flexibility in that it is
associated with movement. Activities that train dynamic flexibility normally
require moving one side of a joint through large ranges of motion while the
other side of the joint remains stable. Examples would include leg swings or arm
circles.
Coordination Components
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Agility. Agility is the ability to perform unpatterned or irregular movements
quickly and accurately. Tasks that develop agility normally require unpatterned
movements such as starting, stopping, and changing direction.
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Mobility. Mobility is the ability to display large ranges of movement in the
joints, while accomplishing technical tasks. Mobility differs from dynamic
flexibility because of the high level of technical demand associated with it.
Activities designed to increase mobility generally require the body to perform
technical movements that require high amplitudes of motions accurately.
Hurdle walkovers are a good example.
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Balance. Balance is the ability to remain stable. Balance developing tasks
normally require the athlete to remain upright and stable in single support
during stationary, walking, or skipping activities. Balance beam or wobble board
exercises are example of balance building activities.
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Technical Execution. Technical Execution is the ability to perform specific
sports skills, repetitively with ease and accuracy. Improved technical execution
results from rehearsal of the wide array of such skills a track and field athlete
must possess be in order to perform at high levels.
Endurance Components
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Aerobic Fitness. Aerobic Fitness is the ability to produce ample amounts of
energy using the aerobic energy system. Activities that improve aerobic fitness
require the body to consume oxygen, to exercise at the lower intensities that
use the aerobic system for energy production, or to exercise at high intensities
that call the aerobic system into play along with other systems.

Anaerobic Fitness. Anaerobic Fitness is the ability of the body to produce
ample amounts of energy using the glycolytic energy system. Activities that
improve anaerobic fitness require the body to exercise at high intensities that
surpass the ability of the aerobic energy system to produce sufficient energy,
forcing the body into a state of oxygen debt and associated acidosis. Anaerobic
energy system development can be done using any activity sufficient to force
the body into work of such intensity.
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Work Capacity. Work Capacity is the ability to withstand high loads in training.
Work capacity differs from aerobic and anaerobic fitness in that work capacity
levels can be affected by strength, coordination, or technical efficiency as well
as energy system fitness.
Multilateral Training

Multilateral Training.
Multilateral Training is a philosophy of training that features
development of all of the physical performance components in planned balance. Such a
philosophy is important to the success of any training program. This planned balance should not
only exist between the primary physical performance components, but also between the
subcategories of each.

Balance. Balance in development of these physical performance components is essential to
long-term progress. These abilities are requisite to each other and are dependent upon each
other. While specialization is necessary at times, the value of balanced development of these
components in the program should not be underestimated.

Planned Balance.
The planned training balance between various physical performance
components need not be equal. While a coach should address each of these components in
some fashion in the training plan, the demands of the athlete’s event, the time of year, and
characteristics of the athlete may dictate that certain abilities are addressed more than others.
This determination cannot be left to chance, and must be part of the coaches planning process.

Specialization. Specialization may call for the increase of the portion of the training load
devoted to one or more of these components, but this increase must include a decrease in other
areas so that the total training load remains relatively constant. High specificity of training is
best reserved for the latter stages of an athlete’s training year, or career.
Body Systems
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The Nervous System
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Nervous System Anatomy. The nervous system is composed of the brain, spinal cord,
nerves and neuromuscular junctions. The nerves themselves are composed of cells
called neurons. Neurons conduct a neural impulses to muscle tissue, or to other
neurons. The neural impulse itself is basically composed of electrical pulses.
o
Nervous System Function. The nervous system activates skeletal muscle tissue in two
different ways.

Volitional Function. When functioning volitionally, one consciously decides to
create movement. Cognitive activity sends the impulses to the motor neuron,
which then stimulates muscle tissue to contract.

Reflexive Function. In the reflex arc, a signal generated by some sensory organ
is sent to the motor neuron, activating it and producing muscle contraction. The
brain is left out of the loop, and no conscious decision is made to effect
movement. This type of function is used in all reflex actions.
The Muscular System. For our purposes, we will consider the muscular system as that system
of skeletal muscle tissue that produces movement of the body’s skeletal parts.
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Contraction. Muscles produce force (and movement) by contracting. When a muscle
contracts, forces are exerted on the skeletal system that produce movement.
o
Contractile Mechanisms. Contractile mechanisms are the structures in the muscle
tissue responsible for producing this movement. The contractile mechanisms consist of
two types of protein filaments, thick and thin. The thin filaments are primarily
composed of the protein actin. Thick filaments are composed of the protein myosin, and
are fueled with an ATP molecule. When contraction is signaled by a neural impulse to
the neuromuscular junction, calcium is released, causing the filaments to attach and
slide against each other, producing movement.
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The Skeletal System
o
Skeletal System Anatomy. The Skeletal system consists of the bones and connective
tissues. These connective tissues include ligaments and tendons.
o
Force Transmission. The skeleton provides a locomotive framework for the body and is
responsible for proper application of the forces produced by muscle contraction.
Ligaments connect bones to bones, and are an important link to the stability of these
structures. Tendons connect muscles to bones, and are responsible for transmitting the
forces generated by muscular contraction to the bones.
The Energy Systems
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ATP. The purpose of all energy systems is to produce ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) to
fuel muscle contraction and other processes. ATP is a chemical compound that produces
energy when the ATP molecule is fractured into two separate molecules, an ADP
(Adenosine Diphosphate) molecule and a molecule of Inorganic Phosphate.
o
Substrates. Regardless of the energy system employed, ATP is created by the chemical
breakdown of some fuel source. These fuel sources are called substrate. The most
important substrates are glucose, glycogen, and fatty acids. The intensity of exercise
generally dictates the substrates employed.
o
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Glucose. Glucose is a form of sugar. Certain levels of glucose should be present
in the bloodstream, and play a critical role in the body’s chemical processes.
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Glycogen. Glycogen is a sugar stored in muscles tissue and the liver. It can be
converted to glucose and moved into the bloodstream, and then used as fuel.
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Fatty Acids. Fatty acids are mobilized fats that circulate in the bloodstream.
They are basically building blocks for fat molecules. Exercising at certain
intensities causes the body’s stored fat to be mobilized for use in this way.
The Energy Systems. There are three energy systems. They are Alactic Acid System, the
Glycolytic System, and the Aerobic System. The Alactic Acid System and the Glycolytic
System operate anaerobically, which means they are capable of operating without the
presence of oxygen. The Aerobic System operates aerobically, which means it operates
with the presence and consumption of oxygen. The Glycolytic and Aerobic systems
require substrate usage.
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The Alactic Acid Energy System. The alactic acid energy system is so called
because it fails to produce lactic acid as a byproduct like the other anaerobic
system does. It uses ATP available in muscle for immediate energy. It
synthesizes additional ATP from ADP and Pi present in the cell in the form of
Creatine Phosphate. This system requires no substrate, but at intense workloads
it can provide energy for only approximately 7 seconds.

The Glycolytic Energy System. This anaerobic energy system makes ATP
available for muscle contraction and other purposes using glucose and glycogen
as a substrate. The anaerobic system can provide energy for very intense work
for an extended period of time. However, lactic acid and hydrogen ions are
released as byproducts, eventually producing an acidic state that hinders
performance. The anaerobic system enables us to produce energy at a rate that
surpasses our ability to consume oxygen. This produces an oxygen debt that
must be repaid by increased oxygen consumption when work is completed. This
system becomes involved at high work intensities once the alactic acid energy
system becomes depleted. These two systems can fuel high intensity work up to
90 seconds in duration.

The Aerobic Energy System. The Aerobic Energy System makes ATP available
for muscle contraction and other purposes using fat and/or glucose and
glycogen as a substrate. The aerobic system uses oxygen while producing this
ATP. The aerobic system is very efficient at producing energy, but it cannot keep
up with the demand for ATP when the body is operating at high intensity.
Increasing exercise intensity beyond some threshold value activates the
anaerobic glycolytic system.
The Cardiorespiratory System. The cardiorespiratory system is responsible for extracting
oxygen from the air and delivering it, along with other needed materials, to tissues throughout
the body. Primary components of this system are the heart, the lungs, the blood, and the blood
vessels. While the circulatory system delivers numerous materials to the tissues, delivery of
oxygen and substrate are of primary concern.
o
The Heart. The heart pumps blood throughout the body, creating an effective delivery
system for oxygen and other materials needed by the tissues. The heart actually
operates as two pumps. Parts of the heart pump blood into the lungs for oxygenation.
After oxygenation, the blood returns to the heart, where other parts pump the oxygen
rich blood throughout the body.
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Heart Rate. Heart rate is the frequency of the heartbeats, or pumping cycles.
Increased oxygen demand by the tissues requires the heart to work harder and
to beat faster, making heart rate a good indicator of the level of demand being
placed on the energy systems.

Stroke Volume. Stroke Volume refers to the amount of blood the heart is
capable of pumping in a single beat.
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The Lungs. The lungs take in air and extract oxygen from it, allowing it to diffuse into
the blood stream for circulation and distribution throughout the body.
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The Blood. Blood is a liquid circulated throughout the body for the purpose of
delivering oxygen and other needed materials to the cells.
o
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Hemoglobin. Oxygen is transported in the blood plasma by a substance called
hemoglobin found in red blood cells.

AVO2 Difference. AVO2 difference is a shortened form of the term arteriovenal
oxygen difference. This refers to the difference in the amount of oxygen being
carried by the blood after it leaves the lungs and before being distributed to the
tissues, and the amount of oxygen being carried in the blood after oxygen is
extracted by the tissues. AVO2 difference is a measure of the efficiency of
oxygen extraction.
The Blood Vessels. There are three types of blood vessels.
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Arteries. Arteries transport oxygen rich blood to tissues throughout the body.
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Veins. Veins return oxygen depleted blood to the heart.
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Capillaries. Capillaries are small vessels found between arteries and veins that
allow oxygen to be extracted by the tissues. Oxygen moves from the capillaries
across the capillary membrane into the cells.
Multisystem Training

Multisystem Training. Multisystem Training is a philosophy of training that features
development of all of these key body systems in planned balance. Such a philosophy is
important to the success of any training program.

Balance. Balance in development of these body systems is essential to long-term progress.
These systems are requisite to each other and dependent upon each other. While specialization
is necessary and appropriate at times, the value of balanced development of these systems in
the program should not be underestimated.

Planned Balance. The planned training balance between various body systems need not be
equal. While a coach should address each of these systems in some fashion in the training plan,
the demands of the athlete’s event, the time of year, and characteristics of the athlete may
dictate that certain systems are addressed more than others. This determination cannot be left
to chance, and must be part of the coaches planning process.

Specialization. Specialization may call for the increase of the portion of the training load
devoted to one or more of these systems, but this increase must include a decrease in other
areas so that the total training load remains relatively constant. High specificity of training is
best reserved for the latter stages of an athlete’s training year, or career.
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