Interwar Period:  Roaring twenties o Consumerism – radio, affordable cars o Changing role of women  Economic stability (20s) o Kellogg‐Briand Pact o Women’s suffrage o Cultural creativity‐ Harlem Renaissance o Science‐ physics, biology & astronomy o immigration  Rise of Fascism o 1919‐ Mussolini formed fascist party in Italy o Nazism (form of fascist regime)  Late 20s & early 30s‐ Hitler called for Germans to unite  1933‐ Nazi Party gained majority vote  Totalitarian state – Gestapo o Through: propaganda, nationalism & attacks on Jews o Aggressive foreign policy focused on eastern Europe & Slavic peoples  Violated treaties & armament limits (weak response from Euro regarding his actions)  Great Depression o International implications o Overproduction during wartime, now left with surplus & countries that lent money wanted repayment  Tariffs at all‐time high o New York Stock Exchange Crash‐ Black Friday (October 1929) o Western Europe‐ raised national tariff & cut gov spending, led to elevation of extremist parties and conflicts, resulted in: an ineffective or overturned parliamentary system  New Deal o Unique response o Franklin Roosevelt (1933) o Direct aid to American people  Increased unemployment benefits, public works projects and Social Security  Economic planning  New banking regulations o Rapid governmental growth & renewed confidence in American political system ROARING 20s Document #1
In the 1920s, a new woman was born. She smoked, drank, danced, and voted. She cut her hair, wore
make-up, and went to petting parties. She was giddy and took risks. She was a flapper.
The "Younger Generation"
Before the start of World War I, the Gibson Girl was the rage. Inspired by Charles Dana Gibson's
drawings, the Gibson Girl wore her long hair loosely on top of her head and wore a long straight skirt and
a shirt with a high collar. She was feminine but also broke through several gender barriers for her attire
allowed her to participate in sports, including golf, roller skating, and bicycling.
Then World War I started. The young men of the world were being used as cannon fodder for an older
generation's ideals and mistakes. The attrition rate in the trenches left few with the hope that they would
survive long enough to return home. They found themselves inflicted with an "eat-drink-and-be-merryfor-tomorrow-we-die spirit."1 Far away from the society that raised them and faced with the reality of
death, many searched (and found) extreme life experiences before they entered the battlefield.
When the war was over, the survivors went home and the world tried to return to normalcy.
Unfortunately, settling down in peacetime proved more difficult than expected. During the war, the boys
had fought against both the enemy and death in far away lands; the girls had bought into the patriotic
fervor and aggressively entered the workforce. During the war, both the boys and the girls of this
generation had broken out of society's structure; they found it very difficult to return.
They found themselves expected to settle down into the humdrum routine of American life as if nothing
had happened, to accept the moral dicta of elders who seemed to them still to be living in a Pollyanna
land of rosy ideals which the war had killed for them. They couldn't do it, and they very disrespectfully
said so.2
Women were just as anxious as the men to avoid returning to society's rules and roles after the
war. In the age of the Gibson Girl, young women did not date, they waited until a proper young man
formally paid her interest with suitable intentions (i.e. marriage). However, nearly a whole generation of
young men had died in the war, leaving nearly a whole generation of young women without possible
suitors. Young women decided that they were not willing to waste away their young lives waiting idly for
spinsterhood; they were going to enjoy life. The "Younger Generation" was breaking away from the old
set of values.
The "Flapper"
The term "flapper" first appeared in Great Britain after World War I. It was there used to describe young
girls, still somewhat awkward in movement who had not yet entered womanhood…Authors such F. Scott
Fitzgerald and artists such as John Held Jr. first used the term to the U.S., half reflecting and half creating
the image and style of the flapper. Fitzgerald described the ideal flapper as "lovely, expensive, and about
nineteen."4 Held accentuated the flapper image by drawing young girls wearing unbuckled galoshes that
would make a "flapping" noise when walking.5
Many have tried to define flappers. In William and Mary Morris' Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins,
they state, "In America, a flapper has always been a giddy, attractive and slightly unconventional young
thing who, in [H. L.] Mencken's words, 'was a somewhat foolish girl, full of wild surmises and inclined to
revolt against the precepts and admonitions of her elders.'"6Flappers had both an image and an attitude.
Flapper Image
The Flappers' image consisted of drastic - to some, shocking - changes in women's clothing and hair.
Nearly every article of clothing was trimmed down and lightened in order to make movement easier.
It is said that girls "parked" their corsets when they were to go dancing.7 The new, energetic dances of the
Jazz Age, required women to be able to move freely, something the "ironsides" didn't allow. Replacing
the pantaloons and corsets were underwear called "step-ins." The outer clothing of flappers is even still
extremely identifiable. This look, called "garconne" ("little boy"), was instigated by Coco Chanel.8 To
look more like a boy, women tightly wound their chest with strips of cloth in order to flatten it.9 The
waists of flapper clothes were dropped to the hipline. She wore stockings - made of rayon ("artificial
silk") starting in 1923 - which the flapper often wore rolled over a garter belt.10
The hem of the skirts also started to rise in the 1920s. At first the hem only rose a few inches, but from
1925 to 1927 a flapper's skirt fell just below the knee.
The Gibson Girl, who prided herself on her long, beautiful, lush hair, was shocked when the
flapper cut hers off. The short haircut was called the "bob" which was later replaced by an even shorter
haircut, the "shingle" or "Eton" cut. The shingle cut was slicked down and had a curl on each side of the
face that covered the woman's ears. Flappers often finished the ensemble with a felt, bell-shaped hat
called a cloche. Flappers also started wearing make-up, something that had previously been only worn by
loose women. Rouge, powder, eye-liner, and lipstick became extremely popular.
Flapper Attitude
The flapper attitude was characterized by stark truthfulness, fast living, and sexual behavior. Flappers
seemed to cling to youth as if it were to leave them at any moment. They took risks and were reckless.
They wanted to be different, to announce their departure from the Gibson Girl's morals. So they smoked.
Something only men had done previously. Their parents were shocked.
I was sure my girls had never experimented with a hip-pocket flask, flirted with other women's husbands,
or smoked cigarettes. My wife entertained the same smug delusion, and was saying something like that
out loud at the dinner table one day. And then she began to talk about other girls.
Smoking wasn't the most outrageous of the flapper's rebellious actions. Flappers drank alcohol. At a time
when the United States had outlawed alcohol (Prohibition), young women were starting the habit early.
Some even carried hip-flasks full so as to have it on hand. More than a few adults didn't like to see tipsy
young women. Flappers had a scandalous image as the "giddy flapper, rouged and clipped, careening in a
drunken stupor to the lewd strains of a jazz quartet."14
The 1920s was the Jazz Age and one of the most popular past-times for flappers was dancing. Dances
such as the Charleston, Black Bottom, and the Shimmy were considered "wild" by older generations. As
described in the May 1920 edition of the Atlantic Monthly, flappers "trot like foxes, limp like lame ducks,
one-step like cripples, and all to the barbaric yawp of strange instruments which transform the whole
scene into a moving-picture of a fancy ball in bedlam."15 For the Younger Generation, the dances fit their
fast-paced life-style.
For the first time since the train and the bicycle, a new form of faster transportation was
becoming popular. Henry Ford's innovations were making the automobile an accessible commodity to the
people. Cars were fast and risky - perfect for the flapper attitude. Flappers not only insisted on riding in
them; they drove them.
Though many were shocked by the flapper's skimpy attire and licentious behavior, a less extreme
version of the flapper became respectable among the old and the young. Some women cut off their hair
and stopped wearing their corsets, but didn't go to the extreme of flapperhood.
At the end of the 1920s, the stock market crashed and the world was plunged into the Great Depression.
Frivolity and recklessness was forced to come to an end. However, much of the flapper's changes
remained.
In the 1920s, flappers broke away from the Victorian image of womanhood. They dropped the
corset, chopped their hair, dropped layers of clothing to increase ease of movement, wore make-up,
created the concept of dating, and became a sexual person. They created what many consider the "new" or
"modern" woman.
(http://history1900s.about.com/od/1920s/a/flappers.htm) ROARING 20s – Document #2 Roaring 20s – Document #3
Roaring 20s – Document #4
Economic Stability in the 1920s – Document #1
The Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928
The Kellogg-Briand Pact was an agreement to outlaw war signed on August 27, 1928. Sometimes called
the Pact of Paris for the city in which it was signed, the pact was one of many international efforts to
prevent another World War, but it had little effect in stopping the rising militarism of the 1930s or
preventing World War II.
U.S. Peace Advocates
In the wake of World War I, U.S. officials and private citizens made significant efforts to guarantee that
the nation would not be drawn into another war. Some focused on disarmament, such as the series of
naval conferences that began in Washington in 1921, and some focused on cooperation with the League
of Nations and the newly formed World Court. Others initiated a movement to try to outlaw war outright.
Peace advocates Nicholas Murray Butler and James T. Shotwell were part of this movement. Both men
were affiliated with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, an organization dedicated to
promoting internationalism that was established in 1910 by leading American industrialist Andrew
Carnegie.
French Involvement
With the influence and assistance of Shotwell and Butler, French Minister of Foreign Affairs Aristide
Briand proposed a peace pact as a bilateral agreement between the United States and France to outlaw
war between them. Particularly hard hit by World War I, France faced continuing insecurity from its
German neighbor and sought alliances to shore up its defenses. Briand published an open letter in April of
1927 containing the proposal. Though the suggestion had the enthusiastic support of some members of
the American peace movement, U.S. President Calvin Coolidge and Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg
were less eager than Briand to enter into a bilateral arrangement. They worried that the agreement against
war could be interpreted as a bilateral alliance and require the United States to intervene if France was
ever threatened. To avoid this, they suggested that the two nations take the lead in inviting all nations to
join them in outlawing war.
The extension of the pact to include other nations was well-received internationally. After the severe
losses of the First World War, the idea of declaring war to be illegal was immensely popular in
international public opinion. Because the language of the pact established the important point that only
wars of aggression – not military acts of self-defense – would be covered under the pact, many nations
had no objections to signing it. If the pact served to limit conflicts, then everyone would benefit; if it did
not, there were no legal consequences. In early 1928, negotiations over the agreement expanded to
include all of the initial signatories. In the final version of the pact, they agreed upon two clauses: the first
outlawed war as an instrument of national policy and the second called upon signatories to settle their
disputes by peaceful means.
On August 27, 1928, fifteen nations signed the pact at Paris. Signatories included France, the United
States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Belgium,
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Italy and Japan. Later, an additional forty-seven nations followed suit,
so the pact was eventually signed by most of the established nations in the world. The U.S. Senate ratified
the agreement by a vote of 85–1, though it did so only after making reservations to note that U.S.
participation did not limit its right to self-defense or require it to act against signatories breaking the
agreement.
(http://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/kellogg)
Economic Stability in the 1920s – Document #2
The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act)
Introduction
The Immigration Act of 1924 limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States
through a national origins quota. The quota provided immigration visas to two percent of the total number
of people of each nationality in the United States as of the 1890 national census. It completely excluded
immigrants from Asia.
Literacy Tests and “Asiatic Barred Zone”
In 1917, the U.S. Congress enacted the first widely restrictive immigration law. The uncertainty generated
over national security during World War I made it possible for Congress to pass this Act, and it included
several important provisions that paved the way for the 1924 Act. The 1917 Act implemented a literacy
test that required immigrants over 16 years old to demonstrate basic reading comprehension in any
language. It also increased the tax paid by new immigrants upon arrival and allowed immigration officials
to exercise more discretion in making decisions over whom to exclude. Finally, the Act excluded from
entry anyone born in a geographically defined “Asiatic Barred Zone” except for Japanese and Filipinos.
In 1907, the Japanese Government had voluntarily limited Japanese immigration to the U.S. in the
Gentlemen’s Agreement. The Philippines was an American colony, so its citizens were American
nationals and could travel freely to the United States. China was not included in the Barred Zone, but the
Chinese were already denied immigration visas under the Chinese Exclusion Act.
Immigration Quotas
The literacy test alone was not enough to prevent most potential immigrants from entering, so members of
Congress sought a new way to restrict immigration in the 1920s. Immigration expert and Republican
Senator from Vermont William P. Dillingham introduced a measure to create immigration quotas, which
he set at three percent of the total population of the foreign-born of each nationality in the United States
as recorded in the 1910 census. This put the total number of visas available each year to new immigrants
at 350,000. It did not, however, establish quotas of any kind for residents of the Western Hemisphere.
President Wilson opposed the restrictive act, preferring a more liberal immigration policy, so he used the
pocket veto to prevent its passage. In early 1921, the newly inaugurated President Warren Harding called
Congress back to a special session to pass the law. In 1922, the act was renewed for another two years.
When the Congressional debate over immigration began in 1924, the quota system was so wellestablished that no one questioned whether to maintain it, but rather discussed how to adjust it. Though
there were advocates for raising quotas and allowing more people to enter, the champions of restriction
triumphed. They created a plan that lowered the existing quota from three to two percent of the foreign
born population. They also pushed back the year on which quota calculations were based from 1910 to
1890.
Another change to the quota altered the basis of the quota calculations. The quota had been based on the
number of people born outside of the United States, or the number of immigrants in the United States.
The new law traced the origins of the whole of the American population, including natural-born citizens.
The new quota calculations included large numbers of people of British descent whose families were long
resident in the United States. As a result, the percentage of visas available to individuals from the British
Isles and Western Europe increased, but newer immigration from other areas like Southern and Eastern
Europe was limited.
The 1924 Immigration Act also included a provision excluding from entry any alien who by virtue of race
or nationality was ineligible for citizenship. Existing nationality laws dating from 1790 and 1870
excluded people of Asian lineage from naturalizing. As a result, the 1924 Act meant that even Asians not
previously prevented from immigrating – the Japanese in particular – would no longer be admitted to the
United States. Many in Japan were very offended by the new law, which was a violation of
the Gentlemen’s Agreement. The Japanese government protested, but the law remained, resulting in an
increase in existing tensions between the two nations. But it appeared that the U.S. Congress had decided
that preserving the racial composition of the country was more important than promoting good ties with
the Japanese empire.
The restrictionist principles of the Act could have resulted in strained relations with some European
countries as well, but these potential problems did not appear for several reasons. A variety of factors,
including the global depression of the 1930s, World War II, and stricter enforcement of U.S. immigration
policy served to curtail European emigration. When these crises had passed, emergency provisions for the
resettlement of displaced persons in 1948 and 1950 helped the United States avoid conflict over its new
immigration laws.
In all of its parts, the most basic purpose of the 1924 Immigration Act was to preserve the ideal of
American homogeneity. Congress revised the Act in 1952.
(http://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act)
Economic Stability in the 1920s – Document #3
On Election Day in 1920, millions of American women exercised their right to vote for the first time. It
took activists and reformers nearly 100 years to win that right, and the campaign was not easy:
Disagreements over strategy threatened to cripple the movement more than once. But on August 26, 1920,
the 19th Amendment to the Constitution was finally ratified, enfranchising all American women and
declaring for the first time that they, like men, deserve all the rights and responsibilities of citizenship.
(http://www.history.com/topics/womens-history/the-fight-for-womens-suffrage)
Economic Stability in the 1920s – Document #4
The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned the 1920s. At the time, it was known as
the "New Negro Movement", named after the 1925 anthology by Alain Locke. The Movement also
included the new African-American cultural expressions across the urban areas in the Northeast and
Midwest United States affected by the Great Migration, of which Harlem was the largest. Though it was
centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City, in addition, many francophone black writers
from African and Caribbean colonies who lived in Paris were also influenced by the Harlem Renaissance.
THE JAZZ AGE
With the conclusion of WWI came an end to wartime frugality and conservation. In an era of peace,
Americans experienced an economic boom, as well as a change in social morays. Nicknamed “The
Roaring 20s” for its dynamic changes, the decade became known for its celebration of excess and its
rejection of wartime ideologies. Americans also began investing more time and money in leisure activities
and artistic endeavors.
Around this same time, Congress ratified the Prohibition Act. While the amendment did not ban the
actual consumption of alcohol, it made obtaining it legally difficult. Liquor-serving nightclubs, called
“speakeasies” developed during this time as a way to allow Americans to socialize, indulge in alcohol
consumption, and rebel against the traditional culture.
One of the best speakeasies in Harlem was the Cotton Club, a place that intended to have the look and
feel of a luxurious Southern plantation. To complete the theme, only African-American entertainers could
perform there, while only white clientele (with few exceptions) were allowed to patronize the
establishment. This attracted high-powered celebrity visitors such as Cole Porter, Bing Crosby and Doris
Duke to see the most talented black entertainers of the day. Some of the most famous jazz performers of
the time - including singer Lena Horne, composer and musician Duke Ellington, and singer Cab
Calloway - graced the Cotton Club stage.
Attending clubs in Harlem allowed whites from New York and its surrounding areas to indulge in two
taboos simultaneously: to drink, as well as mingle with blacks. Jazz musicians often performed in these
clubs, exposing white clientele to what was typically an African-American form of musical entertainment.
As jazz hit the mainstream, many members of older generations began associating the raucous behavior of
young people of the decade with jazz music. They started referring to the 20s, along with its new dance
styles and racy fashions, as “The Jazz Age.” (http://www.biography.com/tv/classroom/harlemrenaissance)
Economic Stability – Document #5
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14, 1879. As a child, Einstein revealed an
extraordinary curiosity for understanding the mysteries of science (started only at age 10/11). A typical
child (only to his socio-economic class — educated middle class), Einstein took music lessons, playing
both the violin and piano — a passion that followed him into adulthood. Moving first to Italy and then to
Switzerland, the young prodigy graduated from high-school in 1896.
In 1905, while working as a patent clerk in Bern, Switzerland, Einstein had what came to be known as his
“Annus Mirabilis” — or “miracle year”. It was during this time that the young physicist obtained his
Doctorate degree and published four of his most influential research papers, including the Special Theory
of Relativity. In that, the now world famous equation "e = mc2" unlocked mysteries of the Universe
theretofore unknown.
Ten years later, in 1915, Einstein completed his General Theory of Relativity and in 1921 he was awarded
the Nobel Prize in Physics (iconic status cemented in 1919 when Arthur Eddington’s expedition
confirmed Albert Einstein’s prediction). It also launched him to international superstardom and his name
became a household word synonymous with genius all over the world.
Einstein emigrated to the United States in the autumn of 1933 and took up residence in Princeton, New
Jersey and a professorship at the prestigious Institute for Advanced Study.
Today, the practical applications of Einstein’s theories include the development of the television, remote
control devices, automatic door openers, lasers, and DVD-players. Recognized as TIME magazine’s
“Person of the Century” in 1999, Einstein’s intellect, coupled his strong passion for social justice and
dedication to pacifism, left the world with infinite knowledge and pioneering moral leadership.
(http://einstein.biz/biography.php)
Rise of Fascism – Document #1
Synopsis
Born in 1883 in Dovia di Predappio, Forlì, Italy, Benito Mussolini was an ardent socialist as a youth,
following in his father's political footsteps, but was expelled by the party for his support of World War I.
In 1919, he created the Fascist Party, eventually making himself dictator and holding all the power in
Italy. He overextended his forces during World War II and was eventually killed by his own people, on
April 28, 1945, in Mezzegra, Italy.
The Break with Socialism and Rise to Power
Mussolini initially condemned Italy's entry into World War I, but soon saw the war as an opportunity for
his country to become a great power. His change in attitude broke ties with fellow socialists, however,
and he was expelled from the organization. He joined the Italian army in 1915 and fought on the front
lines, reaching the rank of corporal before being wounded and discharged from the military.
After the war, Mussolini resumed his political activities, criticizing the Italian government for weakness
at the Treaty of Versailles. He organized several right-wing groups into a single force and, in March 1919,
formed the Fascist Party—the movement proclaimed opposition to social class discrimination and
supported nationalist sentiments, hoping to raise Italy to levels of its great Roman past.
Capitalizing on public discontent, Mussolini organized a para-military unit known as the "Black Shirts,"
who terrorized political opponents and helped increase Fascist influence. By 1922, as Italy slipped into
political chaos, Mussolini declared that only he could restore order and was given the authority. He
gradually dismantled all democratic institutions, and by 1929, had made himself dictator, taking the title
"Il Duce" ("the Leader"). To his credit, Mussolini carried out an extensive public works program and
reduced unemployment, making him very popular with the people.
Military Exploits
In 1935, determined to show the strength of his regime, Benito Mussolini invaded Ethiopia. The illequipped Ethiopians were no match for Italy's modern tanks and airplanes, and the capital, Addis Ababa,
was quickly captured. Mussolini incorporated Ethiopia into the new Italian Empire. In 1939, he sent
support to Fascists in Spain during the Spanish Civil War, hoping to expand his influence.
Impressed with Italy's early military successes, German dictator Adolf Hitlersought to establish a
relationship with Benito Mussolini; he was flattered by Hitler's overtures and interpreted the recent
diplomatic and military victories as proof of his genius. By 1939, the two countries had signed a military
alliance known as the "Pact of Steel." Influenced by Hitler, Mussolini instituted discrimination policies
against the Jews in Italy. In 1940, Italy invaded Greece with some initial success.
With Italy's resources stretched to capacity, many Italians believed the alliance with Germany would
provide time to regroup. But Hitler's invasion of Poland and declaration of war with Britain and France
forced Italy into war, and exposed weaknesses in its military. Greece and North Africa soon fell, and only
German military intervention in early 1941 saved Mussolini from a military coup.
(http://www.biography.com/people/benito-mussolini-9419443)
Fascism – Document #2
Italian Propaganda: “We Dream of a Roman Italy”
Italian propaganda would often use Ancient Roman comparisons and symbolism. They did this
both out of nationalistic pride, as well as out of respect for Rome's values of order, hard work and
discipline. Besides its symbolic aspects, the fasces, the symbol adopted by the Fascists, had been carried
by the lictors (bodyguard) of ancient Rome as a representation of authority.
Fasces= a bundle of rods containing an ax with the blade projecting, borne before Roman
magistrates as an emblem of official power.
“Black Brigades: Ready, Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow, Fighting for the honor of Italy”
Fascism – Document #3
“The keystone of the Fascist doctrine is its conception of the State, of its essence, its functions, and its
aims. For Fascism the State is absolute, individuals and groups relative.”
"All within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state."
– Benito Mussolini
_______________________________________________________
Fascism: fas·cism (noun)
1. a government ruled by a dictator
controls the lives of the people and in
which people are not allowed to
disagree with the government
2. very harsh control or authority
3. a political philosophy, movement, or
regime (as that of the Fascisti) that
exalts nation and often race above the
individual and stands for a centralized
autocratic government headed by a
dictatorial leader, severe economic and
social regimentation, and forcible
suppression of opposition
4. a tendency toward or actual exercise of
strong autocratic or dictatorial control
leaders of the fascist governments of Italy
(1922–43), Germany (1933–45), and Spain
(1939–75)—Benito Mussolini, Adolf Hitler,
and Francisco Franco—were portrayed to
their publics as embodiments of the strength
and resolve necessary to rescue their nations
from political and economic chaos. Japanese
fascists (1936–45) fostered belief in the
uniqueness of the Japanese spirit and taught
subordination to the state and personal
sacrifice.
Totalitarianism: 

The rise of Fascism in Europe pre- WWII
 From the first hours of Hitler's invasion of
the Soviet Union, in WWII the totalitarian
nature of both regimes made propaganda
inevitable. On one side stood Hitler,
fascism, the myth of German supremacy; on
the other side stood Stalin, communism, and
the international proletarian revolution.
 Philosophy of government that stresses the
primacy and glory of the state, unquestioning
obedience to its leader, subordination of the
individual will to the state's authority, and
harsh suppression of dissent. Martial virtues
are celebrated, while liberal and democratic
values are disparaged. Fascism arose during
the 1920s and '30s partly out of fear of the
rising power of the working classes; it
differed from contemporary communism (as
practiced under Joseph Stalin) by its
protection of business and landowning elites
and its preservation of class systems. The


Centralized control by an autocratic
authority
The political concept that the citizen
should be totally subject to an absolute
state authority
In times of crisis there are often calls for
totalitarianism
First Known Use of word = 1926
Form of government that subordinates all
aspects of its citizens' lives to the authority of
the state, with a single charismatic leader as the
ultimate authority. The term was coined in the
early 1920s by Benito Mussolini, but
totalitarianism has existed throughout history
throughout the world (e.g., Qin dynasty China).
It is distinguished from dictatorship and
authoritarianism by its supplanting of all
political institutions and all old legal and social
traditions with new ones to meet the state's
needs, which are usually highly focused. Largescale, organized violence may be legitimized.
The police operate without the constraint of laws
and regulations. Where pursuit of the state's goal
is the only ideological foundation for such a
government, achievement of the goal can never
be acknowledged.
Fascism – Document #4
Adolf Hitler – Rise to Power
The Great Depression in Germany provided a political opportunity for Hitler. Germans were ambivalent
to the parliamentary republic and increasingly open to extremist options. In 1932, Hitler ran against Paul
von Hindenburg for the presidency. Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election, garnering more
than 35 percent of the vote in the final election. The election established Hitler as a strong force in
German politics. Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor in order to promote
political balance.
Hitler used his position as chancellor to form a de facto legal dictatorship. The Reichtag Fire Decree,
announced after a suspicious fire at the Reichtag, suspended basic rights and allowed detention without
trial. Hitler also engineered the passage of the Enabling Act, which gave his cabinet full legislative
powers for a period of four years and allowed deviations from the constitution.
Having achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of government, Hitler and his
political allies embarked on a systematic suppression of the remaining political opposition. By the end of
June, the other parties had been intimidated into disbanding. On July 14, 1933, Hitler's Nazi Party was
declared the only legal political party in Germany.
Military opposition was also punished. The demands of the SA for more political and military power led
to the Night of the Long Knives, which took place from June 30 to July 2, 1934. Ernst Röhm and other
SA leaders, along with a number of Hitler's political enemies, were rounded up and shot.
The day before Hindenburg's death in August 1934, the cabinet had enacted a law abolishing the office of
president and combining its powers with those of the chancellor. Hitler thus became head of state as well
as head of government, and was formally named as leader and chancellor. As head of state, Hitler became
supreme commander of the armed forces. He began to mobilize for war. Germany withdrew from the
League of Nations, and Hitler announced a massive expansion of Germany’s armed forces.
The Nazi regime also included social reform measures. Hitler promoted anti-smoking campaigns across
the country. These campaigns stemmed from Hitler's self-imposed dietary restrictions, which included
abstinence from alcohol and meat. At dinners, Hitler sometimes told graphic stories about the slaughter of
animals in an effort to shame his fellow diners. He encouraged all Germans to keep their bodies pure of
any intoxicating or unclean substance.
A main Nazi concept was the notion of racial hygiene. New laws banned marriage between non-Jewish
and Jewish Germans, and deprived "non-Aryans" of the benefits of German citizenship. Hitler's early
eugenic policies targeted children with physical and developmental disabilities, and later authorized a
euthanasia program for disabled adults.
The Holocaust was also conducted under the auspices of racial hygiene. Between 1939 and 1945, Nazis
and their collaborators were responsible for the deaths of 11 million to 14 million people, including about
6 million Jews, representing two-thirds of the Jewish population in Europe. Deaths took place in
concentration and extermination camps and through mass executions. Other persecuted groups included
Poles, communists, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses and trade unionists, among others. Hitler probably
never visited the concentration camps and did not speak publicly about the killings.
Rise of Fascism – Document #5
Hitler's actions 1933-1939
Date Event
What happened
1933 League of Nations Hitler leaves the League of Nations.
1934 Austria
Hitler tries to take power in Austria. Austrian Nazis murder the chancellor,
Dolfuss. Italy moves its army to the border and Hitler backs down.
1935 Saar
As planned in the Treaty of Versailles, the people of Saar (which had been
given to France for 15 years) vote to return to Germany.
1935 Rearmament
Hitler increases the size of the German army to half a million members.
Britain, France and Italy do nothing.
1935 Anglo-German
Naval Treaty
1936 Rhineland
Britain helps Germany break the Treaty of Versailles by signing an agreement
to allow Germany a navy one-third of the size of Britain's.
German troops re-occupy the Rhineland. They are given orders to retreat if
France offers any resistance. France does nothing.
1936 Guernica
Hitler tests his armed forces when German bombers, which are helping the
Fascists in the Spanish Civil War, bomb the Spanish town of Guernica.
Civilians in Britain and France are frightened.
1937 Anti-Comintern
Alliance of Germany, Japan and Italy against communism
Pact
1938 Anschluss
Hitler occupies Austria. First, Hitler encourages the Austrian Nazis to demand
a union with Germany. Then he invades when the Austrian chancellor
announces a vote to see what Austrians want. After the German invasion, 99
per cent of Austrians vote "Ja". Britain and France do nothing.
1938 Sudetenland
Hitler bullies France and Britain into giving him the Sudetenland.
1939 Czechoslovakia
Hitler invades Czechoslovakia and takes control.
1939 Poland
Hitler invades Poland and provokes the Second World War.
Hitler’s primary objectives as stated in his book, "Mein Kampf" (1924):
1. Destroy the Treaty of Versailles.
2. Create a Greater Germany (a country of all the German people).
3. Lebensraum (living space) to conquer land for Germany in Eastern Europe.
_________________________________________________________________________________
Gestapo: abbreviation of Geheime Staatspolizei (German: “Secret State Police”), the political police of
Nazi Germany. The Gestapo ruthlessly eliminated opposition to the Nazis within Germany and its
occupied territories and was responsible for the roundup of Jews throughout Europe for deportation to
extermination camps.
Hitler’s secret police force, the Gestapo, pictured here killing a Russian peasant.
The Great Depression – Document #1
The Great Depression – Document #2
The Stock Market Crash
After nearly a decade of optimism and prosperity, the United States was thrown into despair on Black
Tuesday, October 29, 1929, the day the stock market crashed and the official beginning of the Great
Depression. As stock prices plummeted with no hope of recovery, panic struck. Masses and masses of
people tried to sell their stock, but no one was buying. The stock market, which had appeared to be the
surest way to become rich, quickly became the path to bankruptcy.
And yet, the Stock Market Crash was just the beginning. Since many banks had also invested large
portions of their clients' savings in the stock market, these banks were forced to close when the stock
market crashed. Seeing a few banks close caused another panic across the country. Afraid they would lose
their own savings, people rushed to banks that were still open to withdraw their money. This massive
withdrawal of cash caused additional banks to close. Since there was no way for a bank's clients to
recover any of their savings once the bank had closed, those who didn't reach the bank in time also
became bankrupt.
Businesses and industry were also affected. Having lost much of their own capital in either the Stock
Market Crash or the bank closures, many businesses started cutting back their workers' hours or wages. In
turn, consumers began to curb their spending, refraining from purchasing such things as luxury goods.
This lack of consumer spending caused additional businesses to cut back wages or, more drastically, to
lay off some of their workers. Some businesses couldn't stay open even with these cuts and soon closed
their doors, leaving all their workers unemployed.
The Dust Bowl
In previous depressions, farmers were usually safe from the severe effects of a depression because they
could at least feed themselves. Unfortunately, during the Great Depression, the Great Plains were hit hard
with both a drought and horrendous dust storms, creating what became known as the Dust Bowl.
Years and years of overgrazing combined with the effects of a drought caused the grass to disappear.
With just topsoil exposed, high winds picked up the loose dirt and whirled it for miles. The dust storms
destroyed everything in their paths, leaving farmers without their crops.
Small farmers were hit especially hard. Even before the dust storms hit, the invention of the tractor
drastically cut the need for manpower on farms. These small farmers were usually already in debt,
borrowing money for seed and paying it back when their crops came in. When the dust storms damaged
the crops, not only could the small farmer not feed himself and his family, he could not pay back his debt.
Banks would then foreclose on the small farms and the farmer's family would be both homeless and
unemployed.
The Great Depression – Document #3
U.S. Tariffs Through the 1920s
High tariffs were a means not only of protecting infant industries, but of generating revenue for the
federal government. They were also a mainstay of the Republican Party, which dominated the
Washington political scene after the Civil War. After the Democrats, who supported freer trade, captured
Congress and the White House in the elections of 1910 and 1912, the stage was set for a change in tariff
policy. With the 1913 Underwood-Simmons Tariff, the United States broke with its tradition of
protectionism, enacting legislation that lowered tariffs (and also instituted an income tax). The reversion
of Congress to Republican control during the First World War and the 1920 election of Republican
Warren Harding to the presidency signaled an end to the experiment with lower tariffs. To provide
protection for American farmers, whose wartime markets in Europe were disappearing with the recovery
of European agricultural production, as well as U.S. industries that had been stimulated by the war,
Congress passed the temporary Emergency Tariff Act in 1921, followed a year later by the FordneyMcCumber Tariff Act of 1922. The Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act raised tariffs above the level set in
1913; it also authorized the president to raise or lower a given tariff rate by 50% in order to even out
foreign and domestic production costs. One unintended consequence of the Fordney-McCumber tariff
was that it made it more difficult for European nations to export to the United States and so earn dollars to
service their war debts.
The International Depression
The key factor in turning national economic difficulties into worldwide Depression seems to have been a
lack of international coordination as most governments and financial institutions turned inwards. Great
Britain, which had long underwritten the global financial system and had led the return to the gold
standard, was unable to play its former role and became the first to drop off the standard in 1931. The
United States, preoccupied with its own economic difficulties, did not step in to replace Great Britain as
the creditor of last resort and dropped off the gold standard in 1933. At the London Economic Conference
in 1933, leaders of the world’s main economies met to resolve the economic crisis, but failed to reach any
major collective agreements. As a result, the Depression dragged on through the rest of the 1930s.
Isolationism
The Depression caused the United States to retreat further into its post-World War I isolationism. A series
of international incidents occurred during the 1930s—the Japanese seizure of northeast China in 1931, the
Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, and German expansionism in Central and Eastern Europe—but the
United States did not take any major action in response or opposition. When these and other incidents
occurred, the United States Government issued statements of disapproval but took limited action beyond
that. On a more positive note, isolationism manifested in Latin America in the form of the Good Neighbor
Policy of Presidents Herbert Hoover and Franklin Roosevelt, under which the United States reduced its
military presence in the region and improved relations between itself and its neighbors to the south.
Presidents Hoover and Roosevelt were to an extent constrained by public opinion, which demanded that
primary attention be given to domestic problems. The Hoover and Roosevelt Administrations
concentrated upon rebuilding the U.S. economy and dealing with widespread unemployment and social
dislocation at home and as a result international affairs took a back seat.
Neutrality Acts of the 1930s: In the 1930s, the United States Government enacted a series of laws
designed to prevent the United States from being embroiled in a foreign war by clearly stating the terms
of U.S. neutrality. Although many Americans had rallied to join President Woodrow Wilson’s crusade to
make the world “safe for democracy” in 1917, by the 1930s critics argued that U.S. involvement in the
First World War had been driven by bankers and munitions traders with business interests in Europe.
These findings fueled a growing “isolationist” movement that argued the United States should steer clear
of future wars and remain neutral by avoiding financial deals with countries at war.
Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act (1934)
Between 1934 and 1939, the Roosevelt Administration concluded trade agreements with 19 countries
under the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act: Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Czechoslovakia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Finland, France, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, the Netherlands,
Nicaragua, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. After 1945, the tariff negotiating procedure
established under the RTAA program provided the model for that of the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT), the agreement signed by 23 countries in 1947 that has provided the framework for
multilateral trade liberalization in the post-WWII era.
The Great Depression – Document #4
Responses to the Depression in Western Europe:
In Western Europe and the United States, the Depression showed that the achievements of the 1920s had
been fragile. Weak governments responded counterproductively to the crisis, with economic policies that
often made things worse. Confidence in normal politics declined, as radical political parties gained new
support. In most cases, however, parliamentary forms of government were weakened. In France, a
Popular Front government dominated by socialist groups won the election in 1936. Opposed by more
conservative groups, the Popular Front was unable to enact effective policy. In Scandinavia, the
government chose to intervene more actively in the economy with generally positive results. In Britain,
new industrial sectors emerged under creative business leadership.
The Popular Front in France
Labor laws:

Through the 1936 Matignon Accords, the Popular Front government introduced new labor laws
o created the right to strike
o created collective bargaining
o enacted the law mandating 12 days (2 weeks) each year of paid annual leave for workers
o enacted the law limiting the working week to 40 hours (outside of overtime)
o raised wages (15% for the lowest-paid workers, declining to 7% for the relatively wellpaid)
o stipulated that employers would recognize shop stewards
o ensured that there would be no retaliation against strikers
Domestic reforms:

The Blum administration democratized the Bank of France by enabling all shareholders to attend
meetings and set up a new council with more representation from government. By mid-August
the parliament had voted for:
o the creation of a national Office du blé (Grain Board or Wheat Office, through which the
government helped to market agricultural produce at fair prices for farmers) to stabilize
prices and curb speculation
o the nationalization of the arms industries
o loans to small and medium-sized industries
o the raising of the compulsory school-leaving age to 14 years
o measures against illicit price rises
o a major public works program
The New Deal – Document #1
Roosevelt and the New Deal
The U.S. economy broke down and entered the Great Depression during the presidency of Herbert
Hoover. Although President Hoover repeatedly spoke of optimism, the people blamed him for the Great
Depression. Just as the shantytowns were named Hoovervilles after him, newspapers became known as
"Hoover blankets," pockets of pants turned inside out (to show they were empty) were called "Hoover
flags," and broken-down cars pulled by horses were known as "Hoover wagons."
During the 1932 presidential election, Hoover did not stand a chance at reelection and Franklin D.
Roosevelt won in a landslide. People of the United States had high hopes that President Roosevelt would
be able to solve all their woes. As soon as Roosevelt took office, he closed all the banks and only let them
reopen once they were stabilized. Next, Roosevelt began to establish programs that became known as the
New Deal.
These New Deal programs were most commonly known by their initials, which reminded some people of
alphabet soup. Some of these programs were aimed at helping farmers, like the AAA (Agricultural
Adjustment Administration). While other programs, such as the CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps) and
the WPA (Works Progress Administration), attempted to help curb unemployment by hiring people for
various projects.
FDR: Mar 4, 1933 – Inaugural address, states: “Only Thing to Fear is Fear Itself”.
The New Deal – Document #2
Civilian Conservation Corps was a public work relief program that operated from 1933 to 1942 in the
United States for unemployed, unmarried men from relief families, ages 18–25 as part of the New Deal.
The New Deal – Document #3
New Deal Initiative:
Description:
Right after taking office as President,
FDR shut down all of the banks in the
nation and Congress passed the
Emergency Banking
Emergency Banking Act which gave the
Act/Federal Deposit
government the opportunity to inspect
Insurance
the health of all banks. The Federal
Corporation (FDIC)
Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
was formed by Congress to insure
deposits up to $5000.
Outcome:
These measures reestablished American
faith in banks. Americans were no longer
scared that they would lose all of their
savings in a bank failure. Government
inspectors found that most banks were
healthy, and two-thirds were allowed to
open soon after. After reopening, deposits
had exceeded withdrawals.
Federal Emergency
Relief
Administration
(FERA)
Led by Harry Hopkins, a former social
worker, this agency sent funds to
depleting local relief agencies. Within
two hours, $5 million were given out.
Revitalized many deteriorating relief
Mr. Hopkins believed that men should programs.
be put to work and not be given charity.
His program also funded public work
programs.
Civil Works
Administration
(CWA)
This public work program gave the
unemployed jobs building or repairing
roads, parks, airports, etc.
The CWA provided a psychological and
physical boost to its 4 million workers.
This environmental program put 2.5
million unmarried men to work
maintaining and restoring forests,
Civilian
The CCC taught the men and women of
beaches, and parks. Workers earned only
Conservation Corps
America how to live independently, thus,
$1 a day but received free board and job
(CCC)
increasing their self esteem.
training. From 1934 to 1937, this
program funded similar programs for
8,500 women.
Indian
Reorganization Act
of 1934
This act ended the sale of tribal lands
and restored ownership of unallocated
lands to Native American groups.
The outcome was obviously positive for
the Native Americans.
National Industrial
Recovery Act
(NIRA) of June
1933
The decline in the industrial prices in
1930s caused business failures and
unemployment. The NIRA was formed
in order to boost the declining prices,
helping businesses and workers. The
NIRA also allowed trade associations in
many industries to write codes
regulating wages, working conditions,
production, and prices. It also set a
minimum wage.
The codes stopped the tailspin of prices
for a short time, but soon, when higher
wages went into effect, prices rose too.
Thus, consumers stopped buying. The
continuous cycle of overproduction and
under consumption put businesses back
into a slump. Some businesses felt that
the codes were too complicated and the
NRA was too rigid. Declared
unconstitutional later on.
The PWA launched projects such as the
Public Works
Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia
One of the best parts of the NIRA.
Association (PWA)
River.
Federal Securities
Act of May 1933/
Securities and
Exchange
Commission (SEC)
This act required full disclosure of
information on stocks being sold. The
SEC regulated the stock market.
Critical for long-term success for
Congress also gave the Federal Reserve businesses.
Board the power to regulate the
purchase of stock on margin.
Home Owners Loan
Corporation
(HOLC) /
Agriculture
Adjustment
Administration
(AAA)
In order to help people keep their
houses, the HOLC refinanced mortgages
of middle-income home owners. The
AAA tried to raise farm prices. It used
proceeds from a new tax to pay farmers
not to raise specific crops and animals.
Lower production would, in turn,
increase prices.
Farmers killed off certain animals and
crops as they were told to by the AAA.
Many could not believe that the federal
government was condoning such an
action when many Americans were
starving. Declared unconstitutional later
on.
Tennessee Valley
Authority (TVA)
(May 1933)
The TVA helped farmers and created
jobs in one of America s least
modernized areas.
Reactivating a hydroelectric power plant
provided cheap electric power, flood
control, and recreational opportunities to
the entire Tennessee River valley.
Works Progress
Administration
(WPA) 1935-1943
This agency provided work for 8 million
Americans. The WPA constructed or
Decreased unemployment.
repaired schools, hospitals, airfields, etc.
Farm Security
Administration
(FSA)
The FSA loaned more than $1 billion to
farmers and set up camps for migrant
workers.
National Labor
Relations Act
(Wagner Act)
It legalized practices allowed only
unevenly in the past, such as closed
shops in which only union members can
work and collective bargain. The act
also set up the National Labor Relations
Board (NLRB) to enforce its provisions
Fair Labor
Standards Act of
1938
This banned child labor and set a
minimum wage.
This law was a long awaited triumph for
the progressive-era social reformers.
Social Security Act
This act established a system that
provided old-age pensions for workers,
survivors benefits for victims of
industrial accidents, unemployment
insurance, and aid for dependent
mothers and children, the blind and
physically disabled.
Although the original SSA did not cover
farm and domestic workers, it did help
millions of Americans feel more secure.
The New Deal – Document #4