Rhetorical Situation: the environment that produced the text.
What constitutes this environment? The author of the text (who), the publishing of the text
(when/where), the purpose for writing (inform, entertain, argue, persuade, etc.), the
reason/thesis for writing (why), and who was the text intended for (audience). In other
words, a text involves the writer, the context of the writing, and the audience of the writing.
The relationship of these three “players” and their interactions constitute the rhetorical
situation for various purposes and rhetorical modes of writing.
Rhetorical Modes: Analysis, Argument, Definition, Description, Editorial/Op-Ed, Exposition,
Parody/Satire, Narration, etc.
Appealing to Audiences: Logos (logic, reasoning, and evidence concerning the subject),
Ethos (character and expertise of the writer/speaker), Pathos (beliefs and values of the
audience/emotions), Kairos (timing/pacing and placement of effects)
Checklist for Reading Critically:
Why a Text is Created
Who is the author?
When/Where is the text published?
What is the author’s purpose in writing the
text?
What is the thesis of the text?
Who is the intended audience for the text?
Why is the context important for
understanding the issue raised in this
text?
How a Text is Created
Summarize the context
Examine the title
Look closely at the organization of the
material in the text
Pay attention to the tone of the text
Underline or highlight words that seem
repetitious, unusual, or unknown
Discover the rhetorical modes used by the
author in this text
How does the author use these rhetorical
strategies to support the thesis and
appeal to the audience?
Checklist for Writing Critically:
Why Your Text is Created
What are the parameters of the assignment
given to me by my instructor?
What parameters do I need to set for
myself?
How Your Text is Created
Consider the title an important glimpse into
the overall focus and content of the essay; it
should relate directly to the subject while
capturing the attention of the audience
Effectively develop the text with relevant,
specific examples and pertinent, critical
observations
What is the thesis of my text?
What is my purpose in writing the text
according to the assignment? How can I go
beyond this general statement to make my
purpose more specific and to help me lead
to an effective conclusion?
Who is the intended audience for my text?
Look closely at the organization of the
material in the text. Does it build toward a
solid conclusion or overall purpose?
Pay attention to the tone and language use
of the text; it should be consistent with
thesis, purpose and audience
Use rhetorical modes as strategies for
developing and organizing material. Select
the best mode to reveal what is most
important to the audience in a particular
section of the text
What is my tone?
Why is the context or writing occasion
important for understanding the issue
raised in this text?
Creating Activities: Freewrite, Brainstorm, Make an Idea Map, Respond to Something
You’ve Read, Talk and Listen
Suggested Writing Process:
I. Planning and getting ideas
A. Be sure you understand all the requirements of the assignment: length, due date,
etc.
B. Decide what kinds of topics would best fit the assignment.
C. Do creating activities to help find a good topic. (See above under Creating
Activities.)
D. List your purpose, audience, tone, and thesis.
E. List the main rhetorical mode(s) you plan to use.
II. Write at least a rough outline for you paper.
III. Using your planning lists, outline, and creating activities, write your first draft.
IV. Revise your rough draft (This may mean doing several drafts.)
A. Be ruthless: change or eliminate anything in the paper that does not support your
purpose or fit the requirements of the assignment.
B. Rewrite and/or rearrange paragraphs and sections of the paper to improve them.
C. After you are satisfied with the basic content and organization, work on
improving sentence structure and word choice.
V. Edit: check for errors in sentence structure, grammar, spelling and mechanics. (Run the
spelling check on your computer, but remember it can only recognize a real word. It can’t
tell, for instance, if the “angle” you describe should be spelled “angel”.)
VI. Proofread: Try to catch all those missing words and errors that can cloud meaning and
create a poor impression.
VII. Get some feedback from objective readers (your peer group, and even better: the
writing lab!)
A. Decide which comments are valid and useful.
B. Make changes as needed, and repeat steps IV, V, and VI as needed.
Features of Effective Introductions: Honesty—the introduction is a contract with the
readers and must provide them with a sufficient understanding of what direction the
writer is taking; Simplicity—the writer tries to make the meaning clear without lengthy
elaboration. Don’t summarize your paper in the introduction. Save your supporting points
for the body of the paper; Immediacy—get to the heart of the matter with as little delay as
possible. This is your opportunity to “hook” your readers’ interest; Information—
introductions should provide the readers with information about the topic that makes
them want to read on and gives the background needed to understand what you are talking
about; Voice—establish the tone to create a relationship with the subject for the audience.
Readers want to hear the writer’s voice and to have the illusion of a private conversation
with him or her; Appropriateness—the introduction gives the reader a clear idea of the
topic and, in many cases, leads up and includes the thesis of the paper. The introduction,
then, must tie in naturally with the thesis and the rest of the paper.
Some Methods to Use for Introductions:
Framing Generalization
General statement which includes the information to be
presented, builds a context for it, and says something about
its significance.
Corrective Assertion
Calls attention to some popular misconception or erroneous
opinion about a subject, and then sets the record straight.
Framing Question
Confronts the reader directly with the question or set of
questions that the essay is designed to answer and arouses
and focuses the reader’s interest. In general, questions that
begin “Have you ever…” are not real questions to be
answered.
Providing Background
Provides reader with some historical background and
development of the subject. Builds context for the essay.
Focusing Event
Explains or narrates a particular event or circumstance that
illustrates some aspect of the essay’s subject.
Framing Quotation
Usually gathered from some authority or key individual
mentioned in the text and should be pertinent to your
subject.
Surprising Statement
Definition
Important Fact
Personal Experience
The News
Dialogue
Description
Catch the reader with some astonishing fact or outrageoussounding generalization, yet make sure it relates to and leads
to the thesis and rest of the paper.
If subject is open to definition, open the essay with your
understanding of how the topic should be defined.
A statement that will lead to the general topic that will
interest or intrigue the reader. May be a statistic, a revealing
detail, an action, or a behavior.
Anecdotes are extremely effective in involving the reader in
the story, but they must fit the purpose of the paper.
Immediately relate what is new about the subject. Usually
includes the journalist’s questions: Who, Where, When, Why,
How?
Conflict or action in a piece of writing can be observed
immediately. Drama is built on conflict, and the reader
should see these forces in action early in the story.
Description should be packed with visual details, and will be
richer if it includes details that attract the senses of hearing,
tasting, touching, smelling and seeing.
Some Introductions Not to Use:
Beginning Too Far Back
If background or historical information is used as an opener,
begin at a reasonable place. Essays that begin “Since the
beginning of time…” are an instant turn-off.
Apology or Complaint
Statements that apologize, whine or complain are
discouraging to most readers.
Broad Generalizations
Sweeping or cosmic generalizations are rarely interesting,
accurate, or supportable.
Self-Evident Statements
Resist the temptation to open with some commonplace
observations that give no hint of the subject.
Writing Good Conclusions:
Concluding Generalization
Reflection
Lesson Learned
Evaluation
Concluding Example or
Quotation
Briefly summarize the main points and say something about
the significance of the information. However, don’t
summarize the entire essay.
Discuss the implications of the material found in the essay,
especially what questions are suggested or what questions
are answered.
States the lesson learned from the essay, yet avoid
unjustified extreme or controversial conclusions.
Evaluate the situation presented or some aspect of it.
Illustrate the main point of the essay memorably.
Climatic Closure
Call to Action
Closure
Conclusions Not to Use:
Summary of the Essay
Apology
Qualifying Remarks
Afterthoughts
Anemic Conclusions
“In conclusion…”
Final paragraph is the culmination of the ideas developed in
the essay. In some persuasive essays, the conclusion contains
the thesis of the paper.
Makes clear how the action will address the main points.
Repeat the opening idea in different words. Useful in longer
essay to remind the reader of the main idea and to give main
point more emphasis. Gives the reader a sense of a circle
neatly closing.
This technique is sometimes taught in high schools but is
rarely used by professional writers because it is redundant
rather than enlightening.
Ending a paper with an apology for its shortcomings only
serves to emphasize them. Never say, “Of course, this is only
my opinion…” as this caveat highlights a weak tone.
If a qualifier is needed, make it early in the essay so as to
avoid weakening the position taken in the paper.
Only include details that are developed as part of the major
points of the essay.
The ending of the essay should leave the reader with a
definite sense of conclusion.
A strong, well-developed conclusion does not need to be
prefaced with all-purpose phrases such as “in conclusion, in
summary, to summarize!”