by Thomas Zawadzki
Pythagoras
of Samos,
Cutting from
the Fresco
"School of
Athens" by
Raphael, Vatican, Rome
A
ncient Olympic Games are very often the object of sport historical research. The same frequency applies to, or even more often research is
done on the modern Olympic Games since 1892 by
1
distinguished sport historians.
The topic of this article shall deal with the period 393 AD - the year of the ban of all pagan sac2
rifices and thus the games in ancient Olympia by
Emperor THEODOSE I, the Great - to the 1890s, when
the Frenchman Pierre FREDY Baron de COUBERTIN
institutionalised the modern Olympic Games.
Of course this period in between is a fairly long
one and must be narrowed in. Further information
may be obtained from the work of Karl LENNARTZ
Kenntnisse und Vorstellungen von Olympia und den
Olympischen Spielen 393 -1896 issued in 1974.3 Apart
from Joachim K. RUHL'S recent study "Olympic
Games before Coubertin"4 for thirty years only additional articles or single research papers were published on this topic. LENNARTZ only referred to a selection of Olympic Games which took place before
COUBERTIN especially in Great Britain5, France6 and
Greece7. Further games entitled "Olympic" even
were celebrated in Canada.8 Presently the author is
preparing a re-edition which will include the addi9
tional knowledge of the past thirty years.
This article is dedicated to the development
starting with PYTHAGORAS of Samos and ending
with Jean Jacques ROUSSEAU.
Pythagoras of Samos
The Greek Philosopher and founder of the
Pythagorean School PYTHAGORAS of Samos10 still
today mystifies literary scholars, graecists and philosophers as far as his person and his works are
concerned.11
PYTHAGORAS was born in 570 BC as the son of
MNESARCHOS and PYTHAIS on the island of Samos.
There he received lessons in natural philosophy
and soon started with his own teaching. On expanded travels through Egypt and Babylonia he
supplemented his knowledge. At the age of forty
he settled - probably for political reasons -in the
city of Crotone in lower Italy. By his orations his
political impact began to grow very soon and he
rounded the society of Pythagoreans. Among his
disciples one can find multiple Olympic victor
MILON of Crotone who won the wrestling competition in Olympia in 540 BC and another five times
50
in the years to follow. He and others were edu12
cated by PATHAGORAS in philosophy and athletics.
Additionally PYTHAGORAS even developed special
dietetics.
Again for political reasons PYTHAGORAS had to
leave Crotone and settled in Metapontion where he
died at about 500 BC.
"As no scriptures are available by Pythagoras
and previous to the time of Philolaos [of Crotone;
mid 5th Century BC] only oral tradition of the
literal school existed at all one cannot find here
an <authentic> doxography."13
Even the reconstruction of PYTHAGORAS' biography
was written on the basis of the fragmentary transmission of his writings and reports of his disciples
as well as later generations.14
Marcus Tullius Cicero
One of the most well known fragments and possibly the most interesting one for this research one
can find with the Roman politician, orator and author Marcus Tullius CICERO.
Born on January 3rd, 106 BC in Arpinum CICERO
soon became one of the most important and popular
politicians of his time. Although he did not join in
CAESAR'S murder on March 15th, 44 BC, he appreciated the occurrence. Later he supported OCTAVIAN
in the conflict with Marcus ANTONIUS. CICERO died
on December 7th, 43 BC near Fermiae.15
He may be regarded as one of the very few uni-
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 14(MARCH 2006)1
versal writers of Roman antiquity. Among his works
one finds orations and letters as well as rhetorical
and philosophical treatises which were already
counted to classical Latin literature even at his time.
Since winter 46/45 CICERO planned a universal treatise of Greek philosophy In his later literal works
one can find the Tusculanae Disputationes16 which
were finished in summer 45. The third chapter of
the fifth volume contains the following passage:
"[...] Pythagoras, who is reported to have gone
to Phlius, as we find it stated by Heraclides
Ponticus [HERAKLEIDES Pontikos, ca 390-310
BC], a very learned man, and a pupil of Plato,
and to have discoursed very learnedly and copiously on certain subjects with Leon17, prince of
the Phliasii; and when Leon, admiring his ingenuity and eloquence, asked him what art he particularly professed, his answer was, that he was
acquainted with no art, but that he was a philosopher. Leon, surprised at the novelty of the name,
inquired what he meant by the name of philosopher, and in what philosophers differed from other
men; on which Pythagoras replied, 'That the life
of man seemed to him to resemble those games
which were celebrated with the greatest possible
variety of sports and the general concourse of all
Greece. For as in those games there were some
persons whose object was glory and the honour
of a crown, to be attained by the performance of
bodily exercises, so others were led thither by the
gain of buying and selling, and mere views of
profit; but there was likewise one class of persons,
and they were by far the best, whose aim was neither applause nor profit, but who came merely as
spectators through curiosity, to observe what was
done, and to see in what manner things were carried on there. And thus, said he, we come from
another life and nature unto this one, just as men
come out of some other city, to some much frequented mart; some being slaves to glory, others
to money; and there are some few who, taking no
account of anything else, earnestly look into the
nature of things; and these men call themselves
studious of wisdom, that is, philosophers: and as
there it is the most reputable occupation of all to
be a looker-on without making any acquisition, so
in life, the contemplating things, and acquainting one's self with them, greatly exceeds every
other pursuit of life."18
Obviously this attempt to describe life in one single
metaphor - an approach traced back to PYTHAGORAS19
- deals with the etymologic determination of the
term "philosopher". None-the-less the well informed and detailed description of Panhellenic
agons in this place is noticeable. Here CICERO does
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 14(MARCH 2006)1
not mention explicitly the Olympic
Games but leaves it to the readers to
decide upon the place; however, one
can assume that he writes about the
games on the Peloponnesus.
Michel de Montaigne
Michel EYQUEM de MONTAIGNE was
born on February 28th, 1533 on
Montaigne Castle near Bordeaux.
He studied jurisprudence in
Bordeaux and Toulouse, became
councilman of the parliament in
Bordeaux and mayor in 1582. He
passed away on September 13th,
1592 at Montaigne.
In his works he dealt with ancient traditions and developed
his individual form of essays,
Cicero, marble bust,
Museo del Prado, Madrid
literally: attempts of literal treatments which dispute an item in a
particular way This way of writing - established
by MONTAIGNE - finds its predecessors in some
treatises by CICERO. The objectives of these works
always remain the same: they aim at an explanation and finding of oneself by taking consideration
the individual autonomy.
In 1580 - nearly 1600 years after CICERO
- MONTAIGNE published the first two volumes of
his Essais and presented them to King HENRY III in
Paris. In the same year he was received in an audience by Pope GREGORY XIII whom he also handed
over his opus on December 29th.
The first volume contains a collection of 57 essays, the
second volume another 37. The third volume released in
1588 is composed of other thirteen essays. In MONTAIGNE'S
Essay "About the Education of Boys"20 one finds a short
paragraph about Olympic Games:
"[...] our life resembles the great and populous
assembly of the Olympic games, wherein some
exercise the body, that they may carry away the
glory of the prize: others bring merchandise
to sell for profit: there are also some (and
those none of the worst sort) who pursue
no other advantage than only to look on,
and consider how and why everything is
done, and to be spectators of the lives of
other men, thereby the better to judge
of and regulate their own."21
MONTAIGNE amended the quotation by CICERO22 adding the adjunct
"Olympic" to the description of the
Michel de Montaigne Monument at the
Rue de I'ecole de la medecine, opposite
the entrance of the Sorbonne, Paris
51
games. This fact indicates that there was further
knowledge of the writings of PAUSANIAS and/or
PINDAR.
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Later this quotation was also adopted by Jean
Jacques ROUSSEAU, this time with a change of and
addition to its sense.
Jean Jacques ROUSSEAU, born June 28th,
1712 in Geneva and deceased July 2nd, 1778 in
Ermenonville near Paris, was a pedagogue and the
founder of several educational theories. In his educational novel dated 1762 Emile ou de l'Education23
he ever and again recommends all kinds of physical exercise. Even a comparison with the Olympic
Games is used two times.
Thinking about the way of how to get a boy to
run the first mention occurs:
"To give room to run and to add interest to the
race I marked out a longer course and admitted several fresh competitors. Scarcely had they
entered the lists than all the passers-by stopped
to watch. They were encouraged by shouting,
cheering, and clapping. I sometimes saw my little
man trembling with excitement, jumping up and
shouting when one was about to reach or overtake another - to him these were the Olympian
Games." 24
Another mention occurs during a comparison with
the daily spectacle:
'"The spectacle of the world,' said Pythagoras, 'is
like the Olympic games; some are buying and selling and think only of their gains; others take an
active part and strive for glory; others, and these
not the worst, are content to be lookers-on.'"25
Here on this very spot it seems that ROUSSEAU - either directly or indirectly - cites PYTHAGORAS, CICERO
or MONTAIGNE. The latter used this comparison already 180 years before and had also awarded this
passage to PYTHAGORAS.26 This time the content
changes compared to MONTAIGNE: While
MONTAIGNE - and CICERO - use PYTHAGORAS
in order to describe the term "philosopher"
ROUSSEAU leaves this theoretical thread and
fills his statement only with the order to
the pupil to watch and to understand,
however not to define philosophy or philosopher, re27
spectively.
This
educational
novel was re-edited for
several times and exported into the whole world
52
until the beginning of the 20th Century. Anyhow, in
28
the very beginning Emile and Le Contrat Social , another work by ROUSSEAU dated from the same year
were proscribed in France, Geneva and Bern. Even
a country as liberal as Holland set the works on the
index. This lead into ROUSSEAU'S escape29 to Motiers
in the Prussian city of Neuenburg (Neuchatel)30.
There the sickening man of letters was allowed to
stay with one single restriction: He was not allowed
31
to speak about religious topics. Later the Works
were not officially accredited by French censorship;
they still counted as heretical and subversive. All
copies were condemned to be burnt but (fortunate32
ly) they could be saved.
One should emphasize the fact that the educational novel and thus all of its contents had already
been discussed before publication. In this way it
received a sort of special promotion. Even before
the official ban specimens were sent and included
theories and ideas which spread all over Europe.
This may also be seen by the rising-number of subsequent editions.
The mention of Olympic Games seems to be less
important while reading, but by the dissemination
of the various editions its value increased tremendously.
Conclusions
The Olympic Games played an important role already for PYTHAGORAS who educated and trained
multiple Olympic victor MILON of Crotone. In the
fragments about his person the games sink into
the background what has to be retraced to the
doxographic nature of such fragments. CICERO
who can be counted as one of the doxographers
of Pythagorean theories uses PYTHAGORAS and
makes him apply a metaphor to describe the meaning of "philosopher". At the same time he uses
Panhallenic agons and describes philosophical acting compared with usual daily modes of operation.
Nearly 1600 years later this image is taken up again
by Michel de MONTAIGNE and extended by the adjunct "Olympic", again recapitulated 180 years later by Jean Jacques ROUSSEAU.
This article clearly shows the - oral and written - tradition of the ancient Olympic idea over 16
centuries of forced discontinuation. At the same
time it becomes evident that this was only possible by copying previous authors. It is important
to mention that all three authors had one thing in
common: They were all Scholars in Law, Politicians
and/or State theoreticians.
Jean Jacques Rousseau Monument in Geneva, Switzerland
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 14(MARCH 2006)1
Notes
* Paper presented in the German language at the 9th ISHPES
Congress "New Aspects of Sport History", September 7th11th, 2005 at the German Sport University Cologne.
The author is indebted to Joachim K. RUHL for his assistance
with translations and advice.
Cf. ZAWADZKI, Thomas, "New Publication on Olympic
Matters 2004", in: Journal of Olympic History 12(2004)3, pp.
73-79.
2
Prohibition of visiting temples was issued on February
24th, 391; Prohibition of any sacrifice on November 8th, the
following year. CTh.16.10.10 (391 febr. 24), CTh.16.10.12.1
(392 nov. 8), CTh.16.10.12.2 (392 nov. 8), CTh.16.10.12.3 (392
nov. 8).
3 LENNARTZ, Karl, Kenntnisse und Vorstellungen von Olympia
und den Olympischen Spielen in der Zeit von 393-1896 (Theorie
der Leibeserziehung; vol. 9), Schorndorf 1974.
4 In: FINDLING, John E./PELLE, Kimberly D. (eds.),
Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement, Westport CT
2004, pp. 3-16.
5 Robert DOVER'S Olympian Games since 1612, Olympic
Festivals in Leicester 1866, Grand Olympic Festivals in
Liverpool 1862-1867 and Lladudno, Wales 1866, Much
Wenlock Olympic Games since 1850, Morpeth Olympic
Games 1873-1958.
6 Jeux Olympiques of the Petit Seminaire in Rondeau near
Grenoble 1932-1954.
7 Olympic Games by Evangelos ZAPPAS in Athens 1859, 1870,
1875, 1888/1889; planned Olympic Games in Piraeus 1856;
Olympic Games of Sailors in Athens 1877.
8 Olympic Games in Montreal 1848.
9 Cf. ZAWADZKI, Thomas, 'Olympia' zwischen Antike
und Gegenwart. Vom Verbot durch Theodosius bis zur
Wieder einfuhrung durch Pierre de Coubertin, Diploma thesis
German Sport University, Cologne 2005.
10 In the register of winners of the ancient Olympic Games
another PYTHAGORAS is listed. This PYTHAGORAS descended
from Sparta and won in 716 BC. Later he settled in lower
Italy and became Counsellor to the King. Cf. KAPPEL,
Lutz, "Pythagoras", in: CANCIK, Hubert/SCHNEIDER,
Helmuth/LANDFESTER, Manfred (Eds.), Der Neue Pauly.
Enzyklopddie der Antike, 13 vols. 1997-2003, vol. 10 (2001), col.
648.
11 An up-to-date biographic treatment by RIEDWEG,
Christoph, "Pythagoras", in: CANCIK/SCHNEIDER, Pauly,
vol. 10 (2001), cols. 649-653.
12 PAUSANIAS VI 14, 5-8; MORETTI, Luigi, Olympionikai,
i vincitori negli antichi agoni olimpici, Rome 1957, Nr 122;
DECKER, Wolfgang, Sport in der griechischen Antike, Munich
1995, pp. 131-133; POLIAKOFF, Michael B., Kampfsport in
der Antike. Das Spiel von Leben und Tod, Dusseldorf 2004,
pp. 162-165. According to myths MILON saved PYTHAGORAS7
life while taking a meal. MILON jumped onto the spot of
a breaking column and held up the roof. POLIAKOFF,
Kampfsport, p. 165.
13 DIELS, Hermann, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, ed. by
18
Walther KRANZ, 3 vols., Zurich/Hildesheim 1989-1992,
vol. 1 p. 96. Translation by the author.
14 KIRK, Geoffrey/RAVEN, John E./SCHOFIELD, Malcolm,
Die vorsokratischen Philosophen: Einfiihrung, Texte und
Kommentare, Stuttgart/Weimar 1994, pp. 239-262; DIELS/
KRANZ, Fragmente, vol. 1 pp. 96-105, 489.
15 About CICERO'S Politics, BIEBERSTEIN, Klaus, "Cicero", in
CANCIK/SCHNEIDER, Pauly, cols. 1191-1196.
16 CICERO, Marcus Tullius, Tusculanische Gesprache, Munich
1959.
17 Fictive person in a dialogue. A dialogue between a monarch
and a philosopher was often used in Greek works.
18 CICERO, Gesprache, V3 [p. 163]. English translation from
Project Gutenberg: http://www.gutenberg.org (Febr. 27,
2006).
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 14(MARCH 2006)1
19 KRANZ, Walther, Die griechische Philosophic, Zugleich eine
Einfiihrung in die Philosophic uberhaupt (Sammlung Dieterich;
vol. 88), Cologne 1997, p. 44.
20 Mostly translated as "Education of Children", the author
follows the more appropriate translation by STILETT:
"Education of Boys". MONTAIGNE, Michel de, Essais. Erste
Moderne Gesamtubersetzung, ed. by Hans STILETT, Frankfurt,
Main 1998, pp. 78-96.
21 MONTAIGNE, Essais, p. 87A. French original: "Nostre vie,
disoit Pythagoras, retire a la grande et populeuse assemblee des
jeux Olympiques. Les uns s'y exercent le corps pour en acquerir la
gloire des jeux; d'autres y portent les lerchandises a vendre pour
le gain. Ilen est, et qui ne sont pas les pires, lesquels ne cherchent
outre fruict que de regarder comment et pourquoy chaque chose se
faict, et estre spectateurs de la vie ds autres hommes, pour en juger
et regler la leur." MONTAIGNE, Michel de, CEvres completes,
Paris 1962, pp. 157-158. English translation from Project
Gutenberg: http://www.gutenberg.org (Febr. 27, 2006).
22 Even in this essay itself MONTAIGNE quotes CICERO several
times. Another essay is dedicated in complete to CICERO: "A
Consideration upon Cicero".
23 4 vols. Paris 1762; Other editions: Amsterdam, Den Haag,
Frankfurt 1762, Paris 1765, London 1781, Geneva 1782-1790,
London 1785, Paris 1790, 1796-1801, 1810, 1819-1820, 18221825,1834,1856, I860,1862,1885.
24 ROUSSEAU, Jean Jacques, Emit oder Uber die Erziehung,
Paderborn 131998, p. 130. French original: "A peine etaient-ils,
que tous les passants s'arretaients pour les voir: les acclamations,
les cris, les battrements de mains les animaient: je vouyais
quelquefois mon petit bonhomme trespasser l'autre; c'etaient pour
lui les jeux olympiques." ROUSSEAU, Jean Jacques, Emile, ed.
by Francois and Pierre RICHARD, Paris 1961, p. 147. English
translation from Project Gutenberg: http://www.gutenberg.
org (Febr. 27, 2006).
25 ROUSSEAU, Emil, p. 241. French original: "Ee spectacle du
monde, disait Pythagore, ressemble a celui des jeux olympiques :
les uns y tiennent boutique et ne songent qu'a leur profit; les
autres y payent de leur personne et cherchent la gloire; d'autres
se contentent de voir les jeux, et ceux-ci ne sont pas les pires."
ROUSSEAU, Emile, p. 281. English translation from Project
Gutenberg: http://www.gutenberg.org (Febr. 27, 2006).
26 The last one to mention the alike texts by MONTAIGNE and
ROUSSEAU in sport historical context was BERARDI, Aurelio,
"Il retaggio sportive Flaubert-Maupassant", in: TEJA,
Angela/KRUGER, Arnd/RIORDAN, James, Sport e Culture.
Atti del IX Congresso Internazionale dell'European Committee
for Sport History (CESH). Crotone Italia 26-29 settembre 2004, 2
vols., Rome 2005, vol. 2, pp. 395-406, 395.
27 About the relationship MONTAIGNE-ROUSSEAU already
reported: SILBER, Ellen Schnitzer, Rousseau and Montaigne:
The Evolution of a Eiterary Relationship, Dissertation Columbia
University, Columbia 1968; FLEURET, Colette, Rousseau et
Montaigne (Publications de la Sorbonne; Serie Litterature
n°ll), Paris 1980. Already four years after Emile was
published Jean-Joseph CAJOT edited Ees Plagiats de M. J.J.R.
de Geneve sur l'education, Den Haag 1766.
28 Amsterdam 1762.
29 In the night of June 6th, 1762 ROUSSEAU was informed about
the ostracism of his work, the intended judgement by the
Paris parliament and the writ of capias which should be
issued within 24 hours, which would not be prosecuted
in case of an escape. Cf. GAUL, Jens-Peter, Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, Munich 2001, p. 117-119,117.
30 Between 1648 and 1805 Neuenburg was under Prussian
rule, from 1805 till 1814 attached to France, later until 1848
again to Prussia.
31 GAUL, Rousseau, p. 117.
32 GAUL, Rousseau, p. 117-119.
53