Fascist Regimes| A1 Sample answer
What were the common features of fascist regimes in
Europe during the inter-war period, 1918-1939?
From 1918 to 1939 a number of fascist regimes sprung up across Europe, arising mainly from
the framework of old authoritarian regimes and the discontent of the masses. Each of these
regimes, from Franco’s in Spain, to Mussolini’s in Italy to Hitler’s in Germany, had certain
common features including a dependence on propaganda, secret police, a strong centralised
economy and the restriction of civil liberties.
Propaganda was central to the success of both Hitler’s and Mussolini’s regimes. In Italy, a cult
of personality was created around Mussolini; he was referred to as ‘Il Duce’ and was often
pictured with his pet lioness Italia. He was held up as a model worker, statesman, sportsman
and father of the nation. Slogans were developed such as ‘Mussolini is always right’. The state
also assumed control of the media, to spread the propaganda. For example, the manufacture
of radios was encouraged and from 1926 to 1939 the number of radios in the country grew
from 27,000 to 1 million. This allowed the whole country to listen to Mussolini’s stirring
speeches.
In Germany, as in Italy, propaganda was used to create a sense of national unity and loyalty to
the leader. The Nuremburg rallies, for example, were an effective way of spreading the
‘National Socialist’ message. Hitler appointed the very competent Josef Goebbels as ‘Minister
for Propaganda and Public Enlightenment’. He took great control of the media and held a
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daily press conference instructing news outlets on how they should ‘present’ certain news
items. He also recognised the potential of new media such as radio and film. The acclaimed
film director Leni Riefenstahl was commissioned to produce a number of propaganda films
such as ‘Olympia’, which told the story of the 1936 Berlin Olympics, and ‘The Triumph of the
Will’, which brought the mass appeal of the Nuremburg Rallies to the silver screen. A cult of
personality was also developed around Hitler his birthday was celebrated as a national holiday
and simple slogans like ‘Ein reich, ein volk, ein fuhrer’ inextricably linked German national
identity with the leader. Propaganda and censorship were ubiquitous features of fascist
regimes.
Indoctrination was also used by fascist regimes, as an effective way of creating an entire
generation of loyal foot soldiers. In Italy it became compulsory for children to join the Balilla,
which taught boys to be soldiers and educated children on the glories of the Roman Empire.
In Germany boys were required to join Hitler Jugend and girls were required to join the
League of German Maidens. Boys were trained to be disciplined soldiers and girls learned the
importance of “Kinder, Kurche, Kirche” (children, church, kitchen). Indoctrination was just
another way of seizing complete control over the population.
All fascist regimes also used terror to some extent, as a way of dealing with ‘undesirables’ and
creating a superficially harmonious society. For example, In Germany the Gestapo, led by
Reynard Heydrich dealt with suspected state enemies. Concentration camps such as Dachau
were also set up to remove insidious elements (such as tramps, homosexuals and gypsies)
from the population and between 1933 and 1939 16,000 people were sentenced to
imprisonment in these camps. Mussolini on the other hand preferred non-lethal methods of
crushing revolt. His secret police, OVRA identified state enemies and potential threats, over
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4000 of whom were exiled from Italy. He also set up special courts to deal with his political
enemies.
Another feature of fascist regimes was the noticeable lack of any political opposition. In Italy,
Mussolini used the Acerbo law to consolidate his power and then banned all other political
parties and trade unions. By 1927, Mussolini had the power to rule by decree and a fascist
Grand Council had to first vet any candidates seeking elected office. In Germany, Hitler quickly
combined the office of Chancellor and President and used to ‘enabling act’ allow him to rule
by decree. Most of his political opponents were killed during the Night of the Long Knives in
1934 and he replaced trade unions with the state run ‘German Labour Front’. He also pursued
a policy of Gleichshaultung or ‘Coordination’ whereby the state assemblies were abolished and
all power was centralised in the federal ‘Reichstag’, which he kept as a puppet parliament.
Fascist regimes were also, by their very nature, ultra-nationalistic. Nationalism was used as an
emotive tool, to stir the masses making them more pliable. For example, in Mussolini’s Italy,
he used the acquisition of Fiume, a city claimed by Italy, to give him credibility. Later he
stressed the need to expand and conquer, and promised he would make Italy ‘great, feared
and respected’. This was visible in the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1936 and his expansionist
ambitions in WW2. He wanted to create a Mediterranean empire to rival Rome. Similarly, Hitler
used excessive jingoism to appeal to the masses. He promised to throw of the humiliating
shackles of The Treaty of Versailles and to reclaim German honour. He then launched an
aggressive policy of expansion which manifested itself in the remilitarization of the Rhineland
in 1936, the occupation of the Sudetenland in 1938 and the Anschluss with Austria in the
same year. The zealous brand of nationalism was common to all fascist regimes.
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Another recurring feature was the economic policy of Autarky (self-sufficiency). In a sense this
was closely linked to the spirit of nationalism that permeated fascist countries. In Italy, this
came in the form of a series of ‘battles’ designed to increase production. E.g. ‘The Battle for
Wheat’ and ‘the battle for land reclamation’ (the draining of the Pontine Marshes). In Germany,
synthetic materials were developed and many materials were recycled and reused. But in the
end neither of these two regimes achieved complete self-sufficiency because both still relied
heavily on imports of oil and rubber.
While there were substantial differences between fascist regimes across Europe, there were
also many common threads. These included strict censorship laws, huge propaganda
machines, secret police organisations, political oppression and extreme nationalism.
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