Tracking EU Corporate and Financial Links to the Palm Oil Industry in Peru

Summary
* Peru produced around 50,000 tons of palm oil in 2015, which is less than 0.1% of global production but
there are ambitious plans for expansion
* Around 40-70,000 hectares of land are planted with oil palm, with almost 1.5 million hectares being
earmarked for further plantation
* Peru is a net importer of palm oil, though statistics show a degree of exporting
* There are links to Europe along the palm oil supply chain, particularly with the Melka Group, second
largest commercial palm oil producer
* Various issues have been raised with regard to Peruvian palm oil, primarily regarding deforestation of
primary rainforest, land grabbing, land conflicts and human rights violations.

How has the palm sector developed over time?
Peru started growing palm oil recently, with the first project in 1973. This was the result of a 1969 French
technical mission evaluating the possibility of establishing commercial crops in Peru. Since then, there have
been four main initiatives to expand palm oil in Peru: two organised by the state, one undertaken by private
owners, and one by small-scale oil palm farmers working as an association.i
Total production in 2015 was 47,000 tons in 2015, up from 18,000 tons in 2000 (with production peaking in
2013 at 57,000 tons).ii Peru is a relatively minor actor in the global palm oil industry, contributing to less
than 0.1% of global production.iii Nevertheless expansion in recent years has been dramatic, with production
more than doubling between 2006 and 2012.iv The national, and some regional governments, have taken
steps to promote cultivation, with almost 1.5 million hectares being identified as potentially suitable, leading
some people to see oil palm as one of the biggest threats to the Peruvian Amazon.v However, the government
has not been able to meet its commitment to demonstrate the availability of land which does not require
deforestation.vi
• How much land is planted with palm oil?
Peru had 36,000 hectares planted with palm oil in, compared with 10,000 in 2000, according to US
statistics.vii Yet some people place the area of land harvested as high as 60,000-77,000 hectares of land.viii
This is still around a tenth of the land planted in neighbouring Colombia. Despite this, it is worth noting Peru
experienced a five-fold increase in oil palm plantations over the past 15 years.ix
The production is concentrated in the Peruvian Amazon. The regions of San Martin, Ucayali, Loreto and
Huánuco are the main areas of palm oil cultivation. At least 23,000 hectares of primary forest has been
earmarked for clearance by developers.x Today, palm oil plantations are one of the three most important
drivers of deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon, along with gold mining and coca cultivation.xi
There are essentially three different types of producers in Peru: collective small-holders (less than 50
hectares), independent medium-scale (50 to 1,000 hectares), and large corporate (more than 1,000 hectares).
Although the small-holder cooperatives are among the oldest and the numbers of people involved are high often including ex-coca farmers - expansion has been limited because of the large capital investment required
to establish and operate a palm oil processing mill. This means that many small producers still sell their
products to the larger conglomerates for processing. Medium-scale producers cover around 3,000 hectares in
Ucayali and Tocache in San Martin. However, in terms of size of planting the industry is dominated by two
major corporate players, Grupo Palmas (part of Grupo Romero) and Grupo Melka.xii By far the largest
current oil palm grower in Peru is the conglomerate Grupo Romero, which has three large oil palm estates in
San Martin and Loreto provinces in the Peruvian Amazon, while Grupo Melka is expanding rapidly to
challenge it.xiii

How much palm oil is processed and consumed in the domestic market?
Peru consumed around 60,000 tons of palm oil in 2015, which was 13,000 tons more than it produced in that
year, making it a net importer of over one fifth of its palm oil needs. This is a similar pattern to the situation
in the year 2000, when it consumed 22,000 tons but produced only 18,000 tons.xiv Sam Lawson of Forest
Trends agrees that thus far, it appears that most palm oil production in Peru is being consumed
domestically.xv
Like in Colombia, a part of this consumption is likely to be driven by the Peruvian government's desire for
promoting biodiesel, primarily derived from palm oil. The 2004 Law of Promotion of the Biofuels Market
with supporting decrees, stipulates that diesel must contain no less than 5% biodiesel (generating an
anticipated demand of around 250,000 tons annually). However, Brazil didn’t produce biodiesel in 2014, and
it was predicted that there would be a shuttering of local biodiesel processing (located primarily in San
Martin). This is because of more affordable biodiesel imports from Argentina, despite attempts to levy 'antidumping' duties.xvi

How much palm oil is exported and to where?
Given that, according to US statistics, production in 2015 was 47,000 tons it seems anomalous that Peru is
also showing exports of 50,000 tons, i.e. more than it produced, especially as net consumption was also
higher than production. The historical exporting statistics also seem peculiar, as there was effectively no
exporting of palm oil until 2002, when 20,000 tonnes were exported in one year. There seems to be no
immediate explanation that justifies such a large discrepancy, although some of this may be explained by
Peru both importing and exporting palm oil at the same time, as opposed to consuming its own production.
Also some of the new major players, like the Melka Group, focused on export markets. Yet that would not
explain such a large variance.
 What is the proportion exported to European Union countries?
At present there appear to be no significant imports into Europe from Peru. That is partly because of the
issues around Peru's palm oil exports noted above, but also it is possible that Peruvian palm oil is mixed with
other oils on its way to Europe.
 What is the EU business connection to palm oil supply chains in Peru?
As noted, the large scale production is dominated by two corporate players, Grupo Palmas and the Melka
Group. Both have been heavily criticised for their activities, as explored in later sections. Grupo Palmas is a
subsidiary of Grupo Romero, one of Peru’s largest domestic corporate entities with holdings in an array of
industries, and is primarily Peruvian owned.xvii The Melka Group (also known as Los Malayos) is a
collection of investors, often identified as Malaysians, acting through a number of Peruvian shell companies
to acquire and clear land for palm oil plantations, allegedly trying to replicate the agro-industrial model used
by palm oil companies in Southeast Asia. It is controlled by the eponymous Dennis Melka, an American and
Czech citizen and resident fn the Cayman Islands, who has been involved in Malaysian plantations, via Asian
Plantations. One of the key companies in the group, United Cacao, is registered on the London Stock
Exchange's Alternative Investment Market.xviii
It is difficult to identify the investors in the Melka Group, due to the use of company registrations in secrecy
jurisdictions, such as the Cayman Islands. Even more troubling is that Dennis Melka is the owner of only one
of the 25 Peruvian companies registered, but has the right to make legal and commercial decisions for all the
others.
Beyond that, many of the major international food companies which are based in Europe are likely to be
using Peruvian palm oil. These include the likes of Nestlé, Unilever and Procter and Gamble, as well as
supermarket chains such as Marks & Spencer and Carrefour.xix However, there have not - to date - been
major campaigns targeting the European end users or financiers of palm oil in Peru. The Grupo Romero has
also benefited from loans from the World Bank's International Finance Corporation (IFC), although it is not
directly for oil palm plantations.xx
 What are the current national policies on palm oil development, processing
and trade?
As noted in the section on consumption, oil palm development in Peru has burgeoned since the government
decided in 2003 that the production of biofuels, including palm oil, should be a strategic priority. It is also
prioritising the industry in order to employ immigrants from the highlands to the Amazon, to replace illegal
coca cultivationxxi and to satisfy growing international markets for palm oil.xxii
The government has been working closely with companies to promote the industry. It has created the
Multisectoral Commission on Oil Palm to promote the industry, which is made up of representatives from
the palm industry and government officials, without any civil society input.xxiii The director of Plantaciones
de Ucayali (a Melka Group company) has been the vice-president for the Peru Roundtable on Sustainable
Palm Oil (RSPO) Working Group on Environmental Issues, which has been devising a national interpretation
of the international RSPO standards.xxiv
The overall legal framework in Peru is one in which these economic interests are balanced against laws
covering forestry and wildlife, agriculture, the environment, local government and land-use. This grouping of
contradictory goals tries, ineffectually, to balance the twin desires to protect the Amazonian rainforest, and to
expand plantation monoculture. Intact forests are supposed to be strictly protected by Peruvian national law,
yet the government has approved significant deforestation. This is despite the country having made
ambitious deforestation commitments. This includes a deal including a deal worth up to $300 million with
the EU countries Germany and Norway to achieve zero net deforestation by 2021.xxv
Peru’s Forestry Law prohibits private ownership of the public forest and using forest for “agricultural ends or
other activities affecting vegetation cover, sustainable use and conservation of forestry resources”, but a
loophole exists allowing for a “change of use” if a particular area in the Amazon is deemed to have
“agricultural aptitude” following a study of the soils, water sources and biodiversity which shows that the
“sustainability of the ecosystem” will be guaranteed.xxvi Peru has also weakened its environmental policies
relating to forests in 2014, with the neoliberal law 3627/2013-PE, formulated to ease environmental
restrictions to encourage private investment.xxvii There have also been attempts by federations of palm oil
growers to have palm oil plantations defined as forest.xxviii This is even before the problems of
implementation and corruption are considered.
However, due to public pressure over these legal and policy loopholes, and the exposure of illegal actions
performed by palm oil companies, in August 2014 the Ministry of Environment filed for precautionary
measures to prevent the expansion of plantations belonging to two Melka group companies. The Peruvian
Congress created a working group to study the situation, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation has
requested information about the authorisations obtained by these companies from the Loreto and Ucayali
regional governments. It subsequently decreed that decisions on assigning plantations should not be taken at
the local level. In December 2014 the immediate suspension of work by the Melka Group was ordered by
DGAAA (Direccion General de Asuntos Ambientales Agrarios). xxix
 How do free trade agreements impact on the palm oil sector and supply
chain?
The EU has signed a simultaneous, bi-lateral Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with both Colombia and Peru,
which came into force on 1 August 2013. The stated aim of the agreement is to open up markets between all
partners and increase the stability of the trade relationship, that was worth €21.1 billion in bilateral trade in
goods in 2011.xxx
Unusually, given previous FTAs, this is part of a new type of agreement that includes far-reaching measures
on the protection of human rights and the rule of law. It encompasses commitments to effectively implement
international conventions on labour rights and environmental protection, featuring a chapter on sustainable
development. It includes commitments to refrain from waiving or derogating from protection standards to
encourage trade or investment, and to effectively implement domestic legislation and standards. The
environmental provisions in those chapters, among other things, recognise the right of the parties to establish
their own levels of environmental protection while seeking to ensure that the relevant laws and policies
provide for, and encourage, high levels of environmental protection, consistent with the multilateral
environmental agreements to which they are party. There is a specific provision on promoting trade in
environmental goods and services, as well as in climate friendly products and technologies, the use of
sustainability assurance schemes, such as fair and ethical trade, and corporate social responsibility practices,
all of which should affect the trade in palm oil.xxxi
However, groups in civil society are cautious over what this will mean in practice. Although there is a
supervisory committee, which should provide oversight at the EU end of the deal (involving MEPs, the
European Commission, European business associations and trade unions), the problem is always likely to be
implementation on issues of rights. The Peru Support Group has called for a mechanism to monitor the
human rights and democracy clause, as well as the agreement's impacts on gender equality, in a transparent
and participatory manner; a means of enforcing the environmental and labour standards included in the
agreement; and attention to the implementation of specific issues such as publication of the National Human
Rights Plan.xxxii
 What are the impacts of the palm oil supply chain on indigenous peoples,
communities and the environment?
Palm oil plantations pose a significant threat to the homes and ways of life of indigenous peoples and local
communities that rely on the land for their sustenance. In Peru there are an estimated 20 million hectares of
indigenous territories that are not recognised by the Peruvian government.xxxiii As these communities, who
have often lived there for many generations, do not have full legal rights over their land, the Peruvian
government has the power to issue licenses to companies to clear, mine, drill or grow crops on their land
despite their international human rights obligations. The results are devastating for communities, who, along
with fewer plant and animal species available as food sources, often find their water sources to be polluted.
Where plantations are established there can be ongoing tensions. Grupo Romero’s Shanusi estate - located on
the border between the San Martin and Loreto regions - has been accused of a number of illegal
environmental practices by the local communities, specifically around illegal timber extraction, damaged
crops, environmental contamination, disputed land boundaries, and increased internal tensions within and
between communities.xxxiv
There can be significant environmental problems, particularly where primary rainforest is removed (and
various investigations have shown that the industry is expanding into primary rainforest).xxxv The destruction
of this ecosystem causes a number of problems as laid out by a Environmental Investigation Agency report.
These include: changes to local micro-climates, changes to the quantity and quality of local surface and
groundwater; concerns over the use of fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides; problems with soil erosion, soil
quality and soil compacting; loss of flora and fauna in terms of biodiversity; the fragmentation of ecohabitats and the problems of the loss of carbon capture increasing global carbon emissions (even greater than
those saved by producing biofuel crops).xxxvi There are specific concerns around expanding production into
the wetland areas of Loreto, which is leading to the destruction of the native palm tree (and its fruit) known
as “aguaje” (Mauritia flexuosa). This tree has an important economic and ecological role in the Amazon
region.xxxvii
 How do palm oil supply chains impact on human rights in the country?
As noted above there are increasing clashes happening between communities and the ambitious expansion
plans of both Grupo Romero and Melka Group. Forest-dwelling communities, who frequently do not have
official title to land, are resisting attempts to clear and plant vast swathes of land.
There have been a number of specific cases involving dispossession of forest communities for palm oil
cultivation. For instance the Shipibo community of Santa Clara de Unchunya found their land to be leased
for palm oil production without any discussion or warning, regardless of their right to free, prior and
informed consent. Determined community resistance, including confiscation of company machinery and
occupation of the lands, combined with continuous lobbying of local authorities and central government,
finally resulted in a high level investigation in August 2015 by the Ministry of Agriculture. Although the
Ministry of Agriculture ordered the suspension of activities due to illegal clearing of primary forests, the land
had already been devastated, affecting their rights to food and to a healthy environment. There have been a
number of legal cases recorded against the major palm oil companies, including charges of abuses against
local community members, primarily to remove them from land.xxxviii People in communities who are
resisting are harassed and receive death threats. Local activist Washington Bolivar noted: “I get death threats
all the time, my life is in danger and I have to move from one place to another. I live in fear, there are always
people who follow me and I get threatening calls on my phone. They even threaten my sister”. xxxix
Although there were less direct complaints around working conditions in plantations in comparison to - for
instance - Indonesia, it is noted that agricultural wages have significantly stagnated despite an improving
economy, with reports of bonded labourers in agriculture.xl One recorded incident is that in 2009, workers
from Grupo Romero’s Shanusi estate lodged a complaint requesting an investigation into labour-related
issues.xli
 Is the palm oil supply chain linked to deforestation, if so how and where?
It is clear by now that one of the key issues of Peruvian palm oil is deforestation. With around 68 million
hectares of forests (more than half the country), Peru has one of the world’s five largest, most diverse and
best-preserved tropical forest areas.xlii Officially the goal of the government since 2010 is to achieve zero net
deforestation through the conservation of 54 million hectares of forest by 2021.xliii However, over the last
decade, Peru’s rate of deforestation has increasedxliv, and 90% of Peruvian land with potential for oil palm is
forested.xlv
Nonetheless, for the reasons already stated, palm oil plantations are one of the three most important drivers
of deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon, alongside gold mining and coca cultivation.xlvi Although projects
are meant only to use already degraded agricultural land to grow the palms, oil palm plantation now goes
beyond already degraded land to areas of primary and secondary tropical forest. In fact, 13,076 hectares of
primary forest was deforested during just a few months in 2013 due to the expansion of oil palm production
in Loreto and Ucayali.xlvii It has been calculated that 72% of new plantations have expanded into forested
areas.xlviii
Several large-scale projects could triple the land use for palm oil production in Peru in a few years and
NGOs report that companies in Peru are planning to clear more than 23,000 hectares of primary rainforest in
the northern Amazon in order to cultivate oil palm.xlix
 What are the views of civil society and indigenous peoples on the palm oil trade
and supply chain?
Given the above, civil society in Peru has been voicing their concerns. In September 2015, the indigenous
federation AIDESEP published a ‘Declaration of Regulatory Emergency on Oil Palm’. The resolution calls
on the government of Peru to suspend all land transfers to large oil palm plantations until all conflicting
statutes regarding land use are modified, and until it is guaranteed that no more primary forest will be cut
down in the Amazon. It demands strong regulation of companies planning or operating palm oil plantations,
and a clear chain of authority to decide on what land agro-industrial projects can be approved. The
Declaration states: “Our forests and territories cannot continue to be destroyed, first without anybody saying
anything and second because no clear rule exists that regulates or controls in an effective manner this oil
palm activity.”l
Representatives of AIDESEP, has also noted that "despite this huge expansion, oil palm is not discussed
much in these debates about deforestation. It is 'invisible', just like the massive oil spills, the multiple dams
that are planned, the super highways, the gold rush and the timber mafia."li
The calls of AIDESEP are echoed by others who stress that sustainable economic development will be
gained by strengthening community forest rights and by mitigating climate change. The Rights and
Resources Initiative notes that "when Indigenous Peoples and local communities have no or weak legal
rights, their forests tend to be vulnerable to deforestation and thus become the source of carbon dioxide
emissions.”lii
i
Charlotte Bratberget Jensen, Palm Oil Production in the Peruvian Amazon basin: A case study of current effects and
emerging localized alternatives in Loreto district, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 2015, p.3
ii
Index Mundi Statistics - http://www.indexmundi.com/agriculture/?country=pe&commodity=palmoil&graph=production
iii
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), Toward Zero-Deforestation Oil Palm in Peru: Understanding
Actors, Markets, and Barriers, March 2015, p. 2, http://www.natureservicesperu.com/.../oil_palm_in_peru_-_draft__25-3-2015.pdf
iv
Rhett Butler, Europe importing more palm oil for biofuels, raising risks for rainforests, Mongabay, 9 September
2013 - https://news.mongabay.com/2013/09/europe-importing-more-palm-oil-for-biofuels-raising-risks-forrainforests/
v
David Hill, Palm oil firms in Peru plan to clear 23,000 hectares of primary forest, Guardian, 7 March 2015,
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/andes-to-the-amazon/2015/mar/07/palm-oil-peru-23000-hectaresprimary-forest
vi
Environmental Investigation Agency, Deforestation by Definition, 2015, p.3 - http://eia-global.org/newsmedia/deforestation-by-definition
vii
Index Mundi Statistics - http://www.indexmundi.com/agriculture/?country=pe&commodity=palm-oil&graph=areaharvested
viii
Global impacts of EU bioenergy policies, Oxfam International – EU Advocacy Office, 3 December 2015, p.2;
Environmental Investigation Agency, Peru Promotes Oil Palm Expansion Despite Devastating Consequences for
Indigenous Peoples & Amazon, October 14, 2015 - http://eia-global.org/blog/peru-promotes-oil-palm-expansiondespite-devastating-consequences-for-indig
ix
Agraria.pe, Area de palma aceitera se quintuplicó en Perú en los últimos 15 años, June 2014 http://agraria.pe/noticias/area-de-palma-aceitera-se-quintuplico-en-peru-en-los-ultimos-15-anos
x
Environmental Investigation Agency, Deforestation by Definition, 2015 - http://eia-global.org/newsmedia/deforestation-by-definition; David Hill, Palm oil firms in Peru plan to clear 23,000 hectares of primary forest,
Guardian, 7 March 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/environment/andes-to-the-amazon/2015/mar/07/palm-oilperu-23000-hectares-primary-forest
xi
Matt Finer, C. Snelgrove, Sidney Novoa, Deforestation Hotspots in the Peruvian Amazon, 2012-2014. MAAP: 25,
2015 - http://maaproject.org/2016/deforest2012-14/
xii
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), Toward Zero-Deforestation Oil Palm in Peru: Understanding
Actors, Markets, and Barriers, March 2015, p. 9-13, http://www.natureservicesperu.com/.../oil_palm_in_peru__draft_-_25-3-2015.pdf
xiii
Sam Lawson, Forest Trends, Consumer Goods and Deforestation: An Analysis of the Extent and Nature of Illegality
in Forest Conversion for Agriculture and Timber Plantations, September 2014, p.63-4 - http://www.foresttrends.org/publication_details.php?publicationID=4718
xiv
http://www.indexmundi.com/agriculture/?country=pe&commodity=palm-oil&graph=domestic-consumption
xv
Sam Lawson, Forest Trends, Consumer Goods and Deforestation: An Analysis of the Extent and Nature of Illegality
in Forest Conversion for Agriculture and Timber Plantations, September 2014, p.63 - http://www.foresttrends.org/publication_details.php?publicationID=4718
xvi
UDSA Foreign Agricultural Service, Peru Biofuels Annual Report 2014, 30 June 2014 http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent/GAIN/Publications/Biofuels/Annual_Lima_Peru_7-1-2014.pdf; Juan Luis Dammert
B., Forests for Energy? Biofuels and Palm Oil in the Peruvian Amazon, ReVista, 2015 http://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/book/forests-energy
xvii
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), Toward Zero-Deforestation Oil Palm in Peru: Understanding
Actors, Markets, and Barriers, March 2015, p. 10-11, http://www.natureservicesperu.com/.../oil_palm_in_peru__draft_-_25-3-2015.pdf; http://www.gruporomero.com.pe/en-GB/el_grupo_romero/quienes_somos/
xviii
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), Toward Zero-Deforestation Oil Palm in Peru: Understanding
Actors, Markets, and Barriers, March 2015, p.12, http://www.natureservicesperu.com/.../oil_palm_in_peru_-_draft__25-3-2015.pdf; Chris Lang, Dennis Melka: Exporting deforestation from Sarawak to Peru, REDD Monitor, 26
September 2015, http://www.redd-monitor.org/2015/09/26/dennis-melka-exporting-deforestation-from-sarawak-to-
peru/Dan Collins, Head of London-listed company linked to illegal clearing of Peru rainforest, Guardian, 7 April
2015, http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/apr/07/head-of-london-listed-company-linked-to-illegalclearing-of-peru-rainforest
xix
See for example http://forest500.org/rankings/companies
xx
Adriana Gomez“IFC Provides $10 Million to Peruvian Logistics Company Ransa Comercial”, IFC http://ifcext.ifc.org/ifcext/pressroom/ifcpressroom.nsf/1f70cd9a07d692d685256ee1001cdd37/5f2ca2b1cdf90f0d852
570130053615d?OpenDocument
xxi
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime has been supporting the cultivation of the crop and other
commodities to provide former coca-growing farmers with sustainable incomes. - Netty Ismail, Asian Agri Fund
Eyes Peru Palm Oil as Malaysia Runs Out of Land, Bloomberg, 19 August 2011 http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-08-19/asian-agri-seeks-100-million-for-palm-oil-fund-as-malaysialand-runs-out
xxii
Imogen Badgery-Parker, “Despite enthusiasm for REDD+, deforestation in Peru continues” in Forest News CIFOR,
9 January 2015 - http://blog.cifor.org/20927/despite-enthusiasm-for-redd-deforestation-in-peru-continues
xxiii
Environmental Investigation Agency, Peru Promotes Oil Palm Expansion Despite Devastating Consequences for
Indigenous Peoples & Amazon, October 14, 2015, http://eia-global.org/blog/peru-promotes-oil-palm-expansiondespite-devastating-consequences-for-indig
xxiv
Environmental Investigation Agency, Deforestation by Definition, 2015, p.20 - http://eia-global.org/newsmedia/deforestation-by-definition
xxv
Jeremy Hance, Turning point for Peru’s forests? Norway and Germany put muscle and money behind ambitious
agreement, Mongabay, 24th September 2014 - https://news.mongabay.com/2014/09/turning-point-for-perus-forestsnorway-and-germany-put-muscle-and-money-behind-ambitious-agreement/
xxvi
Palm oil firms in Peru plan to clear 23,000 hectares of primary forest,Guardian, David Hill, 7 March 2015,
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/andes-to-the-amazon/2015/mar/07/palm-oil-peru-23000-hectaresprimary-forest
xxvii
Chris Lang, AIDESEP and Rainforest Foundation Norway warn that Peru must improve policy on forests and
indigenous peoples, REDD Monitor, 10 October 2014 - http://www.redd-monitor.org/2014/10/10/aidesep-andrainforest-foundation-norway-warn-that-peru-must-improve-policy-on-forests-and-indigenous-peoples/
xxviii
Charlotte Bratberget Jensen, Palm Oil Production in the Peruvian Amazon basin: A case study of current
effects and emerging localized alternatives in Loreto district, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 2015, p.1
xxix
Hugh Bronstein, Peru says to crack down on palm oil-related Amazon deforestation, Reuters, 27 September 2016 http://www.reuters.com/article/us-un-assembly-peru-idUSKCN0RS01W20150928
xxx
Highlights of the Trade Agreement between Colombia, Peru and the European Union, European Commission press
release, 26 June 2012, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-12-487_en.htm?locale=en
xxxi
The impact of EU consumption on deforestation: Identification of critical areas where Community policies and
legislation could be reviewed, Final report, Technical Report - 2013-064, Vito et al for European Commission, 2013,
section 7.2, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/forests/pdf/2.%20Report%20policies%20identification.pdf, p.65
xxxii
Peru Support Group, Briefing on EU Free Trade Agreement with Peru, 29 October 2013,
http://www.perusupportgroup.org.uk/article-677.html
xxxiii
Ecologist, COP20 host Peru claims forest 'leadership' - while attacking forest protectors, AIDESEP / FPP, 8th
December 2014 http://www.theecologist.org/campaigning/2667704/cop20_host_peru_claims_forest_leadership_while_attacking_for
est_protectors.html
xxxiv
Environmental Investigation Agency, Deforestation by Definition, 2015, p.16-17 - http://eia-global.org/newsmedia/deforestation-by-definition
xxxv
Environmental Investigation Agency, Deforestation by Definition, 2015 - http://eia-global.org/newsmedia/deforestation-by-definition
xxxvi
Environmental Investigation Agency, Deforestation by Definition, 2015, p.18-19 - http://eia-global.org/newsmedia/deforestation-by-definition
xxxvii
Charlotte Bratberget Jensen, Palm Oil Production in the Peruvian Amazon basin: A case study of current
effects and emerging localized alternatives in Loreto district, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 2015, p.16
xxxviii
Environmental Investigation Agency, Deforestation by Definition, 2015, p.35 - http://eia-global.org/newsmedia/deforestation-by-definition
xxxix
Forest Peoples Programme, Peruvian indigenous leader in London to denounce illegal deforestation of 5000
hectares of Peru’s Amazon for palm oil, 2 November 2015 http://www.forestpeoples.org/topics/agribusiness/news/2015/11/press-release-peruvian-indigenous-leader-londondenounce-illegal-de
xl
AFL-CIO Solidarity Centre, Peru facts - http://www.solidaritycenter.org/where-we-work/americas/peru/
xli
Environmental Investigation Agency, Deforestation by Definition, 2015, p.17 - http://eia-global.org/newsmedia/deforestation-by-definition
xlii
Peru, Germany, Norway launch climate and forest partnership, United Nations, September 2014,
http://www.un.org/climatechange/summit/2014/09/peru-germany-norway-launch-climate-forest-partnership/
xliii
Imogen Badgery-Parker, “Despite enthusiasm for REDD+, deforestation in Peru continues” in Forest News CIFOR,
9 January 2015 - http://blog.cifor.org/20927/despite-enthusiasm-for-redd-deforestation-in-peru-continues
xliv
AIDESEP and Rainforest Foundation Norway warn that Peru must improve policy on forests and indigenous
peoples, Chris Lang, REDD Monitor, 10 October 2014, http://www.redd-monitor.org/2014/10/10/aidesep-andrainforest-foundation-norway-warn-that-peru-must-improve-policy-on-forests-and-indigenous-peoples/
xlv
Sam Lawson, Forest Trends, Consumer Goods and Deforestation: An Analysis of the Extent and Nature of Illegality
in Forest Conversion for Agriculture and Timber Plantations, September 2014, p.63 - http://www.foresttrends.org/publication_details.php?publicationID=4718
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Matt Finer, C. Snelgrove, Sidney Novoa, Deforestation Hotspots in the Peruvian Amazon, 2012-2014. MAAP: 25,
2015 - http://maaproject.org/2016/deforest2012-14/
xlvii
Charlotte Bratberget Jensen, Palm Oil Production in the Peruvian Amazon basin: A case study of current effects and
emerging localized alternatives in Loreto district, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 2015, p.3
xlviii
. H. Gutierrez-Velez et al. High-yield oil palm expansion spares land at the expense of forests in the Peruvian
Amazon, Environmental Research Letters 6. 2011. Available from: http://iopscience.iop.org/17489326/6/4/044029/pdf/1748-9326_6_4_044029.pdf
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Global impacts of EU bioenergy policies, Oxfam International – EU Advocacy Office, 3 December 2015, p.2, David
Hill, Palm oil firms in Peru plan to clear 23,000 hectares of primary forest, Guardian, 7 March 2015,
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/andes-to-the-amazon/2015/mar/07/palm-oil-peru-23000-hectaresprimary-forest
l
AIDESEP, Los pueblos indígenas declaran en “emergencia normativa” la palma aceitera en el, 4 September 2015 Perúhttp://www.aidesep.org.pe/los-pueblos-indigenas-declaran-en-emergencia-normativa-la-palma-aceitera-en-elperu/
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Ecologist, COP20 host Peru claims forest 'leadership' - while attacking forest protectors, AIDESEP / FPP, 8th
December 2014 http://www.theecologist.org/campaigning/2667704/cop20_host_peru_claims_forest_leadership_while_attacking_for
est_protectors.html
lii Caleb Stevens, Robert Winterbottom, Jenny Springer, Securing rights, Combating Climate Change, World resources
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