Effects of Oil on the Marine
Environment, Contingency
Planning and Spill
Response
Ed Levine
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Office of Response and Restoration
(212)668-6428
http://response.restoration.noaa.gov
[email protected]
Scientific Support Coordinator
• Scientific Support Coordinators (SSCs) are the principal
advisor to the U.S. Coast Guard On Scene Coordinators
(OSC) for scientific issues, communication with the
scientific community, and coordination of requests for
assistance from state and federal agencies regarding
scientific studies.
• There are nine regional SSCs and a scientific support team
that includes expertise in environmental chemistry, oil slick
tracking, pollutant transport modeling, natural resources at
risk, environmental tradeoffs of countermeasures and
cleanup, and information management.
What Is All That Oil Used For?
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Fuel (for transportation and factories)
Electricity generation hair spray
cosmetics
Machinery
sandals/flip flops
Asphalt
Heating
plastic hangers
Wax (crayons, candles) polyester clothing
Medicines
children's balls
Ink
freezer bags
Plastics
storage containers
Fertilizers
egg cartons
Pesticides
marking pens
Paints/varnishes
faux fur
Etc., etc., etc. ….
hair gel
toiletries
balloons
pet toys
ballpoint pens
vertical blinds
phones
picture frames
trash bags
photo albums
toys
document binders
shopping bags
Teflon products
band-aids
candles
disposable plates
garden hose
office equipment
kitchen utensils
pantyhose
spray paint
petroleum jelly
and
many more products!
Oil in the Marine Environment
Oil in the Sea III: Inputs, Fates, and Effects (2002)
National Academy of Sciences
Millions of Gallons
Estimates of Annual Petroleum
Inputs to the Sea
Source
Why Does All That Oil Spill?
We use a lot of oil and it needs to be transported.
The US uses 710 million gallons per day. In fact, every 22
minutes, the US uses up the amount spilled from the Exxon
Valdez.
The world uses 3.65 billion gallons per day. In 2008 each day
2.27 billion gallons of oil are at sea being transported*.
But not all spills come from tanker accidents. Some comes from
storage tanks, pipelines, oil wells, tankers and vessels cleaning
operations.
The largest input of oil to the sea is runoff and rainfall.
* Planet Energies
☛ Every eight months, 11 million gallons of oil run off the
nation's roads and driveways into waters that eventually reach the
sea.
The Pew Oceans Commission, 2003.
☛ That's the equivalent of an Exxon Valdez-size oil spill.
Relative to the amount of oil now transported around the world, the amount of oil spilled from tankers has actually decreased.
(Source: International Oil Spill Statistics, 1997) (Map:Mark Bloch/ABCNEWS.com/Magellan Geographix)
1 -240 million gallons: 26 January 1991, from terminals, tankers; 8 sources total, near Kuwait; off coast in Persian Gulf
and in Saudi Arabia
2 - 78.5 million gallons: 6 August 1983, tanker Castillo de Bellver, South Africa; Atlantic Ocean, 64km off Table Bay.
3 - 68.7 million gallons: 16 March 1978, tanker Amoco Cadiz, France; Atlantic Ocean, off Portsall, Brittany.
4 - 43.1 million gallons: 10 November 1988, tanker Odyssey, Canada; North Atlantic Ocean, 1,175 km northeast of Saint
John's, Newfoundland.
5 - 42.7 million gallons: 19 July 1979, tanker Atlantic Empress, Trinidad and Tobago; Caribbean Sea, 32 km northeast of
Trinidad and Tobago.
6 - 42.0 million gallons: 11 April 1991, tanker Haven, Italy; Mediterranean Sea, port of Genoa.
7 - 41.51 million gallons: 2 August 1979, tanker Atlantic Empress; 450 km east of Barbados. (On 19 July 1979, the Atlantic
Empress spilled 42.7 million gallons of oil as the result of a collision with the Aegean Captain in the Caribbean Sea near
Trinidad and Tobago. In this incident, the Aegean Captain spilled 4.31 million gallons of oil. On 2 August 1979, while
under tow from the original spill site, the Atlantic Empress spilled an additional 41.5 million gallons.)
8 - 38.2 million gallons: 18 March 1967, tanker Torrey Canyon, United Kingdom; on Lands End.
9 - 37.9 million gallons: 19 December 1972, tanker Sea Star, Oman; Gulf of Oman.
10 - 36.6 million gallons: 23 February 1980, tanker Irenes Serenade, Greece; Mediterranean Sea, Navarino Bay, off Pylos.
11 - 31.5 million gallons: 7 December 1971, tanker Texaco Denmark, Belgium; in North Sea.
12 - 31.2 million gallons: 23 February 1977, tanker Hawaiian Patriot, United States; Pacific Ocean 593 km west of Kauai
Island, Hawaii. (In this incident the vessel sank with some of its cargo still onboard after spilling an undetermined amount
of oil. The spill size reported reflects the total amount of oil spilled and oil left onboard the sinking vessel.)
13 - 28.9 million gallons: 15 November 1979, tanker Independentza, Turkey; Bosporus Strait near Istanbul, 0.8 km from
Hydarpasa port.
14 - 28.4 million gallons: 11 February 1969, tanker Julius Schindler, Portugal; Ponta Delgada, Azores Islands.
15 - 28.1 million gallons: 12 May 1976, tanker Urquiola, Spain; near La Coruña Harbor port.
The Oil
• Complex Mixture
– Paraffins, Naphthenes, Aromatics
• Crude Oils
• Refined Oils
Oil Properties
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Density
Viscosity
Pour Point
Flash Point
Oil Spilling from the T/V Jessica in the Galapagos
Spill Sizes
Olympic Pool :
Length--50 m. Width-- 25 m Depth-- 2.0 m.
VOLUME--2,500 M3 or 2,500,000 Liters, or 660,430 Gallons
One quart of oil can contaminate about 250,000 gallons of water.
One tablespoon of diesel oil can produce a sheen the size of a football field.
The largest spill occurred during the 1991 Persian Gulf war when about 240 million
gallons spilled from oil terminals and tankers off the coast of Saudi Arabia. The
second largest spill occurred over a ten-month period (June 1979 - February 1980)
when 140 million gallons spilled at the Ixtoc I well blowout in the Gulf of Mexico.
Now DWH is the second place spill.
The Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska was approximately 11 million gallons. This was
only about the 35th largest in the world, though it was the largest in the US. It came
from a supertanker that was about the size of 15 gyms in length, 4 gyms wide, and 2
gyms deep (which held 66 million gallons).
Oil Leaking from a Barge off the North Coast of PR
What Happens to Oil When It Spills?
Oil generally floats because it is lighter than water.
Oil tends to float and spread out into a very thin film on the
water surface...usually only about 0.1 mm thick...then spreads
even thinner to a sheen, which is one tenth or one onehundredth of this.
Sheens are often seen as rainbow-like or silvery as in puddles
in parking lots.
It is very rare for oil to sink. It needs to adhere to heavier
particles such as sand, algae, or silt to sink. An exception is a
kind of oil used for burning in electric utility plants. This oil
can actually sink in water since it is heavier than water.
Oil Weathering Processes
Over time,
the slick can
be torn into
smaller and
smaller
pieces.
Tarballs
Oil’s Effects on Marine Life
Transport, Fate, Transformation, Effects and Management of Oil Spills
OIL PROPERTIES
Volume, Composition,Density/specific & API gravity, Viscosity/pour
point, Flashpoint
FATE AND TRANSFORMATION
PROCESSES
Spreading
Advection
Evaporation
Mixing
Dispersion
Dissolution
Emulsification
Sedimentation
Flocculation
Photolysis
Biodegradation
Auto-oxidation
TOXICOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Biodegradation, Biophysical removal, Adherance, Smothering,
Bioaccumulation, Biotransformation, Detection/avoidance,
Narcosis, Acute Toxicity, Chronic Toxicity, Mutagenicity,
Carcinogenicity, Teratogenicity
OIL
ENVIRONMENT
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Wind, Currents, Sea state, Convergence,
Divergence, Temperature, Salinity, Water
Density, Oxygen, Light, Particulate, Nutrients, ECOLOGICAL
Shoreline type, Sediment type
PROCESSES
Feeding, Respiration, Metabolism, Growth,
Excretion, Osmoregulation. Reproduction,
Development, Recruitment, Migration,Disease,
Competition, Predation, Succession, Biodiversity
BIOTA
RESPONSE OPTIONS
None
Open Water - skim, burn, disperse
Shoreline - manual, mechanical, washing, chemical,
bioremediation
BIOTA
Microbes, Neuston, Plankton, Nekton, Benthos,
Plants, Fishes, Birds, Reptiles, Mammals
BIOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES
Abundance, Biodiversity, Life stage,
Community structure
Oiled Blue Crab from a Spill in Delaware Bay
What Are the Environmental Impacts?
These impacts may often be exaggerated in the public media.
Nevertheless, oil can have a significant impact on marine larvae,
birds and mammals in particular, and to a lesser extent on fish.
Some components of oil are toxic if exposure occurs within the
first two days of a spill (1 part per million [ppm], i.e. one gallon in
one million gallons, can be toxic to invertebrate larvae).
Oil on feathers hinders the water-repellancy of birds.
Oil on fur takes away its insulating capacities.
Oil Impacted Mangroves in Tampa, FL
MARINE LIFE
Because of the wide variety of wildlife species, seasonal variation, and the range of oil types,
each oil spill will be different.
The two principal causes of harm to wildlife are toxicity and coating. Oil is most toxic during
the initial phases of a release, before the lighter components have dissipated. Since these
lighter, more toxic elements are also usually more soluble in water, fish swimming through the
area, or (if the water is sufficiently shallow) shellfish in the immediate neighborhood of the
spill, will be most at risk from toxic exposure.
There may be an initial “surge” of toxic effects that become less significant over time (acute
vs. chronic). In addition, the stress of oiling may render wildlife vulnerable to other, natural
threats.
Cleaning an Oiled Sea Otter in Seward, AK
BIRDS
Birds are usually the most visible victims of an oil spill. One important reason is that feathers
repel water but not oil. In fact, feathers readily absorb large quantities of oil immediately upon
contact. This then deprives the birds of the vital functions of feathers - flying, insulation, and
buoyancy. When exposed to oil, birds may sink or drown or loose body heat rapidly.
Birds will also ingest any oil that adheres to their body through the activity of preening, with toxic
effects resulting. If heavily oiled, preening may increase enough to interrupt normal feeding. This,
combined with rapid loss of body heat due to loss of insulation may induce starvation.
Oiled birds may not lay eggs as usual and oiled eggs may not hatch.
Oiled Bird
Diving sea birds will generally be affected more seriously by oil spills than birds that stay on the surface, and
some species are more susceptible than others. Some may avoid oily water and some may actually be attracted to
it.
It is usually difficult to determine precisely the number of birds killed in a spill. Most of them are never
recovered, falling prey to scavengers or simply sinking.
Effects will vary widely depending on the mix of species present, the time of year and relation to migration and
breeding cycles. Some sea bird species have long lives and breed slowly. In such a case, a specific population may
require a long time to recover from an incident.
Treatment of oiled birds may be controversial. Even with well trained handlers, wild birds experience extreme
stress from human contact and from treatment procedures, which can often be as fatal as the oil itself. Oil spill
rehabilitation has become more professional and survival rates are increasing, but depend greatly on the spill
situation.
Bird Being Cleaned
Oil Spill Contingency Planning
Spill Contingency and Response Plans
National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan
Regional Contingency Plans
Area Contingency Plans
Industry Response Plans
Plan Testing and Improvement
Environmental Sensitivity Map
Socio-Economic
Geomorphology
Sandy Beach
Mud Flat
Aquaculture
Bathing Beach
Biology
Seals
Birds
Marsh
Oil Spill Response
Spill Roles and Responsibilities
Oil spill responses can involve a large number of organizations
due to the potential for wide-spread and diverse impacts.
Government agencies at several levels may have jurisdiction
over different aspects of a spill response.
To ensure effective coordination, lead agencies have been
designated within the National Response System to coordinate
or direct spill response efforts. While many spills are small and
are cleaned up by the spiller under the supervision of local
authorities, the National Response System ensures that state
and federal resources are available to ensure adequate cleanup
on larger or more complex spills.
What Happens After a Spill Occurs?
On-Scene Coordinator:
At the federal level, the On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC), is
an official from EPA for spills in the inland zone and from
the Coast Guard for spills in the coastal zone. The FOSC is
the lead federal official for spill response.
The FOSC’s responsibilities include coordinating all
containment, removal, and disposal efforts and resources
during an incident, including federal, state, local, and
responsible party efforts.
US Coast Guard Oil Spill Federal On Scene Coordinator
The most common cleanup techniques are:
•Containment and Recovery: Surround the oil with booms and
recover the oil (for cleaning and reuse) with skimmers. Skimmers
separate oil from the water by:
* centripetal force -- water is heavier than oil and spins out further
so the oil can be pumped out
* lifting oil on a conveyor belt off the water surface; or
* wringing out the oil that clings to oleophilic (oil-attracting) rope
mops.
This technique is the most widely used as it is least destructive, but
it is only 10-15% efficient under even the best circumstances.
* Sorbents: Remove oil with absorbent sponges made from diaperlike substances. Some sorbents are made from natural materials -straw, grasses, coconut husks, or wood chips.
Skimming Oil Inside Boom
Manual Recovery of Oil from a Salt Marsh
•Dispersants:
These are chemicals that act like detergents to break oil up into
tiny droplets to dilute the oil's effect and to provide bite-sized
bits for oil eating bacteria that occur naturally, particularly in
areas that have had a history of oil spillage.
•Burning:
Burning is usually 95-98% efficient, but does cause black
smoke. The smoke is not more toxic than if the oil were burned
as intended in fuels. One gallon of oil burned this way creates
the same pollutants as three logs in a fireplace or woodstove.
•Bioremediation:
Enhancing natural biodegradation by natural oil-eating bacteria
or by providing them with needed fertilizers or oxygen.
Aircraft Spraying Dispersant on Oil
Igniting a Pool of Oil in the Persian Gulf
Bioremediation Application in Prince William Sound, AK
•Shoreline Cleanup:
High-pressure hosing to rinse oil back into water to be skimmed
up. This usually does more harm than good by driving the oil
deeper into the beach and by killing every living thing on the
beach. This was used extensively after the Exxon Valdez spill
due to public and state pressure to make the beaches "look clean
again," despite the known risks. Areas left alone to be weathered
by winter storms were shown to be cleaner and harboring more
life than those cleaned by high-pressure washing. (Short term
aesthetic considerations should not override the more basic
longer term ecological considerations in rehabilitating a beach.)
•Do Nothing:
Particularly in open ocean spills, cleanup is difficult and not
efficient. Wave action and photo-oxidation (from sun) helps to
break oil down.
High Pressure Washing a Rock Beach in Alaska
Who Else Might Be Affected By an Oil Spill?
* Fishing industry
* Resorts and recreation areas
* Water supplies for drinking and industry
* Etc., etc., etc.