LINKING WORDS
1. POSITIVE ADDITION
as well
as well as
besides
anyway
moreover
what is more
in addition (to)
furthermore
• «I’m going to get bread, cheese, tea, and sugar». «Can
you get some milk as well?»
• She’s got a car as well as a motorbike.
Anyway / Besides / Moreover /
Furthermore / In addition are used
at the beginning.
In addition to / Besides are
followed by an object, not a clause.
• I hate asking for a pay rise. Anyway, there’s no point.
• I don’t really need a new car. Besides, I can’t afford one.
• The city provides many cultural opportunities. It has an
excellent art museum. Moreover / Furthermore/ In
addition, it has a fine symphony orchestra.
• The city provides many cultural opportunities. In addition
to / Besides an excellent art museum, it has a fine
symphony orchestra.
• Besides doing the cooking I look after the garden.
• Mary is rich, while John is poor.
• Mary is rich, whereas John is poor.
• Whereas Mary is rich, John is poor
• John loves playing outdoors all day, while / whereas Harry
likes playing computer games.
• It was cold, but I went swimming anyway.
• It was cold, but I still went swimming.
• It was cold, yet I still went swimming.
• Mary is rich, but John is poor.
because is used to express expected
results; even though is used to
express unexpected results.
Although is followed by a clause
and a comma. After Although we
use a subject + verb.
Even though is stronger than
although.
Although can’t be at the end of a
sentence; though can.
We use though to mean ‘however’
at the end of a sentence.
• Even though / Although / Though it was cold, I went
swimming.
• Because I wasn’t tired, I didn’t go to bed.
• We went out although it was raining.
• Even though I wasn’t tired, I went to bed.
• Although he studied very hard, he didn’t pass the exam.
• He didn’t finish the job, even though he worked all night.
• The room is very small. It’s quite comfortable though.
2. CONTRAST
while
whereas
but
yet
still
but...anyway
but... still
yet... still
Although
even though
though
because
in spite of
despite
despite the fact that....
in spite of the fact that....
in spite of / despite + V -ing / noun
/ pronoun
on the other hand
It is used at the beginning of a
sentence.
however
nevertheless
nonetheless
3. GIVING EXAMPLES
such as
like
especially
in particular
4. CAUSE/ REASON
They link contrasting ideas in two
different sentences.
Such as = for example / for instance
as
since
because (of)
Because is followed by a subject
and verb.
Because of / due to are followed by
• I went swimming despite / in spite of the cold weather.
• I went swimming despite the fact that / in spite of the fact
that the weather was cold.
• Despite / In spite of her excellent qualifications, Carol
didn’t get the job.
• Despite / In spite of having excellent qualifications, Carol
didn’t get the job.
• Mary is rich. John, on the other hand, is poor.
• Nuclear power is relatively cheap. On the other hand, you
could argue that it’s not safe.
• It was cold. Nevertheless, I went swimming.
• I like him very much. However / Nevertheless, we are very
different.
• I prefer to wear casual clothes, such as jeans and a
sweatshirt.
• Some countries, such as Brazil and Canada, are big.
• Since Monday is a holiday, we don’t have to go to work.
• Since you are a good cook and I’m not, you should cook
the dinner.
• As it was a public holiday, all the shops were shut.
• As they live near us, we see them quite often.
• Because the weather was cold, we stayed home.
• Because of the cold weather, we stayed home.
• Due to the cold weather, we stayed home.
due to
a noun object.
for this reason
as a result (of)
As a result of something = because
of something
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5. CONDITION
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if /whether
whether or not
even if = even though
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only if
unless
otherwise
or (else)
provided (that) /
providing (that)
as /so long as
on condition (that)
Unless = if... not = except if
Unless + affirmative verb = if +
negative
We often use unless in warnings:
(We’ll be late unless we hurry.)
Otherwise expresses the idea «if the
opposite is true, then there will be a
certain result».
Or else and Otherwise have the
same meaning.
Provided / Providing - only if a
particular thing (condition) happens
or is done.
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as if / as though
6. PURPOSE
in order to
in order that
so that
in case
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7. EFFECT / RESULT
such / so... that
consequently
therefore
so
such... that = so... that
such + adjective + noun + that
so + adjective/adverb + that
so... that is used with many, few,
much, and little.
Therefore and consequently mean
«as a result». They have several
positions and are separated from the
rest of the sentence by commas.
So connects two sentences and it
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Due to the fact that the weather was cold, we stayed home.
We stayed home because of / due to the cold weather.
Hundreds of people lost their homes as a result of the war.
Con died as the result of a heart attack.
We can’t take you all, for the simple/good/obvious reason
that there isn’t enough room in the car.
I’m going to go swimming tomorrow whether or not it is
cold. (Or: whether it is cold or not)
I’ve decided to go swimming tomorrow. Even if the
weather is cold. I’m going to go swimming.
You must go tomorrow if you are ready.
You must go tomorrow even if you aren’t ready.
I’ll go swimming tomorrow unless it’s cold.
Don’t tell Sue what I said unless she asks you. (= except if
she asks you)
I’ll go swimming tomorrow if it isn’t cold.
You’ll get wet unless you take your umbrella.
Unless you start at once you’ll be late = If you don’t start
at once you’ll be late.
I always eat breakfast. Otherwise, I get hungry during
class.
You’d better hurry. Otherwise, you’ll be late.
Take your umbrella. Otherwise, you’ll get wet.
I always eat breakfast, or (else) I get hungry during class.
Take your umbrella, or (else) you’ll get wet.
You can camp here provided you leave no mess.
Provided you pay me back by Friday, I’ll lend you the
money.
It’s a lot easier to get good marks on a short -answer
question, providing you do it well.
My parents don’t care what job I do as long as I’m happy.
They spoke on condition that their names would not be
used in the article.
It looks like rain.
It looks as if it is going to rain.
It looks as though it is going to rain.
It looks like it is going to rain (informal).
She talked to him as if he were a child.
He acted as though he had never met her.
He came here in order to study English.
I turned off the TV in order to enable my roommate to
study in peace and quiet.
I turned off the TV so (that) my roommate could study in
peace and quiet.
I’m going to cash a check so that I can buy my textbooks.
I cashed a check so that I could buy my textbooks.
I turned off the TV in order that my roommate could
study in peace and quiet.
I don’t let him climb trees in case he tears his trousers.
I carry a spare wheel in case I have a puncture.
I always kept candles in the house in case there was a
power cut.
It was such nice weather that we went to the zoo.
The weather was so nice that we went to the zoo.
It was such good coffee that I had another cup.
It was such a foggy day that we couldn’t see the road.
The coffee was so hot that I can’t drink it.
I’m so hungry that I could eat a horse.
She speaks so fast that I can’t understand her.
She made so many mistakes that she failed the exam.
Al didn’t study. Therefore, he failed the test.
Al didn’t study. Consequently, he failed the test.
=... He, therefore, failed the test.
=... He failed the test, therefore.
Al didn’t study, so he failed the test.
has only one possible position:
between the two sentences.
8. TIME
while
as
as soon as
once
by the time
As long as / so long as
9. EXCEPTION
except (for)
apart from
as soon as / once = when one event
happens, another event happens
soon afterward.
by the time = one event is
completed before another event
as long as / so long as =
during all that time , from
beginning to end
Except is like saying without, or
minus.
Apart from is used:
• except for someone or
something.
• in addition to
someone/something
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While I was studying, the phone rang.
While I was walking home, it began to rain.
As I was walking home, it began to rain.
George arrived as Sue left.
As soon as it stops raining, we will leave.
Once it stops raining, we will leave.
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By the time he arrived, we had already left.
By the time he comes, we will have already left.
I will never speak to him again as long as I live.
I will never speak to him again so long as I live.
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We haven’t told anyone except Leslie’s dad.
I like all musical instruments except the violin.
I don’t know much about the man, except that he’s a fool.
Everything was perfect except for the weather.
I hardly know anyone in the village apart from William
and you.
Apart from the violin, he plays the piano and the flute. (=
besides the violin...)
I like all musical instruments apart from the violin. (=...
except the violin)
«Why were you annoyed?» - «Well, to begin with, I
hadn’t even invited her».
First, open all the windows. Then turn off the gas and, if
necessary, call an ambulance.
First(ly), we need somewhere to live. Second(ly), we need
to find work. And third(ly) ...
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10. LISTING
POINTS/EVENTS
to begin with / to start
with
first / firstly / first of all
to continue
then
11. SUMMARISING
in conclusion
to conclude
finally/ lastly
in summary
to sum up
on the whole
all in all
altogether
in short
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On the whole is used for talking
about the general situation.
All in all is used for showing that
you are considering every aspect of
something.
Altogether / in short are used for
introducing a summary of what you
have just said.
• In conclusion, I’d like to say that everybody should be
able to work if they want to.
• To conclude, I’d like to say that everybody should read the
book.
• Finally, I’d like to consider the economic arguments.
• Lastly, I’d like to thank you all for coming and wish you a
safe journey home.
• In summary, nobody knows where the disease originated.
• Inflation is down, spending is up. In short, the economy is
in good shape.
• I’ll sum up briefly and then we’ll take questions.
• It was a pretty good conference on the whole.
• All in all, I think it has been a very successful conference.
• The weather was great and the people were friendlyaltogether a perfect trip.