SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF SAND ENCROACHMENT ON
FARMING SYSTEMS
Case study: River Nile State (Kaboshya scheme)
By
Amna Gaffar El Tayeb
B.Sc. (Agriculture, Honour)
Department of Agricultural Economics
University of Khartoum
1995
A thesis presented to the University of Khartoum in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the M.Sc. Agric. Economics
Supervisor
Dr. Kamil Ibrahim Hassan
Department of Agricultural Economics Faculty of Agriculture University of Khartoum 1
October – 2004
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
For many years there has been a marked growth of interest in the quality of
environment, disruption of natural ecosystem and the depletion of natural
resources, particularly in developing economies. Global environmental concerns
have led to an increased focus on problems of desertification and deforestation and
resource degradation (FAO, 2001).
Desertification is indeed one of the most important phenomena of our time.
1.2 The status of desertification in the world
Desertification is a worldwide phenomenon which causes the earth’s
ecosystems to deteriorate. It affects about two thirds of countries of the world, and
one third of the earth’s surface, on which one billion people live, i.e. one fifth of
the world population (Koohafkan, 1996). Desertification is devouring more than
20,000 square miles of land worldwide every year, and putting another 70,000
square miles at serious risk. According to the Worldwide Fund for Nature the
world lost about 30% of its natural wealth between 1970–1995(Steele, 1997).
According to categories of land the extension of desertification in the world
dry lands is as follows:
Nearly 216 million hectares of rainfed crop lands or about 47% of their total
area in the world’s dry lands (457 million hectares) are affected by various
processes of degradation, mainly water and wind which cause soil erosion,
depletion of nutrients and physical deterioration. It is estimated that the world is
losing about 3.5 to 4.0 million hectares of rainfed crop lands every year from
various processes of soil degradation. Irrigated lands in dry lands constitute nearly
62% of the total irrigated area of the world (240 million hectares). It is assumed
that about 1 to 1.3 million hectares of irrigated lands are currently lost every year
from world’s dry lands due to various processes of soil degradation mostly
salinization. However, the annual losses of range lands within the dry lands
amount to 4.5 to 5.8 million hectares and even more, mostly due to sand
encroachment and urbanization (UNEP, 1992).
1.3 Magnitude of Desertification in Africa
In Africa it is becoming increasingly precarious. The fragile
ecosystems of the continent are under continuous pressure from a rapidly
2
growing population and there is a consequent need for accelerated
economic growth and enhancement of production. The environmental
problems that African countries currently face are truly daunting. These
include severe climatic conditions, vulnerability to natural disasters
whose severity is intensifying by present agricultural, pastoral and other
practices, persistence of pests impairing human, animal health and
agricultural productivity, poor sanitation and persistence of water-borne
and environment related diseases and deteriorating quality of
environment in human settlements, rapid deforestation and absence of
environmental management of forest ecosystems, soil degradation and
erosion as well as desertification (Yusuf, 1985).
Although desertification is a global problem, but it is one of the
most urgent ecological problems in Africa. It has a considerable bearing
on the overall economic performance and prospects in the majority of the
African countries affected by the process, as these countries rely heavily
on their dry lands and their natural resource base. It is estimated that 1.9
million hectares of irrigated crop lands (18% of their total area), 48.86
million hectares of rain-fed crop lands (61% of their total area) and
995.08 million hectares of range lands (74% of their total area) in Africa
are affected by desertification at a moderate or higher degree (UNEP,
1992).
1.4 Desertification in Sudan
Sudan is an example of the environmental plight of Africa, south
of the Sahara drought and desertification, floods, deforestation, loss of
3
biodiversity, tribal and ethnic conflict and poverty are only too common
(Asim, 2000).
The problem of desertification is deemed as one of the major
environmental problems of concern to Sudan that has its implications on
the human livelihood and resources base. In Sudan desertification is not a
new phenomenon, but it has been going on for a long time. UNESCO
(2001) concluded that: The problem of sand encroachment within the
Nile Valley has been identified since the thirties. With time, however, it
has grown up in magnitude covering large fertile lands ultimately
attacking the Nile, and its dangers extend throughout the area of Sudan
north of latitude 13oN. The problem is directly related to the requirement
and satisfaction of life's basic needs. It is regarded as one of the most
serious handicaps to development. It affects infrastructure by burying
roads, rail, irrigation canals, farms, houses, villages, … etc.
The total degraded lands as the result of an inappropriate human
practices are 21% of irrigated land, 80% of range land, 75% of forest
land and 41% due to cultivation of range land (NDDCU, 2001), so the
total degraded agricultural land amounts to about 21 million hectares, and
is classified according to action of man as follow:
•
20 million hectares due to misuse and over-exploitation of
agricultural lands.
•
5 million hectares due to misuse and over-utilization of range
lands.
•
3 million hectares as a result of cultivation on marginal lands.
•
3 million hectares due to over exploitation of forests.
4
1.5 Desertification in the River Nile State
Desertification is an environmental hazard that affects large areas
of the state. HCENR (2003) concluded that it is recognized that the
population of Kordofan, Darfur, central and northern regions were
directly hit by drought and desertification in the eighties. This induced
the poor and hard hit inhabitants to move southward or settle around
cities and towns.
Desertification is one of the problems that face agriculture in the
River Nile State. In this respect the State Ministry of Agriculture (2003)
reported that “the problems and constraints to the agricultural sector in
the state are: shortage of irrigation water, inadequate supply of inputs,
limited
extension
services,
sand
encroachment,
environmental
degradation and limited veterinary services”. Also Ali (1998) stated that
the environmental constraints and problems constitute a dangerous threat
to sustainability and continuity of agricultural production was of sand
encroachment that had reduced the cultivable areas and enforced the
migration of most village inhabitants.
Agriculture, which is the main occupation of the majority of the
state’s population, is practiced in a narrow strip of land along both banks
of the Nile. Despite the fact that the arable land is very limited, this
valuable fertile land is continuously subjected to sand burial. Khalifa
(1985) has estimated that about one third of the agricultural land in the
Northern region is lost every 20 years to sands and riverbank erosion
(hadam). Also Bayoumi (1985) stated that “sands encroachment and
bank erosion together reduced agricultural lands by about 50 feddans
annually and this in turn deprived 5 families every year of basic
5
livelihood resources”. Recently, the State Ministry of Agriculture (2001)
estimated the loss of agricultural land to sand to be about 6664 feddans.
Also sands have adverse effects, which negatively influence the inhabitants in
the state. A direct effect is burial of irrigation canals, roads, villages, animals, … etc.
In this respect the State Ministry of Agriculture (2003) reported that “creeping sands
buried fertile agricultural lands and houses. Sands block the irrigation canals, they
also hinder Nile water course by sand islands resulting in closure of water inlet pump
sites”. Also Abdel El Rahman (1991) stated that “the state has suffered a continuous
sand encroachment which has turned substantial cropped areas to marginal non
productive areas, and deprived nomadic inhabitants from their herds forcing them to
leave their traditional areas and move towards the Nile”. Also in this respect Ali
(1998) stated that “the acute reduction of forests products let the local inhabitants in
the villages exacerbated the problem of sand encroachment which cuts daily part of
the fertile agricultural lands as well as a direct threat to irrigation canals and the Nile
course and its banks”.
1.6 Problem statement
Kaboshya Agricultural Scheme is regarded as one of the
developmental schemes that is facing the problem of sand encroachment.
It was being stressed as the overwhelming limitation to agricultural
production in the scheme. It reduced the cultivable areas (as the drifting
sand had buried parts of the agricultural lands), besides other factors such
as finance and irrigation. In this respect Awad (1996) mentioned that
sand encroachment is the main obstacle to agricultural production,
specially to crop productivity, sand island formation, river bank erosion
which all lead to reduction in the cultivated areas”.
The main hazard of sand encroachment in the scheme is filling of irrigation canals
by sand, formation of sand islands silting up of pump sites and changing the
topography of the field hence ultimately leading to abandonment of some
cultivable lands. In this respect UNESCO (2001) stated that “sand encroachment
has more damaging effects on the area. This is clear in Kaboshya scheme where
sand blocks one of the major canals required for irrigating about 2000 feddans”.
Also sand has adverse effect on crop productivity as Abdel El Azim (1996) stated
that “the productivity has declined in the last few years due to many factors one of
which is sand movement”, and this can be confirmed by the Table 1.1
6
Table 1.1: The productivity (sack/fed) of onion and bean for the seasons 1979/80-
Crop
79/80
80/81
86/87
87/88
90/91
96/97
97/98
98/99
99/2000
1999-2000
Onion
150
160
160
150
140
100
80
80
50
Broad bean
12
12
14
12
10
8
8
7
5
Season
Source: Different official scheme reports(1979-2000).
1.7 Justification
Kaboshya scheme plays a great role in the state economy.
Moreover, it is the source for living for over ninety families and a
number of workers and administrators jobs. Due to the economic
importance of the scheme it must be protected from sand invasion
and any other hazards.
1.8 Objectives
The study intends to assess the causes and impacts of sand
encroachment on socio-economic activities of the farmers in the affected
areas. The Specific objectives of the study are:
1.
To prove the phenomenon of desertification in the study area
as a natural factor combined with human activity are causes of
sand encroachment.
7
2.
To study the relation between sand encroachment and
reduction in cropped area.
3.
To study the relation between sand encroachment and low crop
productivity.
4.
To prove that sand encroachment has a negative impact on
irrigation system functions, crop structure and animal raising.
5.
To put some solutions and suggestions that help in mitigation
of the problem on the affected farmer’s communities.
1.9 Hypothesis
1.
Low rainfalls, increased number of population and trees cutting
are important factors contributing to desertification.
2.
Sand encroachment leads to reduction in cropped areas.
3.
Sand encroachment leads to reduction of crop productivity.
4.
Deterioration of irrigation processes, limit crop structure and
animal raising.
5.
Afforestation, and tree cutting minimization could be adopted
as suitable measures to mitigate sand encroachment
1.10 Organization of the Study
The study will be presented in 6 chapters: Chapter one,
introductory part includes general information, problem statement,
justification, objectives of the study hypothesis and organization of the
study. Chapter two is literature review. Chapter three is about the study
area. Chapter four includes research methodology and socioeconomic
8
characteristic of tenants. Chapter five is results and discussions. Chapter
six is summary, conclusion and recommendations.
9
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter attempts to shed some light on the terminology, historical
background, concepts and definitions, classes, causes, impacts and combating of
desertification.
2.1 Terminology
The word desertification has, over the years, acquired different
definitions and names such as: desert creep, desert encroachment,
desertization,
desert
formation,
desert
movement,
and
desert
advancement. All these names were used more or less synonymously
(Lennart, 1985) and the differences were according to the emphasis being
made by the individual or group of scientists, depending on their training
and their disciplinary backgrounds.
2.2 Historical perspective
Desertification is not a new phenomenon. Historical evidence shows that
serious and extensive land deterioration occurring several centuries ago in the arid
regions had three epicenters: The Mediterranean Sea, the Mesopotamian valley, and
the loessial plateau of China. There were other places where destructive changes in
soil and plant cover had occurred but they were small in extent or are not well known.
Scientists have investigated as early as 1920s the advance and spread of the
desert in West Africa, finding evidence of mobile sand dunes, human fossil remains
in the now dry areas and areas of declining rainfall. It was concluded that the Sahara
had grown and is still growing, owing to poor land management, which had worsened
under the colonial regime. These early judgments preceded what environmental
historians are now discovering to have been a much more traumatic event. The
American “Dust Bowl” of the 1930s and the Sears’s Deserts on the March 1935
evoked accusations of widespread anthropogenic degradation. He and others believed
they also had evidence of wide spread environmental degradation in the dry lands of
Europe, which in the Midwestern State, was also thought to be mismanagement. With
these narratives very much in mind, Stebbing, a forester, identified the causes of
degradation in British West Africa to be the shortened agricultural fallow periods,
shifting agriculture and overgrazing. An Anglo-French Forestry Commission (which
went to look at forestry in European colonies) toured the Niger. Nigeria border
in1936–1937, and their conclusions were for more circumspect. They saw
10
degradation as place specific and treatable. A member of this commission, the
influential French botanist Augste Aubreville, held to the ‘desert advance’
hypothesis, and first uses the term ‘desertification’ in 1949.
In the dry lands of Africa, severe drought and famine in the 1970s, following
decades of good rainfall, again revived the desertification debate, with depressing
reports of desert advance appearing in scientific publications and the media. This
alarm stocked the United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD, 1997),
which was held primarily at the behest of national governments of African Sahel
countries in Nairobi, firmly launched desertification into the arena of global politics
and environmental problems and since then it has been a controversial environmental
issue (Simon and Warren, 2001; David 1998 and Dregene 1983).
2.3 Concept of desertification
Several definitions and contentions about what is desertification have
been reflected in the works of individual scientists, scientific institutions,
international organizations and implementing agencies. Based on these:
Stebbing (1938) defined desertification as “encroaching Sahara”. Aubreville
(1949) defined desertification as follows: There are real deserts that are
being born today under our eyes, in regions where the annual rainfall is
from 700 to 1500 mm. Dregene1976 in Moscow 1986 proposed the following
definition: "The impoverishment of terrestrial ecosystems under the impact
of man. It is a process of deterioration in these ecosystems that can be
measured by reduced productivity of desirable plants, undesirable alterations
in the biomass and the diversity of the micro and macro fauna and flora,
accelerated soil deterioration, and increased hazards for human occupancy".
UNCOD (1977) illustrated that desertification is the diminution or
destruction of the biological potential of land, and can lead ultimately to
desert-like conditions. It is an aspect of the widespread deterioration of
ecosystems, and has diminished or destroyed the biological potential, i.e.
plant and animal production, for multiple use purposes at a time when
increased productivity is needed to support growing populations in quest of
development. The later definition was found inadequate and insufficiently
operational when the attempts started in different parts of the world to
implement various records of the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification,
and to undertake the quantitative assessment of desertification. In response,
a series of definitions was developed by various groups, for example, Nelson
(1990) described desertification as a process of degradation of land,
including soil and vegetation, in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas,
caused at least partly by people. It reduces both resilience and productivity
potential to an extent, which can neither be readily reversed by removing the
cause, nor easily reclaimed without substantial investment.
11
The world had reached a consensus on what is a much more
composite or comprehensive definition by United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) in year 1992 which defined
desertification as: "Land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid
areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and
human activities". (Desertification control Bulletin, 1994). This definition
was adopted by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(Camilla, 1995).
2.4 Classes of desertification
There are four classes of desertification: slight, moderate, severe
and very severe according to(Dregene, 1983). The criteria for each class
is as follows:
1.
Slight: little or no degradation of the soil and plant cover has
occurred.
2.
Moderate: 26 to 50 percent of plant community consists of
climax species, 25 to 75 percent of top soil lost and soil salinity
has reduced crop yields 10 to 50 percents.
3.
Severe: 10 to25 percent of plant community consists of climax
species, erosion has removed all or practically all of the top
soil and salinity controllable by drainage and leaching has
reduced crop yield by more than 50 percent.
4.
Very severe: Less than 10 percent of plant community consists
of climax species, land has many sand dunes or deep gullies
and salt crusts have developed on very slow permeable
irrigated soils.
2.5 Causes of desertification
Various causes of desertification are recognized.
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2.5.1 Climate
Some authors ascribe desertification to climate change, or climatic
variations.
Swift
(1996)
reported
that
climate
change
caused
desertification increase in recent years. Ben Mohamed (1998) claimed
that drought increased soil degradation. Nelson (1990) reported that
about 70% of the problem of desertification could be attributed to natural
events.
2.5.2 Human activity
Evanari (1971) explained that many human activities stand behind
desertification occurrence and added that, inappropriate traditional
agriculture methods were responsible for land degradation for several
centuries. Glantz and Orlovsky (1983) stated that cultivation, herding and
wood-gathering practices, as well as the use of technology contributed to
the desertification process in arid, semi-arid lands and humid areas.
Dregene (1983) claimed that man activities are the main causes of
desertification, however, the drought only place additional stress on the
biological resources. Mossige, Berkele and Maiga (2001) concluded that
desertification occurs due to dry lands ecosystems’ vulnerability to overexploitation and inappropriate land use. Poverty, political instability,
deforestation, overgrazing, and bad irrigation practices can all undermine
land’s productivity.
2.6 Impact of desertification
Scotney and Dijkhuis (1989) reported that crop yield could be decreased to
half within 40 years according to the continuous rate of degradation of cultivated
lands. WHO (2000) argue that desertification and drought increased threat to human
health. Zida (2000) mentioned that degradation and desertification are major
13
constraints to economic and social development. Boon (1990) reported that socioeconomic consequences include lack of food and fodder, migration, water shortages,
diseases, unemployment, loss of identity, tribal conflicts and political unrest.
2.7 Desertification in Sudan
Sudan is one of the Sudano-Sahelian countries, which was
seriously affected by drought and desertification since the late sixties to
the present. They left their long lasting imprints on the natural habitat,
the means of livelihood and socio-economic fabric of the society. They
were the scene of acute environmental stress. .
2.8 The geographical extent of desertification in Sudan
In 1976 DECARP, estimated that two thirds of the total country
area or about 650,000 km2 had been desertified, and the desert had
shifted southward by rate of 5 – 6 km annually. Recently, (NDDCU
1997) stated that “desertified area in the country amounts to about
1.259.751 km2 representing 50.5% of Sudans total area, located between
latitude 10 – 18ºN, comprised thirteen states namely: Northern State,
Nahar El Nile State, Red Sea, Kassala, Gedarif, Khartoum, Gezira,
Sennar, White Nile, Northern Kordofan, Western Kordofan, Northern
Darfur and Western Darfur. The affected populations amounts to 19.5
million or 82% from the total population of Sudan (total population 25
million according to 1993 census)
Data on magnitude of desertification by geographical extent and
desertification classes are shown in Table (2.1) below:
Table 2.1: Areas at risk to drought between 10 – 18oN
Desertification
Ecological
Rainfall
Area
Zone
Total
Latitude
classes
zone
(mm)
(Km2X1000)
(%)
(%)
(ON)
14
Desert
Desert
Very
Semi-
severe/severe
desert
Moderate
Low rainfall
Savanna
Mountain
Slight/very
vegetation/
slight
High rainfall
Savanna
0-100
307
24.4
12.3
14-18
100-300
414
32.9
16.6
13-14
300-800
315
40.7
20.6
12-13
600-800
0.8
0.1
11-12
>800
25
2.0
10-11
1260
100
Total
Source: NDDCU. (Salih, 1994).
15
50.5
2.9 Desertification indicators in Sudan:
According to Fadul and Osman (2000) the primary desertification
indicators in the country include the following:
•
Degradation of soil fertility which leads to crop failure or
declined productivity.
•
Degradation of the vegetative covers both in terms of botanical
composition and density.
•
Change in animal ratios.
•
Reduction in wild life.
On the other hand, the authors mentioned the following permanent
desertification indicators:
•
Bare land areas increasing.
•
Wind erosion and the associated mobile sand dunes.
•
Water erosion and the appearance of gullies.
•
Drying of wells and sand deposition in wadis and irrigation
canals.
•
Tribal disputes and conflicts over land resources for range and
agriculture (such problems are aggravated by the weakening of
the traditional tribal institutions).
•
Displacement of rural people to the outskirts of cities and
towns where they usually live in bad environmental conditions.
•
Prices rise due to insufficient production.
•
Famines, malnutrition and increased infant mortality.
2.10 Causes of desertification in Sudan
Many various authors have tried to explain the causes and
16
processes of desertification in the Sudan, all these studies suggest that the
spread of desert-like conditions has resulted from both natural and human
factors.
2.10.1 Natural factors
(a) Climate:
Horst Mensching(1977), who spent many years studying arid lands
in Sahelian countries like Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali and Sudan
suggested that it was wrong to ignore the impact of secular climatic
changes as being closely linked to the process of desertification. He
emphasized that due to lack of adequate data, the scientific community as
a whole did not really understand long term climatic trends.
PNPCDD(1985) stated that "weather fluctuation or drought of one or
more years and land misuses were the actual causes of desertification in
arid regions as well as in Sudan".
(b) Drought:
Darag (1999) defined drought as "natural phenomenon that occurs
when rainfall level drops below natural standards causing a drop in land
resource productivity."
Sudan has been stricken by successive years of drought cycles
since 1960 and from that time till now and the country is suffering from
the long lasting imprints of the drought disastrous effects (Tigani, 1996).
PNPCDD (1985) stated that Raiked concluded that irreversibility
of drought effects are more desert creative because of its great severity,
than the general postulated large geological climatic changes.
Twelve million hectares from mechanized agricultural land and
17
606 million hectares from traditional one are threaten by drought
(NDDCU, 2001). Successive years of drought severely affected the
country and have caused severe shortage of food, social disruption, wide
spread health impact, nutritional problems and mal-distribution of the
population (Darag, 1999).
The loss of vegetation cover due to overgrazing or cultivation is
thought to lead to droughts. Once they start they feedback on themselves
to perpetuate the drought conditions and consequently desertification.
2.10.2 Human activities
The convention to combat desertification identified natural factors
and human activities as the major causes for desertification. As the
control of natural factors is rather difficult if not impossible, high global
attention was given to address human factors. Many scientists believe
that desertification is mainly attributable to human activities. This fact
most probably has led the Sudan’s Soil Conservation Committee in 1994
to conclude that there is very strong evidence that the climate of to-day
with its normal variation (periodic droughts) has undergone no basic
changes for better or worse since the close of final major wet phase. It is
concluded that soil degradation and desertification that has occurred in
1944 and which still now occurring are mainly attributed to general land
misuse rather than to major climatic changes (HCENR, 1999).
In the Sudan, the most destructive features of human activities
which are leading to natural resources degradation and causing
desertification are overgrazing, over and irrational cultivation particularly
in the marginal areas, wood-cutting and deforestation for fuel and
18
building materials, uprooting of shrubs for fencing, bush fires and
lowering water table due to increased use, disasters, depletion of land and
local resources in response to global economic power, low care by
environmental resources for the purpose of their sustainability (DECARP
1976; Bayoumi, 1984; Ayoub, 1998; ElWakeel, 2000 and NAP, 2001).
2.10.2.1 Increased pressure on resources
The main factors leading to degradation are increasing demand for
food from growing population, which result in over-exploitation of
natural resources with little consideration for maintaining sustainability
of the eco-balance (UNEP, 1992).
2.10.2 .2 Overcultivation
It has been stated that over-cultivation and cultivation of marginal
lands are major causes of desertification (DECARP, 1976). Nimir(1996)
added that agricultural expansion, irrigated and rainfed (mechanized and
traditional) without following an agricultural system which maintains and
conserves the soil is considered as one factor contributing to
desertification. Ayoub (1998) concluded that 22% of soil degradation as
a result of improper agricultural practices and mechanized rainfed
agriculture.
2.10.2.3 Overgrazing:
Significant overgrazing in the Sudan has been observed during the
last few decades due to increase in animal population of the Sudan. The
rapid increase in animal numbers is extraordinarily far beyond the
carrying capacity of the available pasture as confirmed by Darag (2001)
who stated that “the actual size of the range land that is required to
19
support the national herd amounts to 95 million hectares, while the actual
size of range land do not exceed 36.4 million hectares”. consequently,
overstocking is the major cause of over-grazing which usually lead to
destruction of vegetation then removal of soil cover hence increased
wind and water erosion and eventually desertification. Ayoub (1998)
stated that 74% of the total degraded area referred to overgrazing.
2.10.2.4 Fires
Fires destroy vegetation cover (both forage and tree species). They
also contribute to desert encroachment. DECARP (1976) stated that“ fire
was an influential factor causing desertification in the Sudan. It was
destroys a lot of potential forage and it induces remarkable changes in the
botanical composition of the predominant vegetation formations and
individual plant communities”. NDDCU (2001) also declared that fires
destroy 15–30% of the herb annually in Savanna region especially in
central Sudan.
2.10.2.5 Deforestation
Utilization of forests trees for fuel and grazing has removed trees
from vast areas and exposed the areas for desertification. The steady
deterioration that has occurred over the last 20 years under the combined
effects of agricultural encroachment, fuel-wood harvesting, overgrazing
has reduced forest area by 20% and has been a contributory cause of
accelerated desertification. The demand study of forest products
conducted in 1995/96 indicates that, the annual consumption of forest
product far exceeds the allowable cut. The study shows that the
consumption of forest products in 1994 is approximately 16.0 million m3
20
while the allowable cut is approximately 11 million m3 per annum
(HCENR, 1999). This heavy dependence on forests for different uses has
reduced the forests and FAO (2001) stated that "Sudan is currently one of
the eighteen least forest covered countries.
Cutting trees for fuel-wood constitutes a significant portion of trees
removed. Fuel-wood and charcoal in Sudan provide more than 80% of
the energy needs of the population in the country (Nour, 2003), which
caused 19% of soil degradation while overexploitation of vegetation for
domestic use induce 13% of soil degradation (Ayoub, 1998).
2.10.2.6. Excessive use of water
Lowering of the water table in wells has been caused by increased
water used due to overpopulation, over-cultivation and overgrazing. The
lowering of underground water is due to pumping of ground water for
drinking and for irrigation purposes. The intensive use of underground
water in areas bordering the desert is triggering an advancement of the
desert on agricultural lands (DECARP, 1976).
2.10.2.7 Strategies, policies and planning
Bayuomi(1986) argued that "all causes of desertification refer to
wrong policies as confirmed by low outcomes from projects of:
Afforestation, reserved forests and priorities for production projects that
have exacerbated the removal of natural forests and then enhance soil
erosion and desertification factors that have doubled their sweep. Also
absence of coordination between the specialist administrations and
delinquency in laws that control the uses of natural resources have led to
desertification and extended its area. Also Nimir (1996) reported that
21
"absence of integrated planning and efficient coordination between
institutions which work in fields of agriculture, natural resources,
planning and investment have led to desertification."
Asim (2000) stated that (the basic environmental problems of Sudan are related to
the absence of an acceptable strategic master plan for land use, the growing
conflicts in land use policies, the depletion of natural resources and the unchecked
population growth (due to lack of coherent population policy). Also in this respect
Darag, 2001, pointed out that although Sudan is rich in agriculture and natural
resources, still economic planning and development is hindered by lack of proper
land use planning and agricultural policies. Policies are essential to categorize land
use activities according to suitability and capabilities of major ecological zones.
From the above mentioned it is clear that planning and policies play a major role
in land degradation that through time have negative impacts on the environment.
2.10.2.8 Migration
Migration of people is also attributed to factors of desertification .
In this respect Abu Sin (1975) wrote about population mobility north of
latitude 10N0, stating that mobility is the obvious feature in demographic
and socio-economic and environmental changes leading in the end to
environmental degradation.
Other factors that are attributed to desertification is poverty.
Babiker (1988) reported that traditional farmers contribute to
environmental degradation because they are poor and desperate, and in
turn environmental degradation exacerbates their condition. Also Birch
and Krogboc in El Khidir (1998) have mentioned two reasons for
desertification; depreciated terms of trade and civil troubles.
Eventually, it can be concluded that a combination of factors
involving fragile ecosystems developed under harsh climate and man
activities which have increased in an irreversible magnitude and are the
actual causes of desertification problem in Sudan (DECARP, 1976).
22
2.11 Impact of desertrification in Sudan
Desertification has environmental, economical and social effects.
2.11.1 Climate change and warming
At the global level the vegetation cover is considered as one of
most important sinks of carbon dioxide. Desertification, which destroys
the vegetation cover, would contribute very much to the process of global
warming and would accelerate climate change (AOAD, 2002). The
problem of climate change will translate into over-exploitation of water,
land forest and pasture resources through over-cultivation, overgrazing,
deforestation and other human activities leading to erosion and
degradation of land production and ultimately food insecurity.
2. 11. 2 Impact of Desertification on forests
The forests’ area covered about 40% of the total area of the
country but it has now decreased to about half of what it has been in the
early twentieth century. (Fadual and Osman, 2000).
2. 11. 3 Reduction of cultivable area
In this respect Carlaw (2000) stated that "Desertification is a cause
of concern because it effectively reduces the amount of arable
(cultivatable) land on which the world depends for feed. An estimated
600 million people worldwide live on the arid lands, according to the
recent U.N definition, close to 40% of the world’s land surface is dry
lands, and that excluded the true deserts. All of these lands, in some
measure, are potentially vulnerable to desertification. More than 10% of
23
those 600 million people live in areas identified as actively undergoing
desertification, up to 70% of the dry lands are undergoing significant
degradation.
2.11.4 Reduction of productivity
UNEP, 1992 stated that desertification has negative effects on land
productivity, ecological balance and biodiversity. It cause extensive
socio-economic changes such as human displacement, loss of livestock
and other means of production.
2.11.5 Migration
Osman and Hassab Alla (1984) talking about migration from the
rural society, they mentioned three mobility factors that lead to
mobilization or migration from rural to urban centers as follows:
economic factor, instable security situation and desertification which has
affected vast parts of Sudan and led to evacuation of villages so as to
escape from drought, scarcity of water and moving sand dunes which
engulf what obstruct their ways.
Desertification is one factor that enforces people to leave their
residential areas. In this respect Yousif (1996) reported that: due to civil
war, drought and desertification, migration seems to have gained more
momentum since 1973 census. In addition to these push factors, pull
factors have played an important role in stimulating population
movement specially to urban agglomeration
2.11.6 Poverty
Nimir (1996) referred the increase and spread of poverty to high
increase in population and failure of development projects to satisfy the
24
welfare of most people, to war in south and civil strife in the west of
Sudan and to drought and desertification which was accompanied by
extreme decline in agricultural production, mortality of livestock and
spread of diseases and famines then increased people’s suffering that
reached its maximum level during disasters.
2.11.7 Impact on food security
Kamil (2002) mentioned that drought and desertification have
impact on soil, biodiversity forests and on food security. He pointed out
that: drought and desertification are the most serious environmental
problems in the Sudan. All other signs of environmental degradation such
as soil degradation, loss of biodiversity and climatic changes are highly
related to environmental degradation and food insecurity, especially in
arid and semi-arid areas. This is indicated by the long term and
cumulative environmental degradation resulting from inappropriate
cultivation practices, overgrazing, excessive fuel-wood cutting and
burning and deforestation leading to the decline and/or collapse of
primary productive system. This accentuates food crisis.
2.11.8 Deterioration in Biodiversity
The ecological diversity in Sudan is reflected in the richness of
biodiversity. The wide variety of vegetation types in the Sudan is
reflected in its fauna. Asim (2000) stated that (out of the 13 mammalian
orders in Africa 12 occur in Sudan. Setzer (1956) reported 91 genera and
224 species and subspecies of mammals other than bats. 971 species of
25
birds are recorded. The Nile is home for 106 species of fish and swamps
are considered as a major gene reserve. Despite all of the above
mentioned a wide diversity in biota, during last decades, the abundance
and distribution of several species has been 6 times reduced (Nimir,
1996).
2.12 Efforts to combat desertification in Sudan
The first efforts to combat desertification in the Sudan, can be
traced back to the early 1940s when Government of Sudan formed a
commission to investigate desert encroachment on the irrigated lands on
the Nile and rainfed areas. According to decision of this commission, El
Obeid belt was established in 1946, and the commission recommended
establishing other similar belts around Bara, El Nihwad, Umm Ruwaba
and El Fashir. Since then the danger of environmental degradation was
not publicly and officially appreciated. Then Stebbing in 1953 published
his book “The creeping desert in Sudan and elsewhere in Africa” by
which he brought attention to environmental degradation in Sudan.
During the period 1956 - 1966 the government took several
initiatives to manage and rehabilitate natural resources. Several
specialized departments and units were created such as lands Investment
and Rural Water Cooperation to conserve soils and program water.
Massive projects were launched and recommendation for establishment
of Research Corporation Stations and experimental farms were made but
most of the attention was given to anti-thirst campaign, and soil
conservation and desertification combating program was neglected.
After the International Conference of Human and Environment in
26
Stockholm (1972), Sudan declared its full support to the issue of
combating desertification because most of the country was severely
attacked by this phenomenon. Two thirds of the country area, about
650000 square miles, are facing the problem of being converted into
desert. The best grazing lands lie in this particular area where largest
traditional and modern agriculture is practiced. It yields 90% of the
Sudan’s cereals and oil seeds and 85% of its firewood requirements, as a
result the Ministry of Natural Resources and Rural Development was
formed. The important conjugation of this Ministry was sand dunes
fixation.
In 1977 the Sudan submitted to the United Nations Conference on
Desertification (UNCOD) in Nairobi, Kenya, its program which was
drawn up in 1974 by the assistance of a number of United Nations
Organizations and published in 1976. The program was called Desert
Encroachment Control and Rehabilitation Program (DECARP), which
proposed a wide range of projects for development in agricultural range
lands, wildlife, surface and ground water, forestry aiming at arresting
what was called “desert encroachment”. Due to the difficulty in obtaining
funds only few of the suggested projects were implemented.
By the end of 1979 National Drought and Desertification Control
Unit (NDDCU)has been established.
In 1985 the National Plan for Combating Drought and
Desertification was proposed by Government.
In 1996 the National Program for Combating Drought and
Desertification was formulated by Coordination Council for Drought and
Desertification Program. This program included 12 national projects and
27
12 international and regional projects, aiming to combat desertification
(NDDCU, 1999 and Goda, 2001).
28
CHAPTER THREE
THE STUDY AREA
3.1 Introduction
The study endeavored to search on physical and human causes that
led to the emergence of sand dunes in the area and on their impact. Thus,
understanding the features of natural environment and human factors is
more essential. This chapter concisely outlines the natural environmental
components and the human setting of the study area.
3.2. Location
Shendi locality is situated in the southern part of the River Nile
State. It approximately lies between Latitudes 17o and 18o North and
Longitudes 23o and 24o East. The locality lies in the arid zone of Sudan
which is characterize by its fragile and marginal ecosystem that is more
vulnerable to degradation.
The locality extends from Umm Ali north to Mesektab south,
covering an area of about 15,461 Km2. Khartoum State borders it from
the south and Ed-Damar locality from the north and east, River Nile and
El-Mutama locality from the west. Administratively, Shendi locality
includes three administrative units, these are: Shendi administrative unit,
south rural administrative unit and north rural administrative unit where
the study was carried out.
3.3. Natural factors
These include various climatic elements such as rainfall,
temperature, relative humidity, wind and others beside soil and water
resources.
29
3.3.1. Climatic conditions
On the aspect of land degradation, climatic conditions play a
crucial role being the prime factor in this respect. Broadly, the climate in
the study area is typical semi-desert .The most important climatic feature
is the occurrence of long dry season extending for nine months from
October to June and wet season extends for three months from July to
September. The most important climatic elements are the following:
3.3.1.1. Rainfall
It is scanty and erratic due to the nature of the semi-desert zone.
Where it rains, the rainy season is very short limited in many cases to
only two or three months with the rest of the year remaining virtually
dry. Moreover, the rain usually comes in isolated showers, which are
highly variable in time and location. The rainfall fluctuates from year to
another. Data on monthly and yearly total amount of rainfall for the
period 1987 to 2001 demonstrates the high variation in rainfall amounts
(Table 3.1).
3.3.1.2 Temperature
There is a wide range of temperatures over the year. May and June
are the hottest months with a mean maximum temperature around 42oC.
January and February are the coldest months with a mean maximum
temperature of 29 oC.
30
Table 3.1: Shendi total rainfall for (1987 – 2001).
Year
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1987
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
12.0
47.3
1.3
5.6
0.4
5.5
0.0
0.02
Total
72.1
1988
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
30.2
153.2
8.0
14.0
0.0
0.0
205.4
1989
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
7.5
2.3
5.0
0.0
0.0
15.8
1990
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
0.0
35.0
0.0
2.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
37.8
1991
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.3
0.0
20.6
2.0
5.0
3.5
0.0
0.0
31.7
1992
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
5.7
48.4
32.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
86.8
1993
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.0
0.0
4.2
1.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.8
1994
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
22.0
12.2
65.0
8.8
0.0
0.0
108.0
1995
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
44.3
25.4
8.0
4.4
0.0
0.0
83.1
1996
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.5
0.0
0.0
5.4
35.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
42.6
1997
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
6.2
17.5
11.0
1.5
5.0
0.0
0.0
42.2
1998
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.8
0.0
9.4
189.1
28.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
227.6
1999
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
74.4
40.2
51.0
63.8
0.0
0.0
229.4
2000
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.8
2001
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
35.7
1.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
37.3
Source: Headquarter Meteorological Authority (2003).
30
3.3.1.3 Winds
The prevailing winds direction is from north and northeast during
November to May, the direction changes to southwest and south during
the period June to September. Wind velocity reaches about 12 km/hr
during the period from November to February and reaches 8 km/hr
during the rest of the year. Because winds blow from the desert, they are
hot and dry in summer and cool and dry in winter. Usually, these winds
play a vital role in the power of detaching transferring and depositing of
sand particles. The quantity of sands removed mainly depends on wind
velocity. So winds in the area contribute to sand encroachment problems.
3.3.1.4 Relative humidity
Minimum relative humidity at summer reaches about 21% and
maximum relative humidity at January reach about 34%.
3.3.1.5 Precipitation
Annual precipitation is low about 101 mm.
3.3.1.6 Evaporation
The area is characterized by high evaporation rate ranging
between 1677 – 2336 m.
3.3.2 Topography
Most of the areas are generally flat with some mountains and sand
dunes scattered in different sites.
3.3.3 Water resources
There are various water resources in the area. These include:
1.
Surface water resources
2.
Ground water.
31
3.3.3.1 Surface water resources
a) River Nile
It is the main source of life. It is regarded as the prime factor in controlling and
distribution of settlements. It is the main permanent source of water.
b) Seasonal streams (wadis)
These streams only flow directly after rainfall which is rare and
irregular occurrence .
Rainfall is low and in frequent to justify water harvesting
development. However, these wadis have soils with agricultural potential
and lie on the Nubian series but the agricultural practices in these wadis
depend on traditional techniques in water harvesting, so the
developmental irrigation techniques may be possible in the future.
The important wadis in the study area are: El Hawad with total
area about 75,000 feddans and wadi El Awatib with a total area of about
35,000 feddans. Despite these large areas of wadis the actual utilized
area on agriculture does not exceed 20 – 30% of their total areas.
c) Rainfall water
Rainfall is the cardinal water resource in areas away from the
River Nile. It can be utilized for agriculture, natural pastures and for
drinking of animals if barriers and Hafirs (water reservoirs) are
constructed for such purpose.
Surface water resources are therefore important in agricultural
development as they annually provide high quality water with high
percentage of silt.
3.3.3.2 Ground water resources:
Ground water is found in most parts of the district. It is regarded
as an important source of water for drinking and agriculture in the areas
far away from the River Nile. The amount of storage ground water is
32
estimated at about 3,297,000 m3. The depths of productive bore holes
differ from one site to another according to location. Most depths range
from 300 – 500 feet. Shendi district consists of about 154 bore holes, 62
excavated reservoirs (Hafirs). Tamads (water hole) and other surface
wells reach about 50 wells. The majority of wells have been drilled and
designed for drinking water. The Nubian sandstone formation aquifer is
the best one in the Sudan as it is characterized by:
a.
High quality sedimentary rocks which are homogeneous and with
considerable thickness.
b.
Permanent recharging from the River Nile, in addition to rainfall.
c.
High quality ground water. Total dissolved salts range from 300
– 750 mg/L (Investment Guide Book, 2003).
3.3.4 Soils
Within the Nile Valley there are large areas, which are highly
suitable for irrigation and most of these areas have already been
developed. The elevation of most NAPC schemes in the whole Nile State
is 200 m to 370 above sea level and the morphology is a series of flood
basins which are old meandering courses and river terraces. On the landward side of the basins there are higher terraces which give way to rock
and sand dunes as one goes further away from the river. The soil is
alluvial in origin and belongs to the Vertisol, Entisol and Avidisol
groups.
3.3.5 Vegetation cover
According to location of the district in arid zone, rainfall, soil,
River Nile and wadis these all reflect in different types of natural
vegetation according to quantity, quality and distribution.
According to Harrison and Jackson, 1958 desert zone vegetation is
33
virtually absent, expect along the Nile Bank and water courses where
ephemeral herbs and grasses occur after rainfall.
In the basin and along the Nile Bank, Acacia nilotica (sunt),
Acacia seyal (Talh), Acacia albida (Haraz) and Acacia tortilis (samur).
Along water courses away from the River Bank (Wadis and
Khors) Acacia tortilis, Acacia tortilis sub. Sp. Radiana (sayal), Maerua
crassifolia (sarah), Balanites aegyptiaca (Helieg), Ziziphus spina-christi
(Sidir) are dominant.
In upper terraces, shrubs such as: Capparis decidua (tundub),
Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Marikh), Calatropis procera (Ashar) are
found.
Reserved forests mostly confined to wadis and water courses.
There are about 28 reserved forests covering an area of about 50,000
feddans. The total area of natural range lands is about 12,000 feddans.
The dominant vegetation types of these range lands are Pancium
turgidum (Tumam), Blepharis persica (Saha), Aristida mutabilis (gau).
The potential capacity of range land is 17 animal units/km2.
3.4 Human characteristics
3.4.1 Population
The population of Shendi locality, according to the 1993 census
was approximately 179595 with a rate of growth of 1.9%. The
population is distributed as shown in table (3.2) below.
Table 3.2: Distribution of population according to their settlement
Item
Total
Percentage
Urban
Rural settled
Nomadic
Total
21,102
147612
10884
179598
11.7
82.2
6.1
100
34
Source: Department of Statistics.
The majority of people live in close proximity to the Nile around
which irrigated agriculture is the main stay of communities’ existence.
3.5 Economic activity
The main economic activity is agriculture followed by animal
raising and very few people practice other economic activities (trade,
civil servants, ...etc).
3.5.1 Agriculture
It is the chief source of income for over 80% of the population. It
constitutes the foundation on which the locality's economy is built. The
locality has a valuable contribution in the production of many crops
which are not produced in other places .
Agriculture relative advantages in Shendi district are:
1. Diversity and suitability of the climate which lead to diversity of
the harvest season and crop combination.
2. Agriculture in district is a heritage.
3. Characteristics of the soil, which make the district suitable for
production of most field crops.
4. Proximity of the province to the capital Khartoum.
5. Shendi area has a comparative advantage in the production of
onion and broad bean compared to other regions in the Sudan,
specially the varieties of onion that can be stored for long periods.
About 70% (14000 feddans) of the total area (20,000 feddans)
cultivated with onion in the state are found in Shendi area.
6. Availability of essential infrastructures (Investment Guide Book,
2003).
35
The total area available for agriculture in the locality is approximately 950,000
feddans. The cultivable land is very small, almost about 250,000 feddans are
under cultivation representing 26.3% (MFED, 1996, Statistic Department Records
Ed-Damar).
3.5.1.1 Agricultural seasons
There are 3 seasons.
a) Winter (shitwe) season
The main cash crops season which extends from November to April. In this
season, working conditions are more favourable and the majority of crops are grown.
These include broad bean, wheat, vegetables, fodder and onion which is the
predominant crop in this season.
b) Summer (seifi) season
Extends from April to July during which sorghum, vegetables and
fodder are grown.
c) Flood (Damira) season
Extends from August to October. The crops grown during this
season are sorghum and fodder.
3.5.1.2 Irrigation system
Agriculture is confined to irrigation from the Nile by pump,
except for small areas away from the Nile irrigated with ground water
(matrates) and flood irrigation in damira season. Rainfed agriculture in
wadis in the rainy seasons where only dura is grown.
3.5.1.3 Types of agricultural schemes
There are three main types of agricultural schemes in Shendi
locality, these are:
a. Private pump schemes: These are privately owned by individuals.
b. Cooperative pump schemes.
c. Agricultural development schemes: The state consists of fourteen
agricultural development schemes, occupying a total area of 75,000
36
feddans. The land under cultivation has been subjected to
continuous reduction, and only about 55% are currently under
cultivation. The individual farm areas are in the range of 2.5 – 10
feddans.
Different successive administrations have managed the projects. In
the
period
1973-1993 they
belonged
to
Northern
Agricultural
Corporation (NAC). During 1993–1995 the responsibility of the projects
was transferred to the State Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Wealth
in Nahar El Nil State. From 1995 – 2001 they were subdued to
privatization during which they were managed by farmers organizations.
Since 2001 and till now the projects are shifted again to the State
Ministry of Agriculture. The State Ministry specialized management unit
for administration of these projects is called Unit of Rehabilitation and
Prior Projects.
The production relations are water relationships where the farmers
pay a fixed water charge/feddan. All mentioned administrations of these
schemes had followed the same policies of complete dependence on the
water rate, the only difference is that the water rates were increased in
order to finance the plan of work. The government responsibility is
restricted to the provision of irrigation water and field supervision. Water
charges differ between annual crops and perennials. Shendi district
includes two of those schemes namely Gandato and Kaboshya scheme
where the study was carried out, it established in 1980. It extends from
Eltragma south to Kaboshya north cover the area of 4500 feddans. The
total number of farmers in the schemes is 972. Irrigation is by pumps.
Pump station that are located in Eltragma village consists of 6 pumps. It
is comprised of four sections, first section Eltragma, second section
Sayal Serag, third section Mashykha, the last section is Elkaboshab.
37
3.6 Livestock
The area is free from animal diseases and it characterized by
raising good local breeds of animals.
38
CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF TENANTS
This chapter will deal with the research methodology including sampling,
design, data collection and sources of data and finally the analytical techniques. It
also covers the socio-economics characteristics of Kaboshya Scheme tenants.
4.1 Research methodology
4.1.1 Sample selection
To ensure better representation of the population in the studies of rural
economies, it is preferable to use stratified random sampling designs rather than
other sampling techniques. This is because sampling based on stratification is more
convenient and cost effective in the sense that stratification allows for taking small
samples and allows for adequate representation of the population under investigation.
It is known scientifically that sample size is a trade off between the precision
level and available resources in terms of costs, time and facilitates. For the purpose
of this study a stratified sample of 100 farmers has been taken randomly from the 4
main sections of the scheme. Because of the homogeneity of the population about
10% of it has been taken as the sample size. Accordingly the sample size even
exceeds the desired level of precision (5%). Not being for the known survey
constraints such as budget, limited time and transportation difficulties, the sample
size could have been increased significantly and thus the degree of precision. Table
4.1 shows sample size distribution by section.
Table 4.1: Sample size distribution by section.
Section
No. of farmers
Sample size
One
286
29
Two
411
42
Three
201
21
Four
74
8
Total
972
100
4.1.2 Data collection and sources:
This study is based on both primary and secondary data. Primary
data were collected through direct field survey using questionnaires and
photographic documentation. Before the interviewing process the
respondents were informed about the purpose of the study in order to
gain their confidence. The primary data were collected during the period
39
April – May 2003.
The study also used secondary data which were collected from institutional
sources e.g. Kaboshya Scheme Management Office, Ministry of Agriculture,
Department of Statistic, Headquarter Meteorological Authority and Official reports,
other relevant sources such as ledger books, relevant textbooks, journals; bulletins,
papers, research, results and previous studies.
4.1.3.Methods of analysis
To achieve the stated objectives various analytical techniques were used.
Descriptive statistical analysis for socio-economic characteristics of farmers was
used to show their relation with respect to the phenomenon.
Chi-square test and descriptive statistical analysis were used to find the
correlation between sand and reduction in area, productivity and vegetation cover,
descriptive statistical analysis for irrigation problem, raising of animals, loss of
cultivars by sand storm.
4.2 Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents
4.2.1 Ages of the respondents
The study shows that there were six age-classes distributed as
follows 21 – 30, 31 – 40, 41 – 50 and 51 – 60 years, 9, 13, 26 and 25%
respectively and 27% between 61 – 80 and very few (1%) above 80
years old (Table 4.2). It is clear that about 52% of the respondents were
over 50 years old that means they were old enough to rely upon their
observations regarding the environmental degradation that took place in
the study area during their lifetime.
Table 4.2: Age distribution of respondents
Age
F
%
21 – 30
9
9
31 – 40
13
13
41 – 50
26
26
51 – 60
25
25
61 – 70
21
21
71 – 80
5
5
40
>80
1
1
Total
100
100
Source: Field Survey, May 2003.
4.2.2 Educational level
Table 4.3 below shows that 28% of the respondents were illiterate
and the educated ones were 72% including 30% pre-school education
(Khalowa) which was mostly confined to oldest ones, 21% primary
school, 11% intermediate school, 8% secondary school and 2%
university and civil service institution. From this result it can be inferred
that the educated level is above average which indicates that the
population in the area are relatively enlightened people or literally
oriented respond to any extension programs and participate in
rehabilitation programs or development projects.
Table 4.3: Education status of the respondents
Level education
F
%
28
28
Khalowa
30
30
Primary School
21
21
Intermediate School
11
11
Secondary School
8
8
University and
2
2
100
100
Illiteracy
institutions
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003.
4.1 .3 Family size
41
Table 4.4 shows the family size in the study area, of an average
household is about 8 members. The majority of families in the study area
(60%) have family size in the range of 6-10 members. 31% have family
size 1 – 5 members and the rest 9% have family size 11–15 members.
Table 4.4: Family size in the study area
Family size
F
%
1–5
31
31
6 – 10
60
60
11 – 15
9
9
Total
100
100
Source: Field Survey, May 2003.
The former results indicate that the average household member is
8, that means higher fertility than in other rural areas. Usually natural
increase of population exerts high pressure on resources and hence
degradation.
4.2.4 Main occupation
The bulk of sample (94%) restrict themselves to agricultural
activities which was known as the main job for the vast majority of
population in River Nile State specially rural societies who are very
conservative towards this activity. Very few involved themselves in
other works such as informal-work (4%) and civil servants (2%). The
later ones (4% and 2%) practiced agriculture as an additional work
(Table 4.5)
From these results it is clear that there is scarcity in work
opportunity beside agriculture. That means it can be concluded that rural
development means agricultural development.
42
Table 4.5: Main occupation of the respondents.
Main occupation
F
%
Farmer
94
94
Informal work
4
4
Civil servant
2
2
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003.
4.2.5 Secondary occupation
Under the deteriorating conditions of the area, 52 out of 94
farmers have to practice different types of secondary occupation beside
agriculture to supplement their farm income. Table 4.6 gives an idea on
the kinds of secondary activities. 21% of the sample population were
merchants, 13% practice selling-wood, and the other informal work
(drivers, labours, ….etc) constituted 18% of the activities.
It is worth mentioning that some respondents work in more than
one secondary activity which is normally seasonal because their income
from agriculture alone is not enough to cover all their needs.
Table 4.6 Secondary occupation of the farmers.
Secondary occupation
F
%
Merchant
21
21
Selling wood
13
13
Other informal works
18
18
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
43
CHAPTER FIVE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Sand encroachment phenomenon and its causes
5.1 .1Emergence of sand encroachment
21%of the respondents revealed that sand movement as a serious
problem started only in the last 5 years, while 42% of them mentioned
that the appearance of sand started with an interval of 5 years to 10
years. The rest of respondents mentioned that the phenomenon has
started more than ten years (Table 5.1) .
Table 5.1: Respondents observation of sand encroachment
Beginning of sand movements (years)
F
%
<5
21
21
5 – 10
42
42
> 10
34
34
Not observed
3
3
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003.
We may conclude that the sand encroachment problem in the
study area is recent. Plate (1) show sand movement in the study area.
5.1.2 Causes of sand encroachment
The result of survey shows that 23% of the respondents perceived
sand encroachment phenomenon as a result of rainfall fluctuations in
44
Plate ( ).
45
quantity and distribution, while 21% thought it is due to trees cutting and
the rest linked the phenomenon with both decline in rainfall and trees
cutting, Table 5.2.
Table
5.2:
Respondents
perception
of
reasons
behind
sand
encroachment.
Causes of sand encroachment
F
%
Rainfall
23
23
Trees cutting
21
21
Rainfall and tree cutting
56
56
Total
100
100
Source: Field Survey, May 2003.
Sand encroachment which occurs in the study area can be
attributed to two sets of forces: natural and human factors.
5.1.2.1 Natural factor
5.1.2.1.1 Rainfall
In this study rainfall is given more weight because it is the major
factor controlling and affecting the vegetation cover in addition to its
influence on other climatic factors.
The study area has experienced marked changes in rainfall amount
and distribution. This change in rainfall is clearly identifiable from
meteorological data (Table 3.1) and respondents views.
All the respondents in the study area confirmed that the quantity
of rainfall has decreased during the last decades and that its distribution
concentrated in a few rainy days within the wet seasons. In addition, the
area has witnessed successive years of drought since sixth decade of the
previous century. This combined by what is called rainfall locality i.e
good season pockets beside bad season ones.
46
On the other hand, according to metrological data, the mean
annual rainfall for the period 1941 – 1970 was 253.8 mm. This mean
dropped to 69.8 mm in the period from 1971 – 2000 making a difference
of 184 mm or declined by 27.5%.
The metrological data for Shendi and respondents views illustrate
the nature of variability and fluctuations of rainfall. This fluctuation is a
salient feature characterizing the area.
Rainfall stands as the major factor obstructing and affecting the
natural vegetation cover in arid region, hence decline in rainfall
produced gradual deterioration among the vegetation communities which
act as natural barrier in the area and in turn degradation in the form of
sand encroachment (Plate 2). This can be confirmed by (HCENR, 2003)
who reported that (in northern parts of the country, low rainfall, over
cutting, over cultivation and overgrazing have led to environmental
degradation. In turn, this degradation has led to desertification and more
frequent episodes of drought, which resulted in poverty, malnutrition and
related diseases).
5.1.2.2 Human factor:
5.1.2.2.1 Rapid population growth:
The human element is the main factor in development. Since the
first population census in 1956 the study area experienced an increased
growth rate. In the period 1956 – 1973, the average population growth
rate was 0.6%, while during the period 1973–1983 the rate of population
growth was estimated to be 0.8%.
Plate (2)
47
The rapid increase in population during this period was mainly
due to the establishment of the developmental schemes in the area which
lead to settlement of inhabitants and attraction of people from out side
the area. The rate has risen up over the period 1983 – 1993 to reach
approximately 1.9%, which has resulted in what could nearly be called a
population explosion.
48
When comparing the population growth rate in 1993 with growth
rate in 1956, it is clear that it is three fold increase during the last forty
years. This increase in rural population eventually caused more
utilization of resources. The fact has its adverse impact on natural
resources.
Also it is known that spatial distribution of population within the
study area is more important than the absolute number. On one hand
spatial distribution of the population is uneven as some parts have
relatively higher population concentration while others are thinly
populated. Densely populated areas are found along the narrow strip of
the River Nile. This can be confirmed by Babiker(1976) who estimated
the population density per unit of land along the banks of the Nile to be
more than fifty persons per square kilometer and it decreases further
away from the Nile banks to five persons per kilometer. This high
concentration of population exerts high pressure on resources specially at
the vicinity of the residential areas.
The increasing population number, in addition to uneven spatial
distribution of this population, lead to increase in demand from semistatic resources especially from the vegetation cover. This increasing
demand was aggravated by difficulty in implementing the planned for
forest management program in most areas. The final result was removal
of trees and loss of vegetation cover and hence devastating shifting
sands. The State Office of Forest (1998) stated that the River Nile State
reserved forests were depleted not only by native people for their own
consumption but also by illegal commercial cutting. As a result, some or
many of the reserved forests were completely destroyed.
5.1.2.2.2 Tree cutting
49
The second human factor, which causes sand encroachment in the
area, is tree cutting.
By asking the respondents if they noticed any change in the
density and composition of vegetation cover about 97% of them stated
that there was obvious reduction in the vegetation and the rest did not
notice that.
Table 5.3: Respondents, observation to reduction of vegetation cover.
Answer
F
%
There is reduction
97
97
There is no reduction
3
3
Total
100
100
Source: Field Survey, May 2003.
The respondents perceived degradation and change in vegetation
cover, in the light of its composition, density and decrease in many types
of trees, grass species and the appearance of new ones. They regarded
salam, samur, helieg, tundub, sayal as main types dominating in the past
but now their densities lessened and their existence is in scattered points
or just confined to wadis and water courses, vast areas were replaced by
mesquite which had made pure stands almost all over the area with
complete dominance.
According to respondents most of the herb grasses such as: gau,
esaha, ghubeish, ummalbina, wild-mulokhia have disappeared from large
parts of the area.
About the time when this reduction took place, about 65% stated
that they noticed the reduction since ten years or more, however, 33%
noticed the increase of this reduction during the last five years. (Table
5.4.)
50
Table 5.4: Respondents perception of time of vegetation cover reduction.
Time that vegetation
cover reduce (years)
F
%
<5
33
33
5 – 10
44
44
>10
21
21
Not observe
3
3
Total
100
100
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
From Table 5.1 (in section 5.1 subsection 5.1.1) showed about
76% of the sample noticed the phenomenon of sand encroachment since
ten years or more, this phenomenon synchronized with the reduction of
vegetation cover, Table 5.5.
51
Table 5.5: Relation between sand encroachment and reduction in vegetation cover.
Noticed of vegetation
cover reduction (years)
Since 5
Time when respondent
noticed sand movement (in
Since 10
years)
>10
Total
Total
Since 5
Since 10
>10
12
6
3
21
12
27
5
44
9
10
13
32
33
43
21
97
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
By using chi square test to find the relation between sand
encroachment and vegetation cover reduction in the area the result shows
there is relationship between the two.
Table 5.6: Chi-square tests
Pearson Chi-square
Value
Df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
17.506
4
.002
The above mentioned result indicates that the depletion in
vegetation cover in the area could be an important causal factor for sand
encroachment.
About 28% of the respondents attributed the reasons of vegetation
cover deterioration to drought and low rainfall, while 9% of them think it
is due to clearance of trees by scheme administration, the rest about 61%
link the depletion of trees to cutting, Table 5.7.
52
Table 5.7: Reasons of vegetation cover reduction.
Causes of vegetation cover deterioration
F
%
Low rainfall and drought
28
28
Clearance of trees by scheme administration
9
9
Tree cutting
61
61
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
From the above views of the respondents about the reasons of
plant cover degradation, the results showed clearly that cutting of trees
by man is the major contributor in this respect. Usually cutting done for
different purposes as indicated in the Table 5.8, 95% cut trees for fuel,
the rest for building poles, furniture and enclosure of animals, the low
frequency of this later use was due to that the stems of the existing trees
species are too weak to be used as building poles and furniture.
. Table 5.8: Kinds of respondent's usage for trees
Type of usage
F
%
Fuel wood
95
95
Animal enclosure, buildings, poles and furniture
5
5
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
It appears from the above table that almost tree cutting for fuel
(Plate No. 3) is the major source of energy in this rural community.
Table 5.9 below also confirms this fact.
53
Table 5.9: Types of fuel used
Type of fuel used
F
%
Wood
53
53
Wood and gas
40
40
Gas
5
5
Wood and charcoal
2
2
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
These results revealed that firewood is the main kind of fuel used
for cooking and most of it was collected from natural trees. When
respondents were asked about the consumption, 24% of the respondents
said that they consumed one bundle per week, 49% of them said 2
bundles per week, 17% said 3 bundles and 5% said more than 3 bundles,
(Table 5.10.). The average amount of bundle consumed/week/family was
2.09 bundles / week/ family. According to River Nile State forestry
office the mean weight of bundle was 38.9 pounds thus each household
used 38.9 X 2 (bundle/week) X 52 (weeks in year) which is equal to
4045.6 lb/year which is equal to 40.456 kantars/year equal 5.05
m3/family/year. Since the average members of family was 8 as in subsection 4.2.3 then the per capita consumption for the study area is
0.63m3/year which exceeds the per capita consumption for the state
which is 0.54 m3 (Forest Products Consumption, 1995).
54
Plate (3)
55
Table 5.10: The quantities consumed by respondents from fuel wood/
family/week.
The quantities consumed from fuel
wood/family/week
F
%
One bundle
24
24
Two bundles
49
49
Three bundles
17
17
> three bundles
5
5
Consumed gas
5
5
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
These results indicate heavy and extensive use of vegetation cover
in the area since (53%) depend on the existing trees in the area as main
source for wood.
The extensive use of vegetation cover resulted in bare land which
is more vulnerable to encroaching sand (Plate 4).
5.1.2.2.3 Grazing
As for the question about the sources from which they obtain their animals fodder,
only 9% pointed out that it is from natural pasture. The rest of them mentioned
that they obtain their fodder either from the fields or from the market as shown in
the Table( 5.11.).
56
Plate (4)
Table 5.11: Respondents sources for obtained fodder.
57
Ways of obtaining fodder
F
%
Natural pastures
9
9
Field
43
43
Market
4
4
Field and market
34
34
not own animals
10
10
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
The above mentioned result indicate that grazing in the study area
does not cause a serious problem as far as vegetation cover degradation
is concerned since the majority of the animals, owners do not depend on
the natural pasture. Natural pastures, as respondents emphasized, were
very poor and their vegetation cover was very scanty to supply fodder,
due to recurrent droughts especially in recent years.
Fields are considered as the main source of fodder and sometimes
are supplemented by purchasing more from the market when fodder is
inadequate as will be mentioned later in section 5.2.3. This is verified by
the State Ministry of Agriculture (2002) which reported that: (The
environmental problem is the main factor that contributes to low
productivity of natural pastures as well as the quantity of irrigated fodder
and hence occurrence of large forage lacuna in animals diet in the state
which its social and economic impacts will reflect in individual income
and returns of the whole state).
It is clear that the main causal factors for sand encroachment are
natural factors (rainfalls) and human misuse (irrational cutting of trees).
5.2 Consequences of sand encroachment in the study area
58
5.2.1 Reduction of cultivated area
The study revealed that 40% of the respondents had their farms
exposed to sand encroachment (Plate 5). From table 5.12. the size of
cultivable lands were influenced by sand in various degrees, 9, 10, 10, 6,
4 and 1% of the respondents stated that sand had buried 10, 20, 30, 40,
50 and 60% of their farm total areas respectively.
Table 5.12: Relation between affected farm and percentage of this effect.
Affection of the farm
Affected
Not
affected
Total
9
9
10
10
6
6
4
4
1
1
10%
% of the area
20%
40%
affected by sand
50%
60%
Not affected
by sand
Total
40
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
Plate (5)
59
60
60
60
100
60
Chi-square test was applied to clarify the relationship between
effect on agricultural land by sand encroachment and the percent of this
effect. The result indicated that there were strong links between them, as
the level of significant is zero, (Table 5.13.)
The adverse effects of sand accumulation on farms as emphasized
by the following remarks:
•
Some parts of the farm were cut out of production: sand covering
part of the farm hence the total area liable for cultivation was
reduced.
•
Difficulty of irrigation: The deposited sand on parts of the farm
elevated the level of cultivable land and rendered it impossible to
be irrigated and hence reduced the area to be cultivated.
•
Increased cost of land preparation.
Table 5.13: Chi-square test
Pearson chi-square
Value
d.f.
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
100.000
6
.000
5.2.2 Impact of sand on irrigation
The success of irrigation water delivery can be measured by how
well it meets the objective of delivering an adequate supply of water in
an equitable efficient manner to users served by the system. However,
sometimes the irrigation system performance exposes to constraints that
hinder the system to realize this objective. When asked about the supply
of irrigation water adequacy, 91% of the respondents classified it as
inadequate.
The causes behind water inadequacy as encountered by the
respondents are: accumulation of sand in canalization network according
61
to 78% of the respondents, while 16% attributed the inadequacy to the
shortage in diesel oil and fuel supply. Other causes were such as
improper administrative supervision and pump low efficiency due to
expiry were mentioned by 6% of the respondents (Table 5.14).
Table 5.14: Reasons of water inadequacy according to respondents
Reason of water inadequacy
F
%
The irrigation canals were blocked by sand
78
78
Spare parts, pump expiry date, improper
administration supervisions
Shortage in diesel oil and fuel
6
6
16
16
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
From Table (5.14) it is clear that water inadequacy is due mainly
to sand, since it is the main source and reason in the study area which is
clearly manifested in the irrigation networks (Plates No. 6 and 7). This
can be confirmed by the report of UNESCO, Chair on Water Resources,
2001 in section 1.6 in Chapter One.
The inadequacy of water supply is referred to :
1. Accumulation of sand in canals (Plate 6) hinders water flow and
hence reduce the quantity of water. The explanation is that: the
deposition of sand in canal minimizes the drawing capacity of the
canals hence the actually supplied water volume was less than the
62
Plate (6)
63
discharge canal design, consequently the tenants located at the up
stream have better and more timely steady water supply. They enjoy
the early rushing flow thus they get ample quantities of water
required compared to those at the end who sometimes apply less
number of irrigations than the recommended by the Research Station.
Consequently the water fees per feddan per season as fixed by
management of the project would be less for the tenants at the up
stream (as they received more water) than those at the down stream
(as they received less water).
2. Accumulation of sand in irrigation network sometimes blocks the
regulators, doors and intake gates (Plate 7) totally or partially,
hence lower water supply runs in canals.
3. Even after these less than required water reach canals there is
spatial variation along the canals (Plate 6) as the result of sand.
Consequently, farmers at the head benefit from big surplus flow of
water because of their location, thus leaving less share of water for
tail tenants hence profit will be high at head and decline at the tail.
4. Due to accumulation of sand in the canalization network system,
the current water flow varies in speed in different parts of the
system (increase in velocity in some parts and slow down in other
parts of the system). Consequently, the excessive water flow would
be difficult to control in some areas and this may lead to canal over
flooding and field in undulation which in one hand creates suitable
condition that induces weed growth and on the other hand leads to
water logging of crops and cause general loss in production.
Insufficient water supply may lead to water stress then crop failure.
Plate (7)
64
5.2.3 Loss of Cultivars by Sandstorms
Nearly all the respondents (98%) noticed that winter winds coming from
the north and autumn winds coming from south west direction. The
winds drift sands and carry their particles with current and form sand
storms, which cause many damages. With respect to the plant's age, 61%
of the respondent emphasized that sandstorms have destructive effects on
crops at all stages of growth. 16% of them stated that sandstorms burry
or remove seeds from the soil, about 27% mentioned that strong currents
of sandstorms burry or uproot the seedlings, 17% of them said that
sandstorms cut some parts of the crops (Table 5.15). as the result of these
damages, the productivity of crops is reduced and hence the income of
the farmers.
Table 5.15: The effect of sandstorms on crops.
Effect of sandstorms
F
%
Removal of seeds
16
16
Cutting or buried of seedlings
27
27
Cutting parts of crops
17
17
40
40
100
100
No effect
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
It was also pointed that the prevailing strong winds in
June-August, that sometimes carry sand particles are the most harmful
winds. These winds are sometimes synchronized with summer crop
cultivation which were mainly dura and fodder and some vegetables and
in most cases being fodder only. That is why some farmers refrain from
cultivating summer crops in fear of sand storms. Farmers to avoid the
65
risk of crop losses beside the money paid for irrigation water. Some
farmers prefer to pay the irrigation water fees even if they do not
cultivate any summer crops (Note:- farmers must pay irrigation water
fees once water enters Abu 20).
5.2.4 Reduction of productivity by sand
The majority of the respondents mentioned that the productivity
has declined, Table 5.16.
Table 5.16: Respondent perception of low production.
Answer
F
%
Decline
95
95
Not decline
5
5
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
The reduction in productivity can be proved by Table 1.1 in section 1.6 in
Chapter One.
From Table 1.1 in season 86/87 the average productivity of onion
and bean was 160 sacs and 14 sacs per feddan respectively. In season
98/99 production was 80 sacs for onion and 7 sacs for bean from this
result there is great variation between the quantities that were produced
i.e. the productivity has declined compared to the last years.
Concerning the time when reduction in productivity was noticed,
about 85% concluded that the reduction had begun since ten or more
years ago (Table 5.17) this reduction coincided with the phenomenon of
sand encroachment in the area.
Table 5.17: Relationship between productivity decline and time of this decline.
Time of production decline (year)
66
Total
Before 5
Reduction of
productivity in
last years
Before 10
>10
Not
decline
61
24
10
-
95
-
-
-
5
5
61
24
10
5
100
Decline
Not
decline
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
The results of chi-square test indicate that there is relationship
between sand and depletion of production in the project (Table 5.18).
Table 5.18: Chi-square test
Pearson chi-square
Value
d.f.
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
100.000
3
.000
All respondents stated that they used both organic and inorganic
fertilizers (animals dung and artificial fertilizers) to increase the
production. Utilization of fertilizers is a sign of soil fertility depletion as
the result of sand deposition or mixed with agricultural fertile soil and
hence reduced its productivity.
5.2.5 Impact of sand on animal raising
As in all rural communities, people in the study area raise animals
to provide them with milk, meat or cash if sold. Also animals provide
organic fertilizers, transport and might be used as animals power on
farm. However, it was found that 10% of the respondents owned no
animals (Table 5.21). Moreover, the majority of the respondents (88%)
argued that their animal numbers were declining in recent years (Table
67
5.19).
Table 5.19: Respondents perception of declining numbers of animals.
Answer
F
%
Yes
88
88
No
12
12
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
This reduction of livestock in the study area as emphasized by
respondents was mainly due to shortage of fodder supply from both
natural pasture and fields as a result of environmental problems low rainfall, drought sand on farms. This is shortage of fodder can be verified by
the Table 5.20.
Table 5.20: Percentage of deficiency in the fodder balance in the State by
Province.
Percentage of deficiency in diet balance
Province
Dry Matter
Digestible protein
Energy
Ed-Damar
48.6
76
67.9
Shendi
61.3
83.3
72.8
Elmutma
46.1
75.1
65.3
Berber
44.5
88.8
75.9
Abu Hamad
50.6
88.8
74.8
Average percent deficiency
50.2
82.5
71.3
Source: State Ministry of Agriculture.(November, 2002).
The shortage of fodder supply is manifested in the following:
1.
High animal selling rate (88%) which is not the normal
attitude for rural people. Usually selling animals is in
68
emergency times, in which animals act as insured resource for
ready cash. The high selling rate indicates that were forced to
sell their animals in order to avoid: the risk of losing them and
to reduce or avoid purchasing fodder from the market which in
some cases becomes a burden cost on their limiting fiscal
potentialities.
2.
Dominance of goats and their rearing instead of big animals
(cattle) (so their existing being not common) Table 5.21.
Previously, as stated by respondents they used to raise a mixture
of animal types (60%), but in recent years most of them (40% of the
respondents) confines themselves to raising goats only which are more
tolerant to hard condition especially when the fodder supplies become
scarce and feed on available borase in contrast to cows which are more
selective in fodder.
The conclusion is that: sand encroachment results in shortage of
fodder which in turn leads to reduction of animals by forced selling; in
addition to dominance of small animals (goats) and less common of big
ones (cattle). This means that there is an increased tendency towards
raising small animals and avoid to raise the big ones i.e. limiting of
diversification and specialization in animal raising.
69
Table 5.21: Types of animals owned.
Types of animal owned
F
%
Goats
40
40
Sheep
26
26
Cattle
11
11
Combination of 2 or 3 types of animals
13
13
not own animals
10
10
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
5.3 Efforts to mitigate the negative impacts of sand encroachment in
the study area.
Different means were used to protect the farms against sand.
These include branches of thorny trees, tractor and cattle and plantation
of seedlings as shown in the Table 5.22.
Table 5.22: Means of farm protection against sand.
Means of protection
F
%
Branches of thorny trees
10
10
Tractors and cattle
40
40
Afforestation
9
9
All of the above
13
13
No effort made
28
28
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
About 28% mentioned that their efforts were not adequate the
reasons behind that are: traditional means (thorny branches, tractor and
70
cattle) are needed to be replaced several times a year but was not able to
do so, due to cost involved. With respect to afforestation: farmers argued
that seedlings were obtained from far distances and they are costly,
burial of seedlings and trees by sand (Plate 8). They also mentioned the
problems of water availability and animals that feed on the seedlings,
(Table 5.23).
Table 5.23: Respondents reasoning for not making adequate efforts.
Reasons
F
%
Too costly and burial of seedlings by sand
32
32
Repetition
20
20
Problem of water availability
19
19
Animals
4
4
Far distance
15
15
100
100
Total
Source: Field Survey, May 2003
When respondents were asked about the best means for combating
desertification they suggested afforestation and prohibition of tree
cutting (Table 5.24).
Table 5.24: Respondents means of combating desertification
F
%
Afforestation
20
20
Prohibit tree cutting
10
10
Both tools
70
70
100
100
Means of combating
Total
Source: Field survey, May 2003.
71
Plate (8)
72
CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
This research work had been conducted to investigate the impacts of sand
encroachment in Kaboshya scheme’s tenancies. The importance of the research
stems from the fact that the scheme is one of the developmental agricultural
schemes in the State, and plays a great role in the State's economy. Also it is a
source of living for more than ninety families. However, in the last few years,
sand invaded the scheme. As a result deterioration in the scheme has been
witnessed.
Primary data were collected by means of a questionnaire for
simple stratified random sample of hundred tenants in the scheme during
April-May 2003.
Secondary data were also collected from the Ministry of
Agriculture and forestry, Department of Statistics, Headquarter
Metrological Authority, other official reports and other relevant sources.
The data were subjected to simple statistical analysis for the
socio-economic characteristics of the tenants. Chi-square test was used
for estimating the relationship between sand encroachment versus
reduction in vegetation cover, cultivated area and productivity.
Descriptive statistics and photographs were used to show the relation
between sand and irrigation problems, animal raising and reduction in
cultivars as the result of sand storms.
The statistical analysis of tenants social characteristics showed
that most of the farmers fall within old age group i.e can be able to rely
upon their observations regarding the environmental degradation that
took place in the study area during their life time, their level of education
is rather high to respond to any extension programs or development
projects. Also they are characterized by having large extended families.
73
It deserves mentioning that some respondents have more than one
secondary activity, to supplement the income generated from agriculture.
The study revealed that regarding sand movement as an urgent
problem in the area that appeared in the last ten years or more. The
causes of sand encroachment in the study area were also discussed.
Natural factors (rainfall) and human action were the important factors to
induce degradation of land. Rainfall stands as the major natural factor
affecting the natural vegetation cover, hence decrease in rainfall
produced gradual deterioration of the biodiversity of the area and in turn
leads to degradation of vegetation cover and thus aggravate the impact of
sand encroachment.
Second causal factor of sand encroachment in the area is
the increase in population growth in addition to the uneven spatial
distribution of the population leading to increased demand from semistatic resources especially vegetation cover, hence removal of trees
which resulted in shifting sand.
The third factor that caused the phenomenon of sand
encroachment in the area was tree cutting for different purposes which
results in bare lands vulnerable to moving sand.
The consequences of sand encroachment in the study area were
also investigated. First impact of sand in the area, was the reduction of
cultivated areas, by covering parts of lands with sand and hence cut them
out of the production area e.g. raising the farms level and thus rendered
them impossible to irrigate.
The second effect of sand is clearly manifested in the irrigation
process. Accumulation of sands in canals hindered water flow and hence
the drawing capacity of the canals by blocking the regulators, doors and
74
intake gates, generated spatial variation along the canals and led to
canals over-flooding and field undulation.
Third effect is loss of cultivars by sand storms. The forth effect of
sand was reduction of productivity. Also the impact of sand in the area is
reflected on raising of animals. In this respect sand induced enforced
selling of animals and increased tendency towards raising small animals
and avoid raising big ones i.e. limitating diversification and
specialization in animals raising.
Farmers use different mitigation measures to the problem of sand,
but all efforts failed and they suggested that afforestation and prohibit
tree cutting will be the best tools for mitigation of the problem.
Conclusions:
1.
Degradation of vegetation cover ,which is a result of both
natural factors (decrease in rainfall) and human activities (tree
cutting), is an important factor for sand encroachment in the
study area.
2.
Deposition of sands led to reduction of cultivable areas,
especially farms at the periphery of the scheme.
3.
The crop productivity in the scheme has declined especially
during the last five years. Also the study revealed that all
farmers in the scheme utilized fertilizers to increase the
production, this sign of soil fertility depletion as the result of
sands particles mixing with the agricultural fertile soil.
4.
The Risk of deterioration of sands in the study area is clearly
manifested in irrigation processes.
5.
Sands storms reduced the agricultural production and
sometimes farmers refrain from cultivating summer crops.
75
6.
Sands hinder diversity in animal raising.
Recommendations
1. Increased the level of awareness amongst the people especially
women who are the more utilizers of natural resource products
trees cover.
2.
Afforestation by using drought-resistant plants for the purpose
of protecting of fields, canals, …etc, and to provide fuel wood
and minor products.
3.
More efficient alternative sources of energy such as biogas
should be developed and disseminated in order to save trees
from cutting.
4.
The responsible authorities must
put the impact of
desertification into consideration and provide the required
infrastructures. Such as the irrigation authorities must put more
efforts to overcome water problem. (such as usage of piped
water).
5.
Benefit from the use of crop residues in animals diet and
encourage the investors to enter in this field to produce
concentrates and forages which supplement animal feed.
6.
The study revealed the need for a monitoring system to
function at the same time as an early warning system. The use
of remote sensing and GIS as integrated tool to monitor and
assess desertification in the area is very essential.
7.
Further studies should be carried out to cover different aspects
(soil, vegetation cover, irrigation, etc.) more deeply and to
emphasize the urgency of combating sand encroachment.
76
77
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