Teaching The Tempest in Wisconsin:
A Guide for Educators
2016-2017 Great World Texts Program
of the Center for the Humanities
Prepared by:
Devin M. Garofalo, Dept. of English
Faculty Advisor:
Karen Britland, Dept. of English
320 University Club, 432 East Campus Mall, Madison, WI 53706
http://humanities.wisc.edu/public-projects/gwt/about-gwt TeachingTheTempestinWisconsin
GreatWorldTexts:AProgramoftheCenterfortheHumanities,UniversityofWisconsin-Madison
©2016TheBoardofRegentsoftheUniversityofWisconsinSystem
TeachingTheTempestinWisconsin
GreatWorldTexts:AProgramoftheCenterfortheHumanities,UniversityofWisconsin-Madison
©2016TheBoardofRegentsoftheUniversityofWisconsinSystem
1
CONTENTS
“TeachingTheTempestinWisconsin”:HowtoUsethisGuide
Unit1•Nation,GlobeAuthor Unit2•Empire,Race,Gender Unit3•Science,Specimens,Sorcerers Unit4•Theatre,Music,Masque
Unit5•Genre,Form,Language
Unit6•MakingShakespeare Unit7•TheAnnualStudentConference
TheTempest:APreliminaryListofAdaptations WhatisCloseReading? Handouts
3
5
16
30
44
62
72
82
86
88
87
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“TEACHINGTHETEMPESTINWISCONSIN”:HOWTOUSETHISGUIDE
READINGACROSSTIME&SPACE
TheTempestisaworkoffiction.Whileitssocioculturalandgeopoliticalcontextsareintegraltoits
impact,andtoourcriticalreflectionsonthetext,itisimportanttorememberthatthisisaworkof
literatureandnotahistoricaldocument.Whileliteraturecanhelpusteachculture,history,politicsand
soon,noonetextcanbeartheburdenofrepresentinganentirenation,culture,orpeople.Asyou
teachthisplay,pleasekeepinmindandemphasizewhereyoucantheculturalspecificitiesthatmakeit
unique.Doingsoinaclearandexplicitwaywillalsohelpyouandyourstudentsappreciatethetext’s
abilitytospeakacrosstimeandspace.
HOWTOUSETHISGUIDE
ThematerialinthisguideisintendedtoprovideallyouwillneedtoteachWilliamShakespeare’sThe
Tempestanditsmanycontexts.Webelievethatthehistoricalandculturalbackgroundisnecessaryfor
understandingthiswork,thecharacterspresentedtherein,andtheirdecisions,butweencourageyouto
teachthetextthematicallyaswell,tyingitintootherdisciplinaryissuesandregularfeaturesofyour
corecurriculumwhereverpossible.
READINGS&HANDOUTS:Thereadingsintheguideareintendedforteachers,butmanyshouldalsobe
accessibletostudents.Theseincludereadingsthatprovidefurtherbackgroundinformationfor
instructorsaswellasavarietyofmaterialsthatmightaidinstructorsincreatinghandouts.Youare
encouraged,wherepossible,tousethematerialsinthisguideashandoutsforyourstudents,andto
adaptthehandoutsavailableforstudentuse.AllmaterialsareavailableelectronicallyattheGreat
WorldTextswebsiteor,inthecaseofallrecommendedhandouts,online.Linksareprovidedinthe
“Handouts”sectionofeachunit.
PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADINGindicatesreadingsandresourcesessentialfortheUnit
underconsideration.ADDITIONALRESOURCESindicatesrecommendedreadingsandresourcesthat
maybeofinterestshouldaparticulartopicintrigueyouoryourstudentsorseemparticularlyinteresting
intermsofhowyouaretryingtoteachthetext.Don’tbeoverwhelmedbytheabundanceofadditional
relevantmaterial!Themostessentialsourcestotheteachingofeachunitarethosecategorizedas
preparatory.
POINTSFORDISCUSSION,ASSIGNMENTS&ACTIVITIES:Therecommendedpointsfordiscussion,
assignmentsandactivitiesprovidedinthisguidearedesignedtoallowyoutheopportunitytotailorthe
wayyouteachthetexttoyourowncourse,timeconstraints,interests,andgoals.Theindividualunits
couldbetaughtoveroneorseveraldays,oroverthecourseofafewweeks.Youcanmixandmatch
ideasfromthevarioussectionstocreateyourownsyllabus.Eachsectionincludesatheme,followedby
asetofpointsforlectureanddiscussion,suggestionsforclosereading,specificquotesfromthetextor
otherreadings,aswellasin-classactivitiesandassignmentsthatmightbeusedtofurtherdiscussion.
Eachsectionalsoincludessuggestedpreparatoryreadingsandalistofadditionalrecommended
resources.
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CLOSEREADINGSTRATEGIES
Theguideassumesthatyouwillhavereadtheentiretext,butallunitsalsooffersuggestionsforspecific
passageswithinthetextthatwouldbenefitfromcarefulandattentivereading,analysisanddiscussion;
thesewillbeareasinthetextfromwhichthemajorideasandthemesofthatunitaredrawn.During
discussionandforassignments,studentsshouldbeencouragedtosupporttheirinterpretationswith
evidencefromthetext.Closereadinglendsitselfwelltobothgroupworkandsmall-groupdiscussions,
andisanexcellentwayforstudentstodeveloptheircriticalthinkingskillsastheymakeconnections,use
evidencetosupporttheirviews,anddiscusstheimpactofvariousliterarytechniques.Forclosereading
toworksuccessfully,it’simportantthattheteacheralwaysremindthestudentstopointtothepassage,
line,oroccurrencethatsupportstheirpositionwhenthey’resharingtheirideas.Closereadingteaches
studentsthedifferencebetween“opinion”or“personalreaction”and“analysis.”Italsohelpsteach
studentstoassessthetextonitsownmerits,andavoidessentializingtheculturalcomponentsofthe
textorstereotypingbasedongeneralizations.
Readingaportionoftextoutloudasaclassorsmallgroup,followedbydiscussion,canbeanexcellent
waytodevelopclosereadingskillsintheclassroom.Theguideincludesahandoutonclosereadingthat
weencourageyoutouseinyourclasses.
TEACHINGTOWARDTHESTUDENTCONFERENCE
YourstudentswillcometotheUniversityofWisconsin-Madisoninthespringof2017topresenttheir
worktotheirpeers,listentolecturesfromexpertsonthetext,andworkshopwithfaculty,graduate
studentsandundergraduatesfromtheuniversity.Attheconference,theywillhavetheopportunityto
meetandlistentoMargaretAtwoodspeakaboutTheTempestandhernovelisticadaptationofit,called
Hag-Seed.Unit7inthisguideisexplicitlydevotedtopreparingstudentsforthisvisitandforthestudent
conference.Preparethemforasuccessfulconferencebyencouragingthemtochallengethemselves
withprojectsthatprovidecriticalinterpretationsofthetextinuniqueandcomplexways.Thereisno
limittothetypeofprojecttheymightprepare.Pastprojectshaveincludedessays,painting,sculpture,
weaving,culinaryprojects,photography,filmandothermultimedia,dramaticperformances,song,
dance,andmore.Theonlyrequirementisthatthestudents’projectsmustpresentacriticalanalysisof
thetext.Studentswillberequiredtowriteashortsummaryoftheirprojects,whichwillbesubmitted
toDevinGarofalo([email protected])approximatelyonemonthbeforethestudent
conference.
Eachschoolwillselectonestudent,orgroupofstudents,whoseworkisexemplary,topresentatthe
plenarysessiononstage.It’srecommendedthatthestudentsthemselvesselect(byvoting)the“best”
projectforthispresentation,whichwillbeabout5minutesinlength.Itisourexpectationthatthese
presentationswillbepolished,rehearsedandtimed,andthattheywillprovideanopportunityforyour
schooltofeelprideandinvestmentinitsparticipationintheprogram.Allotherstudentsareexpectedto
presenttheirworkinpostersessionsduringtheconference,andwillhavetheopportunitytostandnext
totheirprojectsandanswerquestionsaboutthemfromotherstudentsandconferenceparticipants.
Everystudentwhoattendstheconferenceshouldpresenther/hisworkattheconference.
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UNIT1•NATION,GLOBE,AUTHOR
OBJECTIVE:ToconsiderquestionsofnationandglobalityinTheTempest;earlymodernconceptionsof
monarchy,powerandempire;andWilliamShakespeareasahistoricallysituatedindividualanda
transhistoricalfigure.
HANDOUTS
JohnSpeed,“TheKingdomeofEngland”(DavidRumseyMapCollection)
http://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~285199~9005
7872:The-Kingdome-of-England?qvq=q:author%3D%22Speed%2C%2BJohn%2C%2B15421629%22;lc:RUMSEY~8~1&mi=17&trs=230
——.“TheKingdomeofGreatBritaineandIreland”(DavidRumseyMapCollection)
http://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~285195~9005
7868:The-Kingdome-of-Great-Britaine-and?qvq=q:author%3D%22Speed%2C%2BJohn%2C%2B15421629%22;lc:RUMSEY~8~1&mi=1&trs=230
PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADING
KristiaanP.Aercke.“‘AnOddAngleoftheIsle’:TeachingtheCourtlyArtofTheTempest.”Approachesto
TeachingShakespeare’sTheTempestandOtherLateRomances.Ed.MauriceHunt.MLA,1992.
146-52.
AnstonBosman.“ShakespeareandGlobalization.”TheNewCambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare.Ed.
MargretaDeGrazia.CambridgeUniversityPress,2011.285-302.
KarenBritland.“Politics,Religion,GeographyandTravel:HistoricalContextsoftheLastPlays.”The
CambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare’sLastPlays.Ed.CatherineM.S.Alexander.Cambridge
UniversityPress,2009.71-90.
AlisonGames.TheWebofEmpire:EnglishCosmopolitansinanAgeofExpansion,1560-1660.Oxford
UniversityPress,2008.
JohnGillies.“Globe/TheatrumMundi.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:
Shakespeare’sWorld,1500-1660(Volume1).Ed.BruceR.Smith.CambridgeUniversityPress,
2016.60-5.
StephenGreenblatt.“TheTracesofShakespeare’sLife.”TheNewCambridgeCompanionto
Shakespeare.1-14.
KimF.Hall.ThingsofDarkness:EconomiesofRaceandGenderinEarlyModernEngland.Cornell
UniversityPress,1995.
DonnaB.Hamilton.“Shakespeare’sRomancesandJacobeanPoliticalDiscourse.”Approachesto
TeachingShakespeare’sTheTempestandOtherLateRomances.64-71.
Introductionto“TheSixteenthCentury”intheNortonAnthologyofBritishLiterature:Volume1,485513.
JamesI.“ASpeachtotheLordsandCommonsoftheParliamentatWhite-Hall.”ThePoliticalWorksof
JamesI.Ed.CharlesHowardMcIlwain.HarvardUniversityPress,1918.306-25.
CaroleLevin.“TheSocietyofShakespeare’sEngland.”Shakespeare:AnOxfordGuide.Ed.StanleyWells
andLenaCowenOrlin.OxfordUniversityPress,2003.93-102.
Prefaceto“WilliamShakespeare”intheNortonAnthologyofBritishLiterature:Volume1,1058-60.
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JeffreyA.Rufo.“‘HeneedswillbeAbsoluteMilan’:ThePoliticalThoughtofTheTempest.”TheTempest:
ACriticalReader.Ed.AldenT.VaughanandVirginiaMasonVaughan.137-64.
AldenT.Vaughan.“Introduction.”TheTempest:ACriticalReader.13-38.
PeterWhitfield.“MappingShakespeare’sWorld.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:
Shakespeare’sWorld,1500-1660(Volume1).Ed.BruceR.Smith.CambridgeUniversityPress,
2016.1-13.
UNITORGANIZATION
Thisunitisdividedintofivesub-sections:“OpeningQuestions”;“Monarchy”;“Nation”;“Globe”;and
“Author”Together,thesesub-sectionsdeveloppointsforuseinlecture,whicharefollowedby
suggestedpassagesforclassdiscussionandquestionsforfurtherinquiry.Theunitconcludeswithideas
forin-classactivitiesandstudentprojects.
OPENINGQUESTIONS
• WhatisEngland?Whatdoyouknowaboutit?Itsliterature?Whatcomestomindwhenyou
hear“earlymodern,”“Tudor,”“Elizabethan”or“Stuart”?Whatabout“GreatBritain”?
• Whatismonarchy?Whoisaruler?Whatdoesarulerlookandactlike?Whatistherelationship
betweenarulerandthegovernment?Orthepeople?Whatdoesitmeantothinkofhistoryin
termsofdynasticfamilylineages(ratherthansequentialyears,decadesorcenturies)?
• Whatisliterature?Whatisworldliterature,inparticular?IsEnglishliteratureeverworld
literature?WhyreadEnglishliteratureinaglobalcontext?Howwoulditchangeyour
understandingofandassumptionsaboutEnglishliteraturetoreaditasworldliterature?
• Whatisatempest?Whatdoesitevoke?Towhatdoesitreferbeyondclimate?Forexample,
whatareitshistoricalandpoliticalconnotations?Itsemotionalvalences?
• WhoisWilliamShakespeare?Whatdoyouknowabouthim?Towhichhistoricalperiodandto
whomdoeshebelong?HowmightaplaylikeShakespeare’sHamletorTheTempesthave
resonanceelsewhereintheworld?Why?Whatmightpeoplewhohavenevertraveledto
Englandlearnfromsuchliterature?Andwhatmighttheynotlearn?
MONARCHY
Performedforthefirsttimein1611andpublishedasthefirstplayintheFirstFolioof1623,William
Shakespeare’sTheTempestemergedduringamomentofprofoundhistoricalchangeinEngland.Some
ofthemosttransformativeofchangescenteredonthemonarchy,whicharesketchedbrieflyhere:
ShakespearewrotetheplayintheyearsfollowingtheendoftheTudordynastyanddecadesofbattle
overthethroneinEngland.TheTudordynastybeganwhenHenryTudor(latercalledHenryVII)roseto
powerfollowingwhatarenowcalledtheWarsoftheRoses:“avicious,decades-longstruggleforroyal
powerbetweenthenoblehousesofYorkandLancaster.”Hisascenttothethronemarkedthe
consolidationof“amuchstrongercentralauthority”inEngland.FollowingHenryVII,HenryVIIItookthe
throne.TwoofhischildrenwouldruleEnglandfollowinghisdeath.WithKatherineofAragon—a
Spanish-Catholicandthefirstofhiseightwives—hefatheredMaryI,whowouldbecomeQueenof
Englandin1553.Duringherreign,MarywouldburnhundredsofProtestantsatthestake—an
undertakingthatwouldearnherthemoniker“BloodyMary.”WiththeProtestantAnneBoleyn(who
waslaterexecuted)HenryVIIIhadaseconddaughter,ElizabethI.Shewouldbecomequeenfollowing
Mary’sdeath.Elizabethruledfrom1558-1603,andwassucceededbyJamesVIofScotland,whowould
astheKingofEnglandassumethetitleofJamesI.
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Thishistoryofmonarchicalsuccessionissignificantonatleasttwocounts.First,itisdistinguishedbythe
risetopowerofnotone,buttwoqueens.ThemajorityofShakespeare’scareercoincidedwiththereign
ofElizabeth,awomanwhosevirginityandunmarriedstatusweretopicsofheatedpublicdebate.As
CaroleLevinnotes,Elizabeth’sreign“destabiliz[ed]thestructureofasocietythathadalwaysexpecteda
kingwhowouldbefathertohispeopleaswellas,itwashoped,fatherofthesonwhowouldbethenext
king.Elizabeth,anunmarriedwoman,didnotfulfilleitheroftheseobjectives”(93-4).Butthisisnotto
saythatthepeopledidnotlovetheirqueen,orthatshewasanunsuccessfulruler.Onthecontrary,
Elizabethwasashrewdmonarch.She“ruledthroughacombinationofadroitpoliticalmaneuveringand
imperiouscommand,allwhileenhancingherauthorityintheeyesofbothcourtandcountrybymeans
ofanextraordinarycultoflove.”This“cult”—whichElizabethcultivatedbyestablishingatcourt“an
atmosphereofromance,withmusic,dancing,plays,andtheelaborate,fancy-dressentertainmentscall
masques”—helpedhertotransformhergenderfrom“apotentialliabilityintoasignificantasset”
(NortonAnthology494).Dressedinfineclothingandrichjewels,“sheoftentookthecourton
‘progresses’throughoutthecountryside”—amovethatallowedherto“seeandbeseenbyher
subjects”inallofhergloryandpower(Levin94).Elizabethwasalsoknownforwardingoffpotential
threatstoherpowerbyemploying“newmen”—ratherthan“oldnobility”—asheradvisors(Levin95),
andby“playingoffonedangerousfactionagainstanother,”preventingthepossibilitythatthoseseeking
tousurpherpowerorseizethethronewouldconsolidatepower(NortonAnthology494).Shakespeare
thuslivedinamomentwhenthenormssurroundingthepossessionofpower,marriageandgender
dynamicswereoverturnedatthehighestechelonsofEnglishsociety.Why,then,isTheTempestalmost
entirelybereftofwomen,whetherpresentintheactionoronlyinthememoryofitscharacters?Whyis
Miranda,theplay’sonefemalecharacter,theimageofeverythingthatElizabethIand,beforeher,Mary
Iwerenot?ThisisaquestiontowhichwewillreturnatgreaterlengthinUnit2.
Thismonarchicalhistoryisalsosignificantbecauseofthequestionsitraisesabouttherelationship
betweenthesovereignandthepeople.Thesequestionsintensifiedintheyearsfollowingthedeathof
ElizabethandtheroyalsuccessionofJamesI—thesearetheyearswhichimmediatelyprecedeand
coincidewithShakespeare’swritingofTheTempest.Jamesenvisionedtheroleofthemonarchasakin
tothatof“thewise,peace-lovingRomanAugustusCaesar,whoautocraticallygovernedavastempire.”
Kings,inthisformulation,“derivetheirpowersfromGodratherthanpeople”—atenetthatwould
becomeapersistent“sourc[e]offrictionthroughJames’sreign”(NortonAnthology1236).This“friction”
intensifiedasJamesandParliamentstruggledtocometoanagreementthatwouldsettletheCrown’s
finances,whichwereinincreasingdisarrayinthelatesixteenthandearlyseventeenthcenturies.When
“JamessummonedtheParliamentin1610”—bywhichtimeShakespearewaslikely,orwouldverysoon
be,atworkonTheTempest—“tosecureafinancialsettlement,”he“wasinterestedinincreasingnot
onlyhisrevenuesbuthisprerogative”or,rather,hispower(Hamilton66).Comparingkingsandgods,
JameswrotethefollowingtoarguethatheshouldnothavetoconsultwithParliamentbeforeexercising
hisroyalauthority:
TheStateofMONARCHIEisthesupremestthinguponearth:ForKingsarenotonelyGODSLieutenants
vponearth,andsitvponGODSthrone,buteuenbyGODhimselfetheyarecalledGods.Therebeethree
principallsimilitudesthatillustratesthestateofMONARCHIE:OnetakenoutofthewordofGOD;andthe
twootheroutofthegroundsofPolicieandPhilosophie.IntheScripturesKingsarecalledGods,andso
theirpowerafteracertainerelationcomparedtotheDiuinepower.KingsarealsocomparedtoFathersof
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families:foraKingistrewlyParenspatriæ,thepolitiquefatherofhispeople.Andlastly,Kingsare
comparedtotheheadofthisMicrocosmeofthebodyofman(ThePoliticalWorksofJamesI307).
ButthemembersofParliamentdidnotacquiescetoJames’srequest,nordidtheyaccepthisargument
onbehalfofabsolutemonarchicalpower.Instead,theysubmittedaPetitionofRightandaPetitionof
TemporalGrievances.TheformeraffirmedtherightofParliament“todebatefreelytheking’suseofhis
prerogative,”whilethelatterremindedthekingthathe“wassubjecttorestraintbyParliament.”While
restraint“didnotmeanthatthekingwasnotabsolute,itdidmeanthattheabsolutepoweroftheking
existednotinthekingbyhimselfbutinthekinginparliament”(Hamilton68-9).Thesetensions
remainedunresolvedandintensifiedfollowingJames’sreign.Theywouldculminatewithoutbreakof
civilwarandtheexecutionofCharlesIin1649,whohad“attemptedtorulewithoutsummoning
Parliamentatallbetween1629and1638”(NortonAnthology1236).
CLOSEREADING
AlreadywecanseehowtheseconflictsareatissueinTheTempest,aplaythatisconcernedwiththe
balanceofpowerbetweenrulerandruled,aswellasthethreatofregicide.KristiaanAercke,for
instance,arguesthatthesomethingofthe“omnipotentandomniscient”Jamesistobefoundin
Prospero,“theabsoluteruleroftheisland-stage.”Likewise,therelationshipbetweenFerdinandand
Miranda“isdevelopedintermsofdynasticregeneration”and,assuch,callstomindthenorms
surroundingpower,marriageandgenderthattraditionallydefinemonarchy,butwhichqueenssuchas
ElizabethIputintoquestion(148).ToexplorethedynamicsofrulerandruledinTheTempest,have
studentsclosereadpassageswhereinProsperowieldsandnegotiatespowerwithCalibanorAriel(see,
forinstance,Prospero’sexchangewithArielandthenwithCalibaninAct1,Scene2).Toconsiderthe
interrelationshipofmonarchy,dynasticreproductionandgender,theymightturntoProspero’s
commandingexchangewithMiranda(Act1,Scene2)orthemarriageplothedevisesforMirandaand
Ferdinand,whichunfoldsoverthecourseoftheplay.Seethequestionsthatfollowforpossiblepointsof
discussion.
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• Whatdoestheword“tempest”suggestabouttheplayasaworkofart?Whatmight
Shakespeare’stitle,TheTempest,thustellusabouttheprocessofinterpretingtheplayandits
meanings?Doesthesenseoffluxandindeterminacywithwhichtheplaybegins—andwhich
permeatesitsstoryanditstitle—tellussomethingaboutreadingandanalyzingliterature?Does
ittellussomethingaboutthehistoricalandpoliticalcontextsoftheplayitself?
• Asitengageswiththeinstitutionofmonarchyandthepossibilityofabsolutepower,The
Tempestraisessomeimportantquestionsabouttherelationshipbetweenrulerandruled:What
makesagoodruler,accordingtotheplay,andwhatdistinguishesabadone?Howwouldyou
describetherelationshipbetweenProsperoandAriel?Howdoesitcomparetothedynamic
betweenProsperoandCaliban?IsProsperoasuccessfulruler?Doesthisremainthesameover
thecourseoftheplayoristhereaturningpointatwhichProsperochanges,eitherforthe
betterortheworse?Whatmakesagoodsubjectandwhatmakesabadone?Howdoes
Prosperomanageunrulysubjectsanddoeshedosorightly?Doestheplayeverjustifythe
notionofabsolutepower?Orisabsolutepoweralwaysunjust?
• Howmighttheword“tempest”resonatewiththeplay’shistoricalandpoliticalcontexts?
Consider,forinstance,theWarsoftheRoses,theriseandfallofdynasties,thesometimesrapid
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•
•
andunpredictablesuccessionofkings(orqueens).WhatdoesthetitleofShakespeare’splay
suggestaboutpower,itsdynamicsanditstransfer?
WhydoesShakespeare,anEnglishauthor,centerhisplayonafeudbetweenItalianaristocrats?
WhynotmakeProsperoadeposedEnglishmonarch?Whatdowelearnaboutmonarchyfrom
thisEuropean—asopposedtonational—context?
Why,inamomentdistinguishedbystrong,powerful,willfulfemalemonarchs,does
Shakespearewriteaplayinwhichtherearealmostnowomen(whetherpresentintheactionor
imagined),andinwhichtheonewomanwhoispresentwouldseemrelativelypowerless(and
disinterestedinpower)?Whatdowemakeofthiscontradiction?Whatdoestheplaytellus
abouttherelationshipbetweendynasticpower,marriageandgender?
NATION
JamesIwasnotEnglish,butScottish.Whilehissuccessionputateasethosewhowereconcernedabout
the“[c]ontroversiescreatedbyanunmarriedandchildlessfemalemonarch,”italsoprovokednew
questionsaboutEnglishness,theboundariesofthenation-state,andempire(Rufo138).Thus,asKimF.
Hallargues,“metaphorsofmarriageanduniontookonadifferentcastthantheyhadunderthevirgin
Elizabeth,notonlybecauseJameswashimselfalreadymarriedwithagrowingfamilybutalsobecause
oftheideologicalworkneededfortheincorporationofEngland,Scotland,andWalesintoonepolitical
entity”(124).1603—theyearinwhichJamesascendedtothethrone—markedthebeginningsofwhat
wenowcallGreatBritain.Jameshadhighhopesthismergerwouldgosmoothly:“inmakingapleafor
hispetproject,thecreationof‘GreatBritain’,hedescribedthatunionasamarriage”(Hall124).But
manywereconcernedabouttheimplicationsofaunionwithScotland.AccordingtoKarenBritland,“the
ScotswereperceivedbymanyinEnglandaspoorandbackwardandtherewasresistanceonbothsides
tointegration”(71).Theseeffortstowardtheestablishmentofamultinationalunionathomewerein
thiswaypartofacolonialprojectwemightotherwiseidentifywithEuropeaninterventionsinthe
AmericasorAfrica.
ThefantasyofunificationextendednotonlytoScotland,butalsotoIreland.Thesecontextsareatissue
inTheTempest.AsAldenT.Vaughanargues,“oneneednotleavetheBritishislestofindpejorative
prototypesforCaliban,oranexampleofEnglishimperialism”(51).Whatexample,afterall,couldbe
closertohomethanIreland?“InthesameyearthatShakespeare’splayopened,”Vaughannotes,
thehistorian-cartographerJohnSpeed’scomprehensivestudyofthe“BritishEmpire”describedprofusely
theregions“nowinactuallpossession,”includingEngland,Scotland,Wales,IrelandandeventheIsleof
Man,butbarelymentionedthefledglingcolonyinVirginia.ForitwasinIreland,ofcourse,notVirginia,
thatEngland’smajoreffortsat“plantation”hadlongbeeninvested.(51)
Here,wecanbegintoseehowcartographywasanimportantinstrumentforthecolonialproject:it
renderedlegiblenewandunknownlandsand,insodoing,madethemmorereadilyavailablefor
colonialappropriation.1LiketheScots,theIrishwererepresentedin“defamatory”terms.Forthe
1
SeetheUnit1handouts(linksabove)forlateseventeenth-centuryreprintsofSpeed’soriginalmapsofthenation
andtheempire,whichmakevisibleasenseofnationandempirethatwasquitenewinShakespeare’stime.Unit3
includesanin-depthexplorationofearlymoderncartographyandaestheticrepresentationsofspace,timeand
peoplesacrosstheglobe.
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English,they“epitomized”theproblemsof“incivility,unrulinessandpoliticaldisorder.”Ascriticshave
noted,thereismuchincommonbetweenShakespeare’srepresentationofCalibanandthe
“perceptio[n]ofIrishmenasuncouth,unlettered,rebelliousandintoxicated.”
Thus,theborderlinesofthenation-stateturnedincreasinglyporousoverthecourseofShakespeare’s
lifetime.Asthefantasyofaunified“GreatBritain”proliferated,therewereincreasingquestionsand
concernsaboutEnglishness:whatitwas,whereitwaslocatedandwhatitwouldbecomeasEngland,
ScotlandandIrelandbecameincreasinglyintertwined.Thelanguageofunion,asHallputsit,“prove[d]
highlycontestedandfraughtwithanxietiesovertheramificationsofcrossingbordersaswellasoverthe
resiliencyofinternalboundaries”(124).
CLOSEREADING
TheTempestisverymuchconcernedwiththepossibilitiesandproblemsofnation,unionandbordercrossings.CriticshavedrawnparallelsbetweentheenslavementofCalibanandAriel,forinstance,and
EnglishcolonialinterventioninIreland.Likewise,theentireplayturnsuponProspero’splantomarry
MirandaandFerdinand—aunionthatwillputanendtohisexileandrestorehimtopower.Toexplore
thenotionsofnation,internationalunionandanxietyaboutboundaries,studentsmightclosereadthe
followingpassages:thestoryofhowProsperowasdeposedandexiledfromthenationhecalledhome
(Act1,Scene2),Prospero’sdescriptionsofmarriageasamechanismofpoliticalunification,Gonzalo’s
visionoftheislandasautopiannationoverwhichhewouldpresideasking(Act2,Scene1)orthe
momentwhenProsperorevealsCaliban’sattemptedrape(Act1,Scene2).Seethequestionsthatfollow
forpossiblepointsofdiscussion.
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• WhatisEngland?WhatisGreatBritain?Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetwo?Dothey
invokedifferentkindsorscalesofpower?WhatdoesTheTempesttellusaboutthequestionof
nationintheearlymodernperiod?Howdoesitimaginebordersandboundaries,aswellas
border-crossingsorothermechanismswhichcomplicateasenseofboundary?
• HowdoesTheTempestimagineunion?Whoorwhatisunited(orre-united)overthecourseof
theplayandtowhatend?Areunionseverdangerousanddotheyeverfail?Howdothese
unionsresonatewiththeplay’shistoricalcontexts—thetransferofpowerfromanunmarried
EnglishqueentoamarriedScottishking,thedreamofaunifiedGreatBritaininwhichEnglandis
thecentralizedauthority,theanxietythatthenationwillloseitsidentitythroughsuchunion?
• CompareandcontrastProspero’sdescriptionofhisexilefromMilan—andhisreignoverthe
island—withGonzalo’svisionofa“commonwealth”ornationinwhichheisking.Whatarethe
similaritiesbetweenProspero’sislandnationandtheoneGonzaloenvisions?Whatarethe
differencesandwhatdowemakeofthem?Onwhatgroundsisanationestablished(for
example,physicalcommonalitiesbetweenpeople,politicalalliances,geography,etc)?What
mighttheytogethertellusaboutthenation-stateasaconceptandamarkerofglobalspaceand
powerintheseventeenthcentury?Donationsalwayssubordinateandexcludeothersto
establishpower?WhatdowemakeofthefactthatbothProsperoandGonzalounderstand
colonial“plantation”orinterventionasthemeansbywhichtoestablishthenation-state?
• ProsperosuggeststhatCalibanattemptedtorapeMiranda—aclaimthatCalibandoesnot
refute.Thetopicofrapeis,ofcourse,asensitiveone,anditremainsfrustratinglydifficultto
parseinTheTempest—itsmeaningsareambiguous,multipleandsometimescontradictory.One
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waytohelpstudentsunderstandthepresenceofsexualviolenceintheplayisbysituatingitin
relationtoanxietiesaboutnationalidentity.InTheTempest,rapemightconvey,amongother
things,thepossibilitythatnationalidentitywillbedilutedbyandthroughthetransnational
unionor“marriage”ofEngland,ScotlandandWalesthatJamesIhopedtoestablishduringhis
reign.WhatdoProspero’sallegationsofrapehelpustounderstandaboutEnglishperceptions
ofnon-Englishoutsiders?Abouttheperceptionofandanxietiessurroundingthepossibilitythat
EnglandmightexpandtobecomeGreatBritain?
GLOBE
TheexcitementandanxietiessurroundingthepossibilityofanexpandedEnglishnation-state
heightenedinresponsenotonlytodevelopmentsofamoredomesticorlocalizedcharacter(suchas
colonialinterventioninIreland),butalsotherapidgrowthofglobalmarketsofexchangeandthe
explorationofdistantlandsaroundtheworld.“Marketsexpandedsignificantly”duringtheearlymodern
periodas“internationaltradeflourished,andcitiesthroughouttherealmexperiencedarapidsurgein
sizeandimportance”(NortonAnthology487).Forthisreason,somehistoriansargue“thatglobalization
beganintheyear1571,whentheSpanishestablishedManilaasanentrepôtfinallyconnectingAsiaand
theAmericas,andWilliamShakespeareofStratford-upon-Avonturned7”(Bosman285).Globalization—
“thecompressionoftheworldandtheintensificationoftheworldasawhole”—notonlyconnotesthe
networksofcommunicationandexchangethroughwhichtravelandexplorationweremadepossible,
butalsoreferstotheemergenceofanew,moreinterconnected,totalizedsenseoftheworld.
Shakespearecameofageinamomentwhen“[g]lobalprocessesknittheearlymodernworldtogether”
forthefirsttime,“enablingpeopletoperceiveinitsentiretyaworldonceexperiencedonlyin
fragments”(Games5).
Thus,evenastheyunfoldedelsewhereontheglobe,thesedevelopmentseffecteddramaticchange—
bothimaginativeandotherwise—withintheEnglishnation.AstradeexpandedandLondonbecamean
increasinglycosmopolitancenterofexchange,thepopulationofthecityboomed:itincreasedfrom
“60,000in1520to20,000in1550,to375,000acenturylater,makingitthelargestandfastest-growing
citynotonlyinEnglandbutinallofEurope.”Historianshavelearnedthat“[e]veryyearinthefirsthalfof
theseventeenthcenturyabout10,000peoplemigratedtoLondonfromotherpartsofEngland”—atruly
extraordinaryfigure(NortonAnthology487).Notably,thepopulationinLondonchangednotonlyin
size,butalsoindemographics.“ElizabethanLondonhadalargepopulationofresidentaliens”from
variousEuropeancountries,aswellas“asmallAfricanpopulationwhoseskincolorwasthesubjectof
pseudoscientificspeculationandtheologicaldebate”(NortonAnthology496and497).“Africanslaves
werebroughttoEnglandfromthe1570sonwardinsmallnumbers,”andmost“werehousehold
servants”(Levin101).Aspovertyincreasedandanxietyaboutnationalidentityspread,thepresenceof
Europeanoutsidersandracialothersbecameaheatedtopicofdebate.AsLevinnotes,“[b]ytheendof
thecentury,infact,QueenElizabethhadbeguntobe‘discontented’thatanumberofAfricanswerein
England.”Inresponsetoadecade“ofinflation,badharvests,anddestitution,”shewouldissueanedict
in1601thatclaimed“AfricansweretakingjobsawayfromneedyEnglishmen”andthus“weretobe
expelledfromthecountry”(Levin101).ButAfricanswerenotthecauseoftheseproblemsand,asLevin
notes,theirexpulsionwasmostcertainlynotasolution.Ifanything,whatthe1601edictmakesclearis
thatwithaheightenedsenseofglobalitythereemergednotonlyadeepsenseofimaginativepossibility,
butalsooneofresentment,distrustandinsularity.InTheTempest,therelationshipsbetweenProspero,
MirandaandCalibanregisterthesecomplexities.
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Theimaginativepossibilitiesmadeavailablebyandthroughthisnewlyexpandedsenseoftheglobeare
perhapsnowheremoreapparentthaninthenameShakespeare’sactingcompanychosefortheir
theatre:TheGlobe.Bringingtogetheradiversityofspectatorstoseeplayspopulatedwithafantastic
arrayofbeingsandsetinfar-flungplaces—toseeplaysinaspacewhosearchitectureandaesthetics
invokednotonlytheglobebutthecosmos—“Shakespeare’stheaterwastheworldinmicrocosm”
(Whitfield7).Thetheater’snameinvoked“anearlymoderncommonplace”—thetheatrummundi—and
whileevidenceisscarce,itisbelievedthattheGlobe“wasadornedwithasignofHerculescarryinga
globeunderwhichwaswrittenthemottoTotusmundusagithistrionem,or‘Alltheworld’sastage’”
(Gillies60).Figuringthetheateras“aplaceinwhichonecouldlearnusefullessonsabouttheworld,”the
Globe’ssigninvokesatrendinsixteenth-andseventeenth-centurycartography:thatoffiguringthe
worldasatheatricalspaceuponwhichthegrandeventsofhistoryunfold.Initsname,theGlobe
imaginesthetheaterasaglobalizedspacewhereinotherwisedistantpeopleandplacesaremore
intimatelyinterconnected.Italsoservesasareminderthat,whilesomemighthaveenvisionedthe
theaterasavenueinwhichtoexploremoreegalitarianwaysofthinkingabouttheworld,it—likea
map—offersamediatedrepresentationoftheworld.Suchrepresentationsarecomplexandoften
contradictory,andtheyinevitablycommittheirownexclusionsanderasures.Weneedonlylookasfar
asCalibantoseethesekindsofrepresentationalprejudicesinaction.
CLOSEREADING
Setonanunnameddesertislandandsteepedinthepoliticsofmonarchyandanexpandedsenseofthe
globe,TheTempestaffordsanopportunitytoexploreearlymodernconceptionsoftheworldandits
relationshiptotheEnglishnation-state.Todoso,studentsmightclosereadthefollowingpassages:
AntonioandSebastian’sexchangeabouttheenlargedscaleoftheglobe(Act2,Scene1),andthe
constrainedworldviewsofMiranda(Act3,Scene1)andCaliban(Act3,Scene2).Seethequestionsthat
followforpossiblepointsofdiscussion.
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• ThisguidewilloffermorecontextfortheislandsettingofTheTempestinthenextunit.Fornow,
considertheplay’ssettingwithoutthiscontextinmind.WheredoesTheTempesttakeplace?
Whatsenseofglobalspaceandtimedoestheislandsettingconvey?Whatabouttheisland
itself?Doyouhaveagoodsenseofitstopographyorsize?Whatareitsfeaturesandhowdoesit
impacttheactionoftheplay(ornot)?Whatdowemakeofitselusivity?Whatdoyouranswers
tothesequestionstellusabouttheearlymodernexperienceofglobalspace?Aboutearly
modernattemptstoimagineorrepresentthatspace?Doestheplaysuggestthereisanything
particularlychallengingaboutsuchattempts?
• CompareandcontrastAntonioandSebastian’sdiscussionoftheglobeasenlargedand
fragmentedwiththesenseofconstraintatissueinMiranda’sandCaliban’sexperienceofthe
world.Howarethesewaysofimaginingtheglobedifferentandfromwhatdothesedifferences
stem?Whatdowemakeoftheplay’svisionofglobalspaceas,ontheonehand,profoundly
interconnected(thatKingAlonso’sshipcomescloseenoughtotheislandforProsperotowork
hismagicuponitsuggeststhatglobalspaceisnotasfragmentedordisconnectedaswemight
assume)and,ontheother,enlargedandexpansive?
• ReflectonthenameoftheGlobetheater.Whatdoestheinterconnectionoftheaterandplanet
suggestabouttheroleofdramainthinkingabouttheworld?Whatdoesitmeantoenvisionthe
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theaterasaspaceinwhichtheworldaswholemightbecontained?Howmightthestagingofa
playlikeTheTempestinaspaceliketheGlobeimpactoraffectmeaning?Howmightit,for
instance,clarifyorcomplicatetherelationshipbetweeninterconnectedandexpansiveglobal
spaceasimaginedintheplay?WhatdoesitmeanthattheGlobe—atheaterthatmakesaclaim
upontheworld—waslocatedinLondon?InEnglandorthecolonialunionofGreatBritain?Does
thisinformourunderstandingoftheworlditinvokesorimagines,whoitincludesandtowhat
enditstrives?
AUTHOR
Whileweknowmuchabouttheearlymodernworld,weknowverylittleaboutWilliamShakespeare,
themanbehindTheTempest.AsStephenGreenblattputsit,[t]he[biographical]tracesare,forthemost
part,frustratinglyinert,andthosethatarenotinertarefrustratinglyambiguous”(12).Whatwedo
knowisthis:“ShakespearewasbaptizedinHolyTrinityChurchinStratford-upon-Avonon26April1564”
(4).Hisfamilywasofrelativelymodestmeans.Hisfatherwasaglover.Hismotherwasnotwealthy,
thoughshedidownsomeproperty.Thenext“documentarytrace”ofShakespeareis“inthemarriage
licensebondrecordedon28November1582,”whichpermittedhimtomarryAnneHathaway.
Together,theyhadthreechildren.Thereisnorecordofhislifefrom1585to1592—biographerscall
thesethe“LostYears”(6).In1592,arivalplaywright,RobertGreene,publishedan“attack”that,though
itdoesnotmentionShakespearebyname(Greenecallshimonlyan“UpstartCrow”),alludestohim
usingalinefromoneofhisearlierplays(6).Thus,by1592Shakespeare“hadmadehiswayfrom
StratfordtoLondon,”andhadbecomeestablishedenough“toexcitetheangerofanenvious
contemporary”(7).HewouldeventuallybecomeanowneroftheGlobetheater,wherehisacting
companyputonplays.“[A]taroundthetimehewroteTheTempest,”ShakespeareleftLondonfor
Stratford.Whyisstillunclear.He“dr[e]wuphislastwillandtestament”in1616(11).Theexactdateof
hisdeathisunknown,butweknowhewasburiedon25April1616,atHolyTrinityChurch.Hisepitaph
reads:
GoodfriendforJesus’sakeforbear,
Todigthedustenclosedhere.
Blessedbethemanthatsparesthesestones,
Andcursedbehethatmovesmybones.
Thereare,however,non-biographicaltracesthathelpustotrackShakespeare’smovementsinthe
world.Theserecordsdocumenttheproductionofhisplays.Perhapssurprisingly,“thefirstShakespeare
recordedoutsideEurope”datestotheyearsbeforehiswritingofTheTempest.Therearereportsthat
“anEnglishmerchantshipoffthecoastofwhatisnowSierraLeonebecamein1607astageforHamlet,
withanAfricanguestprovidingarunningtranslationinPortuguese(andpossiblyTemne)”(Bosman
287).Thesetraceslittertheannalsofseventeenth-eighteenth-andnineteenth-centuryworldhistories.
TheTempesthasalonghistoryofadaptationoutsideofEngland,itsmusicalityresonatinginand
translatingparticularlywellintotheoperatictraditionsofEastAsia.(Thisisatopictowhichwereturnin
laterunits.)WhileWilliamShakespeare,theman,maynothavetraveledbeyondthebordersofEngland,
WilliamShakespeare,theauthor,hastraveledfarandwideacrossbothglobalspaceandhistoricaltime.
Thishistoryofperformance,adaptationandtranslationunsettlesourassumptionsaboutwho
Shakespearewas,forwhomhewroteandtowhomhebelongs.
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CLOSEREADING
HavestudentsclosereadtheprefatorymaterialpublishedintheFirstFolioof1623.Astheydoso,have
themconsiderthediscussionquestionsthatfollow.
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• TheFirstFoliocollectedinoneplaceShakespeare’sdramaticworksforthefirsttime.Itwas
publishedposthumously.Shakespearehadnoinvolvementinthemakingofthevolume.With
thisinmind,considerthefollowingquestions:Whatinformationdoestheprefatorymaterialof
theFirstFolioofferwithrespecttoShakespeare’sbiography?Dowelearnanythingabouthim
asanindividual—abouthislife,familyorpersonalconvictions?Whatdowemakeofthefact
thattheFirstFoliooffersverylittleinthewayofbiographicalinformationabouttheauthorit
celebrates?Isthissurprisingandwhy?Whatmightthissuggestaboutthemotivationsbehind
theproductionofthevolume?WhywouldsomeonehavechosentoreadtheFirstFolio?Toput
thisanotherway:ifthepurposeofthevolumeisnottocelebrateShakespeareasanindividual,
whatisitspurpose?
• WemightbeinclinedtoassumethataplaylikeTheTempestisfullofitsauthor’spersonal
convictions,andthatwecanonlyinterpretitsmeaningbytakingthoseconvictions—or
biographicalcontext—intoconsideration.TheFirstFolio,however,impliessomethingquite
different.InprovidinglittletonoinformationaboutShakespeare,whatdoestheFirstFoliotell
usabouttheprojectofreadingandanalyzingliterature?Ifanalysisdoesnotnecessarilyconsist
ofresearchinganauthor’sbackgroundandthenprojectingthosefindingsontotheliterature
thatauthorproduce,whatdoesitinvolve?Whatdoestheomissionofbiographicalinformation
fromtheFirstFoliotellusaboutliteratureandhowitproducesmeaningbeyondtheparticular
intentofitsauthor?
• ConsiderthewayShakespearehastraveledacrosstheglobe,bothinhisowntimeandinthe
present.Whatdoesthishistorysuggestaboutauthorshipandcanonicity?IsShakespeareEnglish
orishepartofabroadercanonofworldliterature?Howmightthishistoryinformorchangeour
assumptionsaboutwhoShakespeareisandtowhomhebelongs?
ACTIVITIES,ASSIGNMENTS&PROJECTIDEAS
• Havestudentsmakeatimeline(or,perhaps,afamilytree)ofthemonarchiesofEnglandand
Scotland,includingthemarriagesbetweenBritishandnon-Britishmonarchswhichwere
designedtoestablishunionsoralliancesacrossEurope.Doingsowillhelpstudentsdevelopa
senseoftheprofoundinstabilitysurroundingmonarchicalpowerintheearlymodernperiod.
Whilekingsmadeclaimstoabsolutepower,theshiftinglandscapeofmonarchyundercutsthis
illusionofuncheckedprerogative.Thisprojectwillalsohelpstudentsgainabettersenseofthe
formativepoliticalandreligiousdebatesoftheperiod.ThereignsofHenryVIII,MaryIand
ElizabethI,forinstance,makelegiblethewaysthatreligiousbeliefwasinaprofoundstateof
flux,especiallyasitrelatedtonationalidentityandpoliticalpolicy.
• HavestudentsuseGoogleMapstocreateamapoftheworldasalatesixteenth-orearly
seventeenth-centuryEnglishreaderofShakespearemighthaveimaginedit.Thisactivitywill
helpstudentsvisualizetheglobeinthecontextofearlymodernBritain.Todoso,students
mightresearchwhatwasactually“onthemap”intheearlymodernperiod.Forexample,which
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•
sitesshouldastudentincludesoastocapturetheimperialexpansionofEuropeanpowersinto
variousplacesaroundtheworld?Whichsitesshouldbeincludedtogiveviewersasenseof
England’sgovernmentalstructureintheperiod,aswellasitsalliancesoraffiliationswithother
nationsorcolonialterritories?WherewouldstudentslocatetheislandimaginedinTheTempest
andwhy?Studentsmightofferarationalefortheworldtheirmaprepresents.
o Foratwo-partproject:askstudentstocreateamapoftheislandonwhichtheactionof
TheTempesttakesplace.Whatdoesitlooklike?Whatkindsoffloraandfaunaliveon
it?Whatareitstopographicalfeatures?WhereisProspero’s“cell”?Whereisthetreein
whichArielwasentrappedandwheremightProsperohavefirstmetCaliban?Doingso
willenablestudentstodevelopabettersenseoftheplay’ssetting,whichremains
elusive.
CriticshavelongidentifiedProsperowithShakespeare.Botharemagiciansofasort—theydeal
inartandillusion—andwieldgreatpowerovertheirsubjectsoraudiences.Toexplorequestions
ofauthorship,studentsmightwriteanessaythatre-imaginesShakespeare’slifebywayof
Prospero’scharacter,convictionsandambitionsinmind.IfProspero’sstorymapsonto
Shakespeare’sbiography,whatwouldthatbiographylooklike?How,forinstance,would
Shakespeareunderstandhisroleasaplaywright?Whatwouldhispersonalconvictionsconsist
of?Howwouldheunderstandtherelationshipbetweentheseconvictionsandhisplays?Ina
second,reflectivepart,studentsmightreflectonwhattheyhavelearnedabouttherelationship
betweenbiography,authorialintentandliteraryanalysis.Theymightconsidertheproblemsand
challengesthatcomewithreconstructinganaccountofanauthor’slifeandbeliefsfromatext.
Byextension,theymightthenconsiderwhattheseproblemsandchallengestellusabouthow
literaturemakesmeaning,ofteninwaysthatcannotbeexplainedbyanauthor’sbiographyor
thatanauthorcannotforeseeandcontrol.
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UNIT2•EMPIRE,RACE,GENDER
OBJECTIVE:ToexplorequestionsofempireandcolonialpowerinTheTempest;earlymodern
conceptionsofrace,genderandsexuality;andWilliamShakespeare’sparticipationintheriseofglobal
Englishandlinguisticcolonialism.
PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADING
MartinBanhametal.“ShakespeareinAfrica.”TheCambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare’sLastPlays.
Ed.CatherineM.S.Alexander.CambridgeUniversityPress,2009.284-99.
AnstonBosman.“ShakespeareandGlobalization.”TheNewCambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare.Ed.
MargretaDeGrazia.CambridgeUniversityPress,2011.285-302.
DympnaCallaghan.ShakespeareWithoutWomen.Routledge,1999.
HerbertR.Coursen.TheTempest:AGuidetothePlay.GreenwoodPress,2000.
AnthonyDawson.“ShakespeareontheStage.”TheNewCambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare.Ed.
MargretaDeGrazia.CambridgeUniversityPress,2011.233-52.
JohnGilliesetal.“ShakespeareontheStagesofAsia.”TheCambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare’sLast
Plays.259-83.
StephenGreenblatt.“LearningtoCurse:AspectsofLinguisticColonialismintheSixteenthCentury.”
LearningtoCurse:EssaysinEarlyModernCulture.Routledge,1990.22-51.
KimF.Hall.ThingsofDarkness:EconomiesofRaceandGenderinEarlyModernEngland.Cornell
UniversityPress,1995.
LeahMarcus.“TheBlue-EyedWitch.”UneditingtheRenaissance:Shakespeare,Marlowe,Milton.
Routledge,1996.1-37.
PatriciaSeed.“‘Thisisland’smine’:CalibanandNativeSovereignty.”TheTempestanditsTravels.Ed.
PeterHulmeandWilliamH.Sherman.ReaktionBooks,2000.202-11.
MeredithAnneSkura.“DiscourseandtheIndividual:TheCaseofColonialisminTheTempest.”Critical
EssaysonShakespeare’sTheTempest.Ed.VirginiaMasonVaughanandAldenT.Vaughan.G.K.
Hall,1998.60-90.
KayStockholder.“Shakespeare’sMagicanditsDiscontents:ApproachingTheTempest.”Approachesto
TeachingShakespeare’sTheTempestandOtherLateRomances.Ed.MauriceHunt.MLA,1992.
160-8.
AnnThompson.“‘Miranda,where’syoursister?’:ReadingShakespeare’sTheTempest.”CriticalEssays
onShakespeare’sTheTempest.234-43.
AldenT.Vaughan.“Introduction.”TheTempest:ACriticalReader.13-38.
VirginiaMasonVaughan.“LiteraryInvocationsofTheTempest.”TheCambridgeCompanionto
Shakespeare’sLastPlays.155-72.
PeterWhitfield.“MappingShakespeare’sWorld.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:
Shakespeare’sWorld,1500-1660(Volume1).Ed.BruceR.Smith.CambridgeUniversityPress,
2016.1-13.
UNITORGANIZATION
Thisunitisdividedintothreesub-sections:“NewWorlds”;“Caliban,Sycorax,Miranda”;and“Global
English”Together,thesesub-sectionsdeveloppointsforuseinlecture,whicharefollowedbysuggested
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passagesforclassdiscussionandquestionsforfurtherinquiry.Theunitconcludeswithideasforin-class
activitiesandstudentprojects.
NEWWORLDS
AsexploredbrieflyinUnit1,Shakespearelivedinatimeofthen-unprecedentedglobalexpansion
whereinEnglandwasincreasingitsinvolvementincolonialenterpriseandEuropeanswereaware
perhapsmorethaneverbeforethattheworldcontainedaheterogeneityofpeopleandcultures,aswell
asfloraandfauna.WecannotunderstandaplaylikeTheTempestwithouttakingthiscontextinto
account.AsAnthonyDawsonobserves:“Fromthebeginning,Shakespearehasoccupiedaninternational
space.Ifweexcludethehistories,almostallhisplaysaresetbeyondthebordersofEngland—allbutone
comedy,TheMerryWivesofWindsor,onetragedy,KingLear,andoneromance,Cymbeline.Andinall
threeofthese,asindeedinthehistoriesandinMacbeth…nationalandextra-nationalloyalties
encountereachother”(176).TheTempestisthusnotuniqueinthisregard.It,likemanyof
Shakespeare’splays,takesplaceelsewhereontheglobe.Likewise,itconsidersthecomplexitiesofintra-
andinternational“loyalties”initsconsiderationofmonarchy,marriageasapoliticaltool,andthe
threatsofregicideandrape.
ButTheTempestisuniqueonatleastafewcountsand,assuch,affordstheopportunitytoexplorethe
challengesthatcomewithassessingShakespeare’simaginativeengagementwithglobality,empireand
anexpanding(andatthesametimestrictlypoliced)senseofhumanity.Criticshavelongdebatedwhich
specificcoloniallocaletheplayconsiders—America,theCaribbeanandAfricaareperhapsthemost
likelyanalogsfortheisland—andthispresentsparticularchallengesforunderstandingtheplay’s
indigenouscharacters,includingArieland,ofcourse,Caliban.Thattheislandonwhichtheactiontakes
placeremainsunnamedheightensthisuncertainty—anditispossible,andworthconsideringfurther,
whetherShakespeareenvisionedtheislandasafoilformultiplecolonialcontexts,orforimagining
imperialcontrolinamoregeneralizedorsystemicsense.Theplayisalsonotableforhowthisambiguity
conditionsitsconsiderationofracialandgenderidentity.Scholarshavetendedtoexplorethese
questionsseparately.AnalysesofTheTempest’srepresentationofgender,inparticular,arerelatively
rare—perhapsbecauseMirandaisarelatively“flat”characterorbecauseofthegeneralabsenceof
womenaltogether.Butitiscrucialthatstudentsunderstandthatrace,genderandsexualityare
inextricablefromoneanotherinTheTempest—thatProsperoaccusesCalibanofattemptingtorape
Mirandaandthenusesthisasleverageagainsthimdemonstratesthisfact.Thus,thisunitexploresthe
topicsofraceandgendertogether,ratherthanseparatingthemoutforindividualconsideration.
Studentswhoconsidertheirinterrelationshipwilldiscoverthatitraisesmorequestionsthanitanswers.
IfthereisonethinguponwhichmostscholarsagreeintheirreadingsofTheTempest,itisthatthe
politicsofcolonialintervention,aswellasindividualandnationalidentities,areanythingbutclear.
Thoughitmightseemparadoxical,thisambiguityoffersstudentsanespeciallyexcitingopportunityto
considerthesequestions,andtheissueofhowliteraturedoes(ordoesnot)stakeout,forecloseand
makemeaning.
Theremainderofthissub-sectionoffersabroadoverviewofTheTempest’smostimmediatecolonial
contexts.First:theNewWorld.Oneoftheplay’spotentialcolonialanalogsisAmerica.Observing“[t]he
temptationtoseeCalibanasanAmericanIndian,”AldenT.Vaughansuggeststhatthis“stemspartly
fromTheTempest’sambiguousgeography,”whichleavesopenthepossibilitythat“theplayissetin
AmericaorismetaphoricallyaboutNewWorldcolonization.”Butscholarsagreethatifthereisone
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localeintheNewWorldthatShakespearehadinmindwhenimagininghisunnameddesertislandits
magicalcharacteritwastheBermudaislands,towhichArielrefersdirectlywhenhementions“thestillvexedBermoothes”(1.2.72).“Inthesummerof1609anEnglishshipsmashedagainsttheuninhabited
Bermudaislands”(A.Vaughan6).Scholarssuspectthat“ShakespeareprobablywroteTheTempest
betweenthearrival”of“severalnarrativesofthataccidentanditsfortunateaftermath”(A.Vaughan6).
Thesenarratives—referredtobyscholarsasthe“BermudaPamphlets”—tellthefollowingstoryof
shipwreckandsurvival:
InMay1609,nineshipswithfivehundredcolonistsaboardsetoutfromPlymouthunderthecommandof
SirThomasGatesandSirGeorgeSummerstojoinJohnSmith’sbeleagueredcolonyatJamestown.The
Sea-Adventure,withGatesandSummersaboard,wasseparatedfromtherestofthefleetinastormand
driventowardBermuda.Whiletheshipwaslost,allonboardcamesafelytoshore.Thestoryofthestorm
reachedEnglandin1609,butitwasnotuntiltheautumnof1610thatnewofthearrivalofthecolonistsin
Jamestown—aftertheyhadbuiltboatsonBermuda—gottoEngland.(Coursen7)
HerbertR.CoursenhypothesizesthatShakespearesawaletternarratingtheaccidentbyWilliam
Stracheydated15July1610andpublishedin1625underthefollowingtitle:TrueRepertoryofthe
Wracke.ThoughtheletterwasmadepublicafterShakespeare’sdeath,Coursenbelievesit“highly
probable”thatShakespearesawitbecause“[h]ispatron,theEarlofSouthampton,wasanofficerofthe
VirginiaCompany”—thejointstockcompanythatcharteredtheill-fatedvoyage(7).Whether
Shakespearesawtheletterornot,wordoftheaccidenttraveledfarandfast.ItseemslikelythatThe
Tempest,withitsopeningsceneofstormandshipwreck,directlyinvokestheapparentlylossandthen
seeminglymiraculoussurvivalofthecolonistsaboardtheSea-Adventure.
Thissenseofmiraculousness—ofpossibilityandanalmostmagicresilience—permeatesTheTempest,
andmayverywellbeinspiredbytheplay’sNewWorldcontexts.Theshipwreckedcolonistswere,after
all,assumeddeadandtheydidnotturnupuntiltheyearfollowingthestorm—thekindofendingone
wouldexpecttohearinafairystory.MeredithAnneSkuranotes,too,thattheBermudaswere
shroudedinexoticmystery:theislandswere“believeddemonicallydangerous”atthetimeofthe
accidentandwerelater“foundtobeprovidentiallymildandfruitful.”ThestoryoftheSea-Adventure—
andthediscourseofvoyageingeneral—“stressedtheromanceandexoticismofdiscoveries”
precipitatedbyEuropeancolonialinterventionacrosstheglobe.Thus,evenseemingly“factual”
accountsofworldwidetravel“werethemselvescoloredbytheromanceofthesituation.”The
Tempest—aplaywhichunfoldsthrough“stylizedallegory”thatwenowcategorizeasromance—
“abstractstheromancecoreofallvoyagers’experience”(61).Thisimaginingofglobe’sunknown
regionsassupernaturalandperilous,ontheonehand,andexoticandromanticized,ontheother,isan
importantpartofimperialdiscourse,bothintheearlymodernperiodandinthepresent.Together,
theseperceptionsfuelEuropeancolonialfantasiesofaworldthatisunpeopled,abundantandwaiting
tobedomesticated,appropriatedandconsumed.
BeyondtheNewWorld,TheTempestmightbeunderstoodtoinvoke“encroachmentsbyvarious
Europeannations,includingEngland,”intoAfrica(A.Vaughan47).AsVaughannotes,“formorethan
halfacenturybefore1611,EnglishmenhadtraveledintermittentlytotheBarbarycoastandincreasingly
tosub-Saharanregions,wheretheyseizedandcarriedtoEnglandsmallnumbersofnativesasearlyas
1555andwheretheyjoinedinthetransatlanticslavetradeasearlyas1562”(49).Theplayislittered
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withdirectreferencestotheAfricancontinent.Scholarshaveobservedthat,“ifplottedliterally”using
informationcontainedwithintheplayitself,thedesertisland“musthavebeenwithinahundredorso
milesfromalinebetweenNaplesandTunis.”Thisreadingreachesatleastasfarbackasthenineteenth
century,when“literarycriticsdebatedthemostlikelyMediterraneanisle”onwhichtheactioncould
havetakenplace.“[T]opographicalclues,”too,indicateasetting“notveryfarfromtheAfricancoast”—
“Corfu,perhaps,orPantalaria,orLampedusa”(A.Vaughan48).Beyondthesesubtlereferences,thereis
themomentwhenwediscoverthatSycoraxhailsfromthenorthernAfricancityofAlgiers(or“Argier,”
asArielcallsitintheplay)and,ofcourse,Prospero’sdescriptionofCalibanasa“thingofdarkness”in
thefinalact—aphrasethatmightrefernotonlytohischaracter(asProsperoperceivesit)butalsohis
skincolor.
Itiscriticalthatwekeepinconstantviewtheplay’scolonialcontexts.Theyserveasaconstantreminder
thatTheTempestisatleastinparttheproductofanageinwhichEuropeanempiresseizedlandsfrom
indigenouspeoplesaroundtheworldandjustifieddoingsothroughtherhetoricalcapacitiesoflanguage
andofaestheticrepresentation—byfiguringcolonialterritoriesasuntenantedandwild;asavailablefor
thetakingandinneedofdomestication.Partofthisrhetoricalstrategyincludedthedepictionof
indigenouspeopleslikeArielorCalibanas“barbarous,lustfulandpronetointoxication”(A.Vaughan
44)—asmoreanimalthanhuman.Non-whiteskinwasperceivedbyEuropeansaseithera“physical
defect”oran“exoticcuriosit[y]”tobefetishized.Suchfetishizationwasondisplayatthemarriageof
JamesI(thenJamesVIofScotland),who“command[ed]fournakedblackyouthstodancebeforehimin
thesnow”forhisentertainment.Theylaterdiedofexposure.Tocelebratehisson’sbaptismin1594,
Jamescommissionedarangeoffestivities,including“a‘Black-Moor’”who“enteredpullingan
elaboratelydecoratedchariotthatwas,intheoriginalplan,supposedtobepulledbyalion”(Norton
Anthology497).Here,theEuropeanviewofnon-EuropeanOthersasobjectified,sub-humanand
disposablesourcesoflabor,entertainmentandderisionisonfulldisplay.Whilesuchviewsdonot
dictatetheentiretyofProspero’sworldviewortherepresentationofindigenouspeoples,suchas
Caliban,inTheTempest,theirpresenceisundeniable.Identifyingthemrequiresawatchfuleye—a
skepticalmodeofreading.
CLOSEREADING
TheTempestissteepedinandinseparablefromearlymoderndiscoursesoftravelandempire.Theplay
affordsstudentsanopportunitytoexplorehowtextsareinterwovenwiththeassumptionsand
prejudicesoftheirtimes,whethertheirpresenceisintendedorunintendedbytheauthor.Atthesame
time,theplayalsoillustrateshowcontradictoryatextcanbe—howdifficultitistolocate,forinstance,
TheTempest’sstanceoncolonialpoliticsor,rather,toreaditsengagementwithcolonialpoliticsin
black-and-whiteterms.Toexplorethesequestionsandchallenges,studentsmightclosereadthe
followingpassages:Prospero’sdialoguewithArielinAct1,Scene2,whereinhejustifieshistakingofthe
islandandtheinstitutionofslaveryorGonzalo’smonologueinAct2,Scene1,inwhichheimaginesa
desertislandhemightclaimforhimself.Seethequestionsthatfollowforpossiblepointsofdiscussion.
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• InwhatwaysdoestheambiguityofTheTempest’ssetting—itsunnameabilityandforeignness,
itsmagicalcharacterandexoticmystery—alignwith,invokeorimaginethecolonialhistoryin
whichitissituated?Whatdoesitmean,forinstance,thatGonzaloenvisionsasimilarislandasa
vehiclethroughwhichtoachievedreamsofmonarchyorvirtuallyunlimitedpower?Howisthe
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•
•
•
generalityorromanticnon-specificityoftheislandinTheTempestpartoftheEuropeancolonial
project?
Now,considerhowthatverysameambiguitymightenableacritiqueofimperialintervention.
Scholarshavearguedthattheisland’snon-specificityallowsreaderstoconsidersimultaneously
arangeofcolonialcontexts:America,Bermuda,Africa,Ireland.Whymightitbeimportantfor
readers—whetherintheearlymodernperiodornow—toconsiderthesecontextstogether?
Doestheisland’sgeneralityinvitereaderstothinkacrossorconsiderimperialpowerona
systemiclevel—or,toputitanotherway,asaglobalinstitutionwhoseoperationisnotisolated
toparticularlocationsintimeandspace,butratherisorganizedorcoordinatedinitsoperation?
Whatdoesthisgeneralizedorenlargedperspectivetellusaboutempire?Forinstance,how
doestheplay’ssettinghelpusthinkacrosscolonialcontextsthatinvolvenotonlytheEnglish
Crown,butalsootherEuropeanmonarchiesandpowers?WhatdoestheunnamedislandofThe
Tempestanditspossiblereferentstellusabouttheimperialprojectandtherelationship
betweenthevariousplayersthroughwhichitunfolds?
Haveageneraldiscussionwithstudentsabouthowtoreadatextskepticallyorsuspiciously.
Whatdoesitmeantoreadaworkofliteraturewithacritical,skepticaleye?Howdoesone,for
instance,identifyandrespondtomeaningsthatatextauthorizes,butwhicharenevertheless
problematic(suchasProspero’sendorsementofslavery)?Whatdoreadersdowithmeanings
likethese?Shouldtheysimplybedisavowed?Aretheyeveruseful—dotheyeverhelpusto
understandsomethingimportantaboutagiventext’shistoricalorpoliticalcontexts?
AskstudenttoreadProspero’sdialoguewithArielintwoways.First,havethemreadthe
dialogueforsurface-levelmeaning.WhatisthenatureofProsperoandAriel’srelationship?How
doesProsperoperceiveArielandhowdoesthisinformhisapproachtotheirrelationship?What
areProspero’sreasonsforemployingArielasaslave?Now,askstudentstoreadthepassage
skeptically.WhatisdisturbingaboutProspero’srelationshiptoAriel?Abouthisperceptionor
characterizationofAriel,whoispresumablyindigenoustotheislandandcertainlyarrivedtheir
first?WhatdotheseunsettlingdetailstellusaboutProsperoasacharacterandasan
embodimentofEuropeancolonialpower?Howisitthat,ontheonehand,Prosperoisthemain
characterandherooftheplayand,ontheother,perhapsoneofitsgreatestvillains?Whatdoes
thisexerciseshowusaboutthewaytextsmakeandsituatethemselvesinrelationtomeanings
thatarecontradictoryorproblematic?Abouthowweasreadersshouldnavigatethese
contradictionsorproblems?
CALIBAN,SYCORAX,MIRANDA
WhetherwereadCalibanasNativeAmerican,Afro-Caribbean,AfricanorIrish,onethingiscertain:
Prospero’sdescriptionofhimasa“thingofdarkness”—afallen,sub-human,monstrousbeing—is
representativeoftheassumptions,stereotypesandprejudicesinherentinearlymodernEuropean
perceptionsofnon-whiteandcolonialOthers.WemustrememberthatCalibanisshapedinpowerful
waysbysuchperceptionsastheyarerepresentedinTheTempest.Whethertheplayendorsesthose
perceptionsisadeeplyambiguousquestion.ScholarshavearguedthatthecharacterofCalibanis
“symptomatic”ofacolonialworldview(A.Vaughan48).Hisname,forinstance,isananagramof
“cannibal”—adirectreferencetothewidespreadperceptionthatindigenouspeoplesengagedin“the
practiceofcannibalism”andwerepronetounbridled“savagery”(Whitfield6).Colonial“policy,”as
Whitfieldargues,“wasjustifiedbythesavageryofthenatives,inparticularbytravelers’talesthat
dwelledonthepracticeofcannibalism”(Whitfield6).Thesesensationalizedaccountsandthemisguided
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assumptionstheypromulgatedwereusedtoarguethatindigenouspeopleslacked“souls”—thatthey
werelessthanhuman(Whitfield6).Caliban’snamethusconnotesasetofstrategicstereotypesthat
weremobilizedbyEuropeannationstojustifythetakingoflandsandresourcesthatwerenottheirs—to
naturalizethisprojectofappropriationonthebasisof“pejorative,”“vituperative”anddehumanizing
racialstereotypes(A.Vaughan50).Prosperohimselfemployspreciselythesekindsofstereotypesinhis
interactionswithCaliban,callinghim“amalignantthing“(1.2.308)—“[a]freckledwhelp”whosedark
skin,physicalfeaturesandparentagedonotconformwiththe“humanshape”(1.2.36-7)insofarasitis
perceivedandrepresentedbytheEuropeancolonizer.HowTheTempestwastakenupinthecenturies
followingitspublicationdemonstratesthatCalibanisinparttheproductofacolonialworldviewwhose
implicationsareinsidious.Forinstance,ascolonialruleexpandedinthenineteenthcenturyto
encompassmore“subjugatedpeoplesaroundtheworld,particularlyinAfricaandIndia,”European
writersandreaders“oftenidentifiedwithProspero’sdrivetoeducatehissubalterns,especiallyCaliban.”
Asanexample,VirginiaMasonVaughanpointstoDanielWilson’sCaliban:TheMissingLink(1873),
which“identifiedCalibanasanevolutionaryintermediarywho,underProspero’stutelage,hadthe
potentialtocrawlupthedevelopmentalladdertowardtruehumanity”(156).Boundupinthis
evolutionaryfantasyarebeliefsthatindigenouspeopleslikeCalibanaresub-human,ofanotherspecies,
inneedofcivilizingandassuchripeforassimilationandexploitation.
ButtoreadCalibanstrictlyasacolonialcaricatureistooverlookthewaysheresistsProspero’scontrol
and,byextension,racializedjustificationsforempire.“IfCalibanisthecenteroftheplay,”asSkura
argues,heissonotsimply“becauseofwhatherevealsaboutman’stimelesstendencytodemonize
‘strangers’”(62).Toarguethisisto“flatte[n]thetextintothemoldofcolonialistdiscourse”andto
ignorethemanyfacetsofCaliban’scharacter—therebellious,anti-colonialandambiguous—whichhave
madehimanintensesubjectofdebateinliteraryscholarship(63).Skuranotes,forinstance,thateven
“despitehisclosenesstonature,hisnaiveté,hisdevilworship,hissusceptibilitytoEuropeanliquor,and,
aboveall,his‘treachery’…henonethelesslacksalmostallthedefiningexternaltraitsinthemanyreports
fromtheNewWorld”andothercoloniallocales(65).Helacksallthetrappingsofthestereotyped
NativeAmericanandismostcertainly“nocannibal.”Hisnamehighlightstheextenttowhichhe
functionsas“amockeryofstereotypes”(67)ratherthan“onemorecolonialistrepresentationofthe
Other”(72).Calibanmightthusbereadassatirizingthoseassumptionsandprejudicesthatcharacterize
imperialistworldviews.WhereaEuropeanreaderwouldexpecttofindcannibalisticsavagery,nonecan
befound.Inthisway,Calibanmakesvisibletheugliestandmostunquestionedorseeminglynaturalized
aspectsofcolonialpower,makingthemtheobjectofcritiqueandevenridicule.AdaptationsofThe
TempestsuchasAiméCésaire’sUneTempête(1968)—inwhichCalibanrevoltsagainsttheinstitutionof
slaveryandrejectshisnameinfavorof“X,”whichinvokestheradicalpoliticsofthegreathumanrights
activistMalcolmX—illustrateshowevenasShakespeare’scontroversialcharacterwouldseemto
conformtoEuropeancolonialthinking,heatthesametimeinvitesanti-colonialimaginings.
WhetherweacceptthissubtlereadingofCaliban’sfailuresasacolonialiststereotype,wemustatthe
veryleastacknowledgehowTheTempestundercutsProspero’srepeatedclaimsthathisnemesisand
slaveisinhisblackness(ornon-whiteness)lessthanhuman.Theseclaims,theplaytellsusagainand
again,cannotbetakenatfacevalue.WhenMirandatellsFerdinandheis“thethirdmanthate’erIsaw”
(1.2.?),forinstance,sheimplicitlycountsCalibanamongthethreemensheknows.Inthisway,“thebulk
oftheevidencepointstoaCalibanwhois…essentiallyhuman”(A.Vaughan34).Andthepicturegets
evenmorecomplicatedwhenweconsiderthatCaliban,likeProspero,isacolonist.Ultimately,Arielis
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theonlybeingwhoistrulyindigenoustotheislandandpossessesanyrightfulclaimuponit.AsSkura
notes,“Sycorax,Caliban’smother…camefromtheOldWorldherself,oratleastfromeasternhemisphereArgier.”Assuch,“[s]heisareminderthatCalibanisonlyhalf-native,thathisclaimtothe
islandislessliketheclaimoftheNativeAmericanthantheclaimofthesecondgenerationSpaniardin
theNewWorld”(66).Overthecourseoftheplay,Calibanuttersanumberoflinesthat,thoughthey
protestagainstProspero’simperialrule,mightbereadasreproducingtheverysamecolonialist
discourseofpowerandpropertythatjustifieshisownenslavement—andwhichhismotherunleashed
upontheislandwhenshearrivedandenslavedAriel.Intheplay’sfirstact,forinstance,Calibanlays
claimtotheisland:“Thisisland’sminebySycorax,mymother,/Whichthoutak’stfromme”(1.2.396-7).
Later,hewillregretnothaving“peopled”his“islewithCalibans”uponwhomhecouldcalltodobattle
againstProspero(1.2.420-21).Therhetoricofpeopling,PatriciaSeedargues,isintertwinedwith
“Englishcolonialdesire”and,assuch,suggeststhepossibilitythatCalibanisanagentof“Englishcolonial
ambition[n]”(205),evenasheisalsoitsvictim.IsCalibananuncriticalcolonialistcaricatureorasatireof
thatworldviewanditsracistassumptions?Isheasymbolforthecolonizedorcolonizer,theindigenous
orthesettler?Ishesomethingofboth,andwhatdotheseambiguitiestellusaboutempireandracethe
earlymodernperiod?Theanswerstothesequestionsaredifficulttopindown.
ThewatersgrowmurkierwhenweconsiderTheTempest’swomenwho,thoughtheyplayveryminor
rolesintheaction,areintegraltoitsconsiderationofempireanditsdiscontents.Sycorax,asalready
mentioned,isthefirstcolonisttoarriveattheisland.Sheisalsoraciallyambiguous—adetailthat,while
seeminglyminor,opensupinterpretivepossibilitiesbeyondthosewhichCalibanconveysonhisown.
GiventhatSycoraxhailsfromAlgiers,itisreasonabletoassumesheisofAfricandescent.Awitch
accusedofanunnamed,presumablyterrible“thing”(1.2.319),sheisbanishedfromherhome.As
Prosperonarratesit,the“blue-eyedhagwashitherbroughtwithchild/Andherewasleftbyth’sailors”
(1.2.322-3).Sycorax’sblueeyeshaveincitedmuchdebate,primarilybecausetheyputintoquestion
conventionalassumptionsaboutblacknessandbeauty.LeahMarcusarguesthispointinherextensive
andwide-rangingreadingofannotatededitionsofTheTempest,manyofwhich—likeProspero—present
aneditedversionofSycorax’sstorythatrepresentshereyesnotasblueincolor,butratheras“rimmed
withblueandblack”dueto“pregnancyorfatigue,”acommonmeaninginearlymodernEngland(15
and14).Whydoesthismatter?Because,Marcusargues,“blue-eyed”alsodescribeseyecolors,though
thatusagewasnotyetascommon.Byemphasizingpregnancy—byeditingSycorax’sstorywithonlyone
connotationinmind—criticshavechosentodepictherasmonstrouslypregnant,andtocoveroverhow,
asapresumablyblackwomanwithblueeyes,she“fail[s]tofitourracialstereotypes,”which“tendnot
tothinkofAfricansasblueeyed,eventhoughNorthAfricansof‘Argier’andelsewheresometimesare”
(6).Thepoint,here,isthat“[t]oimagineSycoraxas‘blue-eyed’inanypositivesense”—toacknowledge
thepossibilitythatshewasbeautifulin“mysterious,”“uncanny”andunconventionalways—is“to
violatedeeplyengrainedculturalassumptions”aboutracialidentity(8and16).Totakethispossibility
seriouslyisimportantnotonlybecauseitsuggestsadichotomyofracethatresistscolonialist
stereotypes,butalsobecauseitaffords“ratheradifferentperspective”onSycorax’s“inheritor,”
Caliban.Here,wefindanotherwayinwhich“theplayitself”internalizes“asenseofdissonance”—it
acknowledges“thedifficulty”or,perhaps,theimpossibility“ofusingphysicalcharacteristicstoseparate
thecultural‘self’fromtheother’”(16).Insodoing,theplayalsorevealshowwecannotnecessarilytake
atfacevaluetheinformationwereceive“secondhand”fromProspero,forthatinformation—like
Sycorax’sblueeyes—hasbeencarefullycuratedto“promulgate”andnaturalizeaparticularlogicof
perception—ofideology(6and16).
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Sycorax’seyesmightsuggestyetanotherpossibilitythatcomplicatestheplay’srelationshiptoempire:
thatis,thepossibilitythatSycoraxisofmultiracialheritageand,thus,soisCaliban.Whetherornotthis
isthecase,TheTempest—or,attheveryleast,Prospero—isdeeplyconcernedwithvirginityand
marriage.TheseobsessionsjustifyProspero’sdispossessionofCalibanandgivevoicetoEnglishanxieties
aboutthepurityofEnglishnessandthedangersofmiscegenation(orthesexualunionofpeopleof
differentraces).“[M]arriagewasimportant,”asIngramnotes,fornotonlyfinancialbutalsodynastic
and,sometimes,politicalreasons”(118).Wilsonarguesthat“[t]hemarriagesthatmendtheplotsof
Shakespeare’searlyandlatecomediespromiseareturnofparadisiacalhappinessforindividualsand
society”(47).ThisismostcertainlythecaseinTheTempest.TheunionofMirandaandFerdinandisa
vehicleforProsperotoescapefromexileandreclaimhisrightfulseatofpower.Itupholdsthe
traditionalgendernormsandrelationsuponwhichEnglishsocietyandtransnationalEuropeanpolitical
relationssooftendepend.InTheTempest,however,thisstability—andthepromiseofareturnto
“paradisiacal”order—isunsettledbythethreatofrape.AccordingtoAnnThompson,“theimageof
MirandaasarapevictiminterferesdisturbinglywiththeimageofMirandaasachasteandfertile
wife”—itunsettlesthe“quasi-mythicalpower”ofher“chastity,”uponwhichhereligibilityformarriage
iscontingent(238and237).Thompsonarguesthat“theplayallowsMirandanowayoutofthis
situation”—itcasts“thecontradictorypositionofMirandaastypicalofthatofallwhitewomeninthe
colonialadventure:thenatureofherparticipationconfirmshersubordinationtowhitemen”(241and
242).Thatscholarshavetendedtodownplayorignorethethreatofrapeillustrateshow“thespecific
repressionofMirandahasbeenneglected”(242).ToignorethepoliticsofmarriageandMiranda’s
predicament—bothasapotentialvictimofrapeandasawomanbeholdentoherfather’swishes—isto
ignorehowgenderandsexualityarecaughtupinTheTempest’scolonialpolitics.Itistoignorehow
womenareemployedastoolsforextendingimperialpowerand,assuch,arealsovictimsof
subjugation.
ThatwereceiveareportofCaliban’sattemptedrapesecondhandfromProsperoraisesthepossibility
thatitmightnothaveoccurredatall.Prosperois,afterall,anunreliableandmotivatednarrator.Ina
movethatmightbeinterpretedeitherasimpassioned,protectiveandvengefulorasconvenientand
opportunistic,heusestheattemptedrapeasjustificationforhiscolonialoccupationoftheislandand
Caliban’senslavement.IncreasingthisconfusionisthefactthatCalibanneitherconfirmsnordenies
Prospero’saccusation.WhetherthatisbecauseCalibandid,infact,attempttorapeMirandaorbecause
helivesundertheconstantthreatofphysicalandpsychologicaltortureisunclear.Thoughhedoes
verbalizearegretthathedidnotrapeMirandaandthus“people”theislandwithCalibans,eventhis
doesnotconstituteanadmissionofguilt—hisregretisrepulsive,mostcertainly,butcorroborate
Prospero’sallegationsitdoesnot.ThethreatofsexualviolenceinTheTempest—whetheritisimagined
orreal—makesvisibletheperceived“threatofinterracialdesire”(Hall141).“[R]eadalternativelyas
blackAfrican,Afro-Caribbean,andNativeAmerican,”Caliban“iscontinuallyreadasdarkother.”As
such,heisthat“againstwhichaEuropeansocialorderistextedandproved.”Astheembodimentof
innocenceandpurity,KimF.Hallsuggests,Miranda“isthegroundsofthisstruggle:thecontestfor
accesstoherrevealsaconcernoverthepurityofthearistocraticfemalebodythatsymbolicallyassures
theintegrityofaristocraticbloodlinesandanorderlydispositionofproperty”(142).ThatCalibanis
depictedasarapistthusmakesvisibletheraciststereotypesandanxietiesatissueintheearlymodern
colonialcontext.SusanGriffinhasarguedthat“[t]heimageofadarkmanrapingafairwomanembodies
allthattheracistfears”(qtd.InHall142-3),whileCallaghannoteshow“[t]hethreatofrape”became“a
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standardcolonialistsexualtropethatthuspresentedmiscegenationasalwaysalreadyanactofsexual
violation”—anactwhichdesecratesEnglishness,undercutsnationalidentityandthusopensupthe
empiretoinstability(126).
EvenasTheTempest’swomenareobjectsofcolonialcontrolandsubjugation,however,theypushback
againstthemoreproblematicofitscolonialpoliticsandofferfeministalternatives.Sycorax,forinstance,
isundeniablypowerful,thoughsheispresentonlyinmemory.She—notCaliban—is“Prospero’smost
powerfulantagonist,”aswellashis“onlycompetitorforthemagicalcontroloftheisland”(Stockholder
162).ScholarshavealsoreadMiranda,howeversurprisingly,infeministterms.Shedisobeysherfather
onmorethanoneoccasion,“clandestinely(shethinks)meet[ing]Ferdinandwithoutpermission”and
then“reveal[ing]hername”againsthisorders.Shelevelsa“stingingrebuke”againstCalibanaswell—a
rarebutpowerfulmomentof“outspokenness”(A.Vaughan27).Together,SycoraxandMiranda
complicateTheTempest’scolonialandanti-feministtendencies.Sycoraxundercutstheracial
stereotypesusedtopolicebeautyandpower;hermagicis,itwouldseem,nearlyas—ifnotequaltoor
more–powerfulthanProspero’s.Miranda,ontheotherhand,conveysthepossibilitythateventhe
meekestandmostdependentofwomenmightwieldacommandingauthority,speakoutagainst
injusticeandtakecontrolofhercircumstancesinsubversive,consequentialways.
CLOSEREADING
ToexplorethenuancesofraceandgenderastheyintersectwithTheTempest’sglobalscopeand
imperialpolitics,studentsmightclosereadthefollowingpassages:Ariel’sexchangewithProsperoinAct
1,Scene2;Caliban’sexchangewithProsperoandMirandainAct1,Scene2;andTrinculo’sand
Stephano’sfirstencounterswithCalibaninAct2,Scene2.Seethequestionsthatfollowforpossible
pointsofdiscussion.
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• CompareandcontrasttherelationshipbetweenProsperoandArielandProsperoandCaliban.
WhatareAriel’sandCaliban’sstrategiesformanagingorrespondingtheirenslavement,and
howdotheydifferfromoneanother?DoesProsperotreatthemthesamedespitethese
differences?WhatdoesAriel’spacifistapproach,ontheonehand,andCaliban’srebelliousone,
ontheother,tellusaboutcolonizationandtheinstitutionofslaveryintheearlymodern
period?
• ConsiderthevariousdescriptionsofCalibanofferedfirstbyProspero,andthenTrinculoand
Stephano.Howdothesedescriptionsagreeandwheredotheydiffer?Whatdotheytellus,
whetherindividuallyortogether,aboutEuropeanperceptionsofraceandofdifferencein
Shakespeare’stime?Doestheplayeverendorse,acceptornaturalizetheseperceptions?Or
doesitcritiquethemand,ifso,how?WhataboutCaliban’sperceptionofProspero,Trinculoand
Stephano—howdoestheplaybywayofCalibanrepresentindigenouspeople’sresponsesto
Europeans?CanwesympathizewithCaliban’sresponseand,ifso,onwhatgrounds?Doyou
thinkCalibanwouldhaveinspiredsuchsympathyinitsearlymodernreaders?
• Sycoraxremainsashadowyfigureevenattheplay’sconclusion.Usingtextualevidence,debate
thefollowingquestions:DoesSycoraxembodyfemaleempowermentorfailure?Isshepurely
evil,ordoesthetextsuggestotherwise?HowaresheandProsperosimilar,andhowarethey
different?WhatdowemakeofthemanytraitssheandProsperoholdincommon—whatdoes
thattellus,forinstance,aboutProspero?WhatissignificantaboutSycorax’sfunctionasan
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•
analog,orfoil,ordoubleforProspero?Whatdoesthistellus,forinstance,abouttheplay’s
genderpolitics?
IsMirandaasymbolforobedient,docilefemininityornot?Howisshesimilartoordifferent
fromoneofShakespeare’smorevisiblypowerfulfemalecharacters?Whenandhowdoesshe
disobeyProsperoorwieldherownpower,andtowhatend?Whatdowemakeofthealmost
universalabsenceofwomeninTheTempest?Howdoweunderstandtherelationshipbetween
thefictionalcharacterofMirandaandahistoricalfigurelikeElizabethI?Howisthatsuch
differentwomenaretheproductsofthesameage?
GLOBALSHAKESPEARE
Shakespeare’splaysnotonlyconsidertheglobe,butarealsoaglobalphenomenon.“Theglobalization
ofShakespeare,”AnstonBosmanobserves,“beganwithperformance.”Asbrieflymentionedabove,
HamletwasperformedoffthecoastofSierraLeonein1607.“TroupescrossingEuropebeforetheThirty
Years’War(1618-48),”too,“usedabilingualclowntosummarizetheunfoldingactionforanaudience
thatknewnoEnglish.”Overtime,theseperformances—whichBosmanlikens“totoday’ssports
commentaryorsimultaneousinterpreting”—solidifiedandemergedinprint(287).Shakespearehasa
richperformance,translationandadaptationhistoryinAfrica.“Macbeth,TheMerchantofVenice,The
TempestandJuliusCaesarhaveallbeentranslatedintoKiswahili—alanguagespokenextensively
throughoutEastAfrica—perhapsmostinterestinglyby”noneotherthan“thedistinguishedstatesman
JuliusNyerere,”independentTanzania’sfirstpresident(Banhametal284).Until1961,Tanzaniawas
underBritishcolonialrule.Nyerere’stranslationsofShakespeareconstitutestrategic,politicalresponses
tothathistoryofimperialoccupation.AsMartinBanhamandothersargue,Nyerere’saimwasto
showcase“therichnessandbeautyoftheKiswahililanguage”bydemonstratinghow“themajor
indigenouslanguageofthenewnationsofEastAfricawaseverybitassophisticatedasthelanguageof
theworld’sgreatestpoet”(Banhametal284)—howShakespearecouldcomealivejustasforcefully,
andperhapsinneworunexpectedways,inthelanguageoftheindigenouspeoplestheBritishempire
dismissedasinferior,unsophisticatedandwithoutculture.ItseemsappropriatethatNyererechoseThe
Tempestasoneoftheplaysthroughwhichtoundertakethisproject.BeyondAfrica,Shakespearehasa
vibrantlifeinEastAsiaandIndia.ThegreatJapanesetheatredirectorYukioNinagawastagedtwo
versionsofTheTempestthatincorporatedelementsofNohtheatreandMinoruFujitaadaptedThe
TempestinthestyleofBunraku,aJapanesetheatricaltraditionthat“useshandheldpuppets”thatare
“manipulatedbythreesilentpuppeteers”andtextwhich“ischantedbyasinglechantertothe
accompanimentofspeciallycomposedshamisenmusic”(Dawson180-1).Here,“theevidentartificeof
Bunraku”offeredanopportunitytoexploreinnewways“thetheatricalityofShakespeare’sromances
whereartificeanddeepfeelingarecompellinglylink”(181).ItisinthiswaypossibleforworkslikeThe
TempesttotakeonnewlifeandmeaningbeyondEnglish.
WhiletheglobalizationofShakespearemakesavailablenewandexcitingpossibilitiesforour
understandingofhisplaysandtheirresonances,itprovokessomeunsettlingquestionsaboutthe
relationshipbetweenhisworkandthecolonialhomogenizationofworldcultures.InShakespeare,the
Britishempirefoundapowerfulvehiclethroughwhichtoextenditspowerovernon-Europeanand
indigenouspeoples.Shakespeare“belongstotheworld,”asDawsonandotherssuggest,butwemust
alsorememberthatasa“national”orBritishplaywrighthisworkis“ideologicallyimplicated(forbetter
orworse)inanation-buildingprojectinextricablylinkedtotheambitionsof(British)empire”(Dawson
176).TheglobalperformanceandreadinghistoriessurroundingShakespeare,then,arenotalways
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liberatingones.InIndia,forinstance,ShakespearewasemployedbytheBritishgovernmentinthe
nineteenthcentury“asamainstayoftheentertainmentprogrammeforEnglishresidentsofBombay
andCalcutta.”HisplayswerealsomobilizedtohelpestablishEnglishasthelanguageofeducation,
“bec[oming]thecenterofacurriculumdesignedtoproduce‘aclassofpersonsIndianinbloodand
colour,butEnglishintaste,inopinion,inmoralsandinintellect”(Gilliesetal272and273).This
educationalprogramincluded“[e]locutionanddeclamationcontests”wherein“thehighestaccolades”
weregiven“fortherecitationofShakespeare”(273).TheTempestiscomplicitinandoccupiesan
importantplaceinthishistory.Take,forinstance,Ninagawa’sNoh-inspiredadaptationoftheplay,
whichEnglishreviewersmetwithenthusiasm.TetsuoKishiarguesthatin“Japanising”Shakespeare,
NinagawacreatedaproductionthatdecontextualizedthetraditionsofJapanesetheatre.Insodoing,
Kishisuggests,Ninagawareinforcedtheworstofhisaudience’sassumptionsandmisconceptions—he
“whitewashed”Nohand,withit,Japaneseculture.NinigawadisagreedwithKishi’scritique,butwhether
hedidsoconvincinglyisbesidethepoint.Whatstudentsmighttakeawayfromthisdiscussionisthat
Shakespeareisimplicatedinaglobalimperialprojectwhichwasgainingmomentumintheearlymodern
periodandwhichcontinuestounfoldtoday.TheTempest,inthiscontext,canfunctionasatoolof
forcefulassimilation—itcanandhasbeenmobilizedto“whitewash”andeveneraseindigenous
languagesandculturesand,thus,toexpandcolonialpower.
ButTheTempestisnotsimplyavehiclethroughwhichthisprojectunfolds.Rather,thisprojectisan
importantpartoftheplay’saction.TheglobalizationofShakespearecoincidedwiththeglobalizationof
English—andtheextensionofimperialpower—notonlyinthenineteenthcentury,butalsointheearly
modernperiod.“Atthebeginningofthesixteenthcentury,theEnglishlanguagehadalmostnoprestige
abroad,andtherewerethoseathomewhodoubtedthatitcouldserveasasuitablemediumfor
serious,elevated,orelegantdiscourse”(NortonAnthology1240).Shakespearewasacrucialplayerin
theelevationoftheEnglishlanguagewithinEngland—aphenomenonthathelpeddefineandsolidify
nationalidentity,andbyextensionthepowerofimperialBritain.Thisisalsoaphenomenonofwhich
theplayisaware.InAct1,Scene2,MirandarecountshowshetaughtCalibanEnglish:
Abhorrèdslave,
Whichanyprintofgoodnesswiltnottake,
Beingcapableofallill!Ipitiedthee,
Tookpainstomaketheespeak,taughttheeeachhour
Onethingorother.Whenthoudidstnot,savage,
Knowthineownmeaning,butwouldstgabblelike
Athingmostbrutish,Iendowedthypurposes
Withwordsthatmadethemknown.Butthyvilerace,
Thoughthoudidstlearn,hadthatin‘twhichgoodnatures
Couldnotabidetobewith.(1.2.422-34)
Calibanismostungrateful,tellingMiranda:“Youtaughtmelanguageandmyprofiton‘it/IsIknowhow
tocurse.Theredplagueridyou/Forlearningmeyourlanguage”(1.2.437-9).Hereisanothermoment
whereinwecanseetheracismofthecolonistondisplay.Mirandaassumesthat,priortoProspero’s
arrival,Calibancouldonly“gabble”—thathepossessedneitheralanguagenoracultureofhisown.She
inthisway“replicatestheplay’scentralethos,”whichattributes“meaning(andpower)”to“European,
aristocraticlanguage,”whichisembodiedmostidentifiablyinProspero’sbooks.Andevenafterteaching
CalibanEnglish,Miranda“refusestoaccepthisuseofherdiscourseonthegroundsthatitiscorrupted
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with‘uncivil’meanings.”English,here,isnotonlyatoolfor“reformingor‘civilizing’”theindigenous,but
alsofordismissingasirrationaltheangryandviolent“impulses”whichbecomevisibleasthecolonized
protesttheircolonizers(Hall144).InTheTempest,Englishisusedtoestablisha“linguisticcommunity”
that“enforce[s]”notonly“aracialhierarchy”butalso“patriarchalauthority,”forinitMiranda
“performstheproperroleofthewomanwithinculture:sheteachesa‘motherlanguage’toCalibanthat
issupposedtoreplacehisoriginalmother’stongue”(Hall144-5).Thisisanotherinstanceinwhichthe
politicsofraceandofsexareinextricablefromoneanother.Italsodemonstrateshowcolonialideology
mobilizesthisinterrelationshiptoconsolidateimperialpower.
ButinCaliban’scursesStephenGreenblattlocatesanti-colonialpossibilities.“Caliban’sretortmightbe
takenasself-indictment,”heobservers,for“evenwiththegiftoflanguage,hisnatureissodebasedthat
hecanonlylearntocurse.”Andyet,Greenblattargues,“thelinesrefusetomeanthis.”Instead,they
makevisiblehowCaliban“achievesforaninstantanabsoluteifnotintolerablybittermoralvictory”:
Whatmakesthisexchangesopowerful,Ithink,isthatCalibanisanythingbutaNobleSavage.
ShakespearedoesnotshrinkfromthedarkestEuropeanfantasiesabouttheWildMan;indeedhe
exaggeratesthem:Calibanisdeformed,lecherous,evil-smelling,idle,treacherous,naive,drunken,
rebellious,violent,anddevil-worshipping.AccordingtoProspero,heisnotevenhuman…TheTempest
utterlyrejectstheuniformitarianviewofthehumanrace,theviewthatwouldlatertriumphinthe
EnlightenmentandprevailintheWesttothisday.Allmentheplayseemstosuggest,arenotalike;
stripawaytheadornmentsofcultureandyouwillnotreachasinglehumanessence…Andyetoutof
themidstofthisattitudeCalibanwinsamomentaryvictorythatis,quitesimply,anassertionof
inconsolablehumanpainandbitterness.AndoutofthemidstofthisattitudeProsperocomes,atthe
endoftheplay,tosayofCaliban,“thisthingofdarknessI/Acknowledgemine.”LikeCaliban’searlier
reply,Prospero’swordsareambiguous;theymightbetakenasabarestatementthatthestrange
“demi-devil”isoneofProspero’spartyasopposedtoAlonso’s,oreventhatCalibanisProspero’sslave.
Butagainthelinesrefusetomeanthis:theyacknowledgeadeep,ifentirelyunsentimental,bond.By
nomeansisCalibanacceptedintothefamilyofman;rather,heisclaimedasPhiloctetesmightclaim
hisownfesteringwound.Perhaps,too,theword“acknowledge”impliessomemoralresponsibility.
(35-6)
CLOSEREADING
ToexploretheroleoftheEnglishlanguageintheconsolidationandexpansionofimperialpower,have
studentsreadthescenedescribedaboveinAct1,Scene2.Theymightalsocomparethedifferent
dialectswhichareusedintheplay.Astheydothis,askthemtoconsiderthefollowingquestions:
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• WhatworkdoestheEnglishlanguagedointheplay?Whatkindsofpowerdoesitpermit
characterstowield?Againstwhom?Towhatend?HowdoweinterpretCaliban’scomplaintthat
allEnglishisgoodforiscursing?DoesCalibanclaimamomentaryvictoryinthismoment,as
Greenblattargues,andifso,how?IsCalibanabletouseEnglishinwaysthatworktohis
advantage,evenasthelanguageisalsoatoolemployedbythosewhoexploithim?
• Compareandcontrastthewaydifferentcharactersspeakintheplay.Think,forinstance,ofthe
Boatswain’slanguageasitcomparestooneofProspero’smonologues—orofhowsome
charactersspeakinversewhileothersdosoinprose.Howwouldyoudescribethesedifferences
andwhatdoyoumakeofthem?Whyaretheysignificant?Whatdotheytellusabouttheplay’s
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•
characters,especiallyastheyrelatetooneanother?Dotheyrevealahierarchyofpowerorof
value,forexample?Aretherecharacterswhocomplicatetheserelations—whouselanguagein
waysthatarenotappropriatetotheirstation?Whatdothesedifferencestellusaboutthe
poweroflanguageintheworld?
Reflectuponthepossibilitiesandpitfallsoftranslationandtheglobalperformancehistoryof
Shakespeare’splays.WhenandhowmightthecirculationofShakespearebeyondEngland—
whetherintextorinperformance,inEnglishorintranslation—beempoweringandforwhom?
Whenandhowmightitbedisempowering,andforwhom?Forexample,whywouldJulius
Nyerere,thefirstpresidentofTanzania,translateShakespeare,theplaywrightwhowasdearest
totheEnglishnationandtheBritishempire(whichhadoccupiedTanzaniauntil1961)?Howwas
Nyerere’sactanti-colonialandwhatdiditdemonstrateaboutnon-Englishlanguages?Asa
counter-example,considerYukioNinagawa’sNoh-styleproductionofTheTempestandTetsuo
Kishi’saccusationsof“white-washing.”WhatdoesKishi’scritiquetellusabouttherisksor
dangersofappropriatingaplaywrightlikeShakespeare,especiallyforpost-colonialauthors,
translators,performersanddirectors?Howdowecometotermswiththerealitythat
Shakespeare,oneofthemostbelovedauthorsoftheEnglishcanon,providedtheBritishempire
withsomeofitsmostpowerfultools?Shouldthishistorymakeusskepticalorwaryofaplaylike
TheTempestandtheworlditimagines?ShouldwebemorehesitanttoclaimShakespeareas
ourown?
ACTIVITIES,ASSIGNMENTS&PROJECTIDEAS
• Attheendoftheplay,ProsperoacknowledgesCaliban:“thisthingofdarknessI/acknowledge
mine.”Holdadiscussioninwhichstudentsareaskedtoparsethislineinasmanywaysas
possible.Whatdoes“darkness”describe,here?Forexample,doesitdescribeskincolor,
somethingelseorboth?DoesProsperoidentifywithCalibanor“acknowledge”himashuman?
Ordoesthelanguageofobjects—“thing”—andofpossession—“mine”—suggestotherwise?
Whatdoesthislinerevealabouttheirrelationship?Hasitremainedthesameorhasitchanged?
WhatdowemakeofthefactthatCaliban’sfateattheendoftheplayisuncertain,while
Prospero’sisdecidedandclear?Howdoestheopen-endednessorambiguityofCaliban’s
narrativeinformourreadingofthisline—howdoesitcontributetoorunsettlewhatever
meaningwemightotherwisetakefromit?
• Havestudentswritethestoryofthosewomenwhosehistoriesarelargelyerasedintheplay.
WhowasSycorax?Whywassheexiledfromherhomeandhowdidshecometotheisland?
WhydidsheenslaveArielandwasshealwayscruel?Ifshewasnot,whatorwhomadeherthis
way?Asanalternative,studentsmightwritethestoryofMiranda’smother,towhomtheplay
alludesinpassing.
• Foraformalessayassignment,studentsmighttrackthecomplexitiesofempireinthetextby
offeringananswertothefollowingquestion:whoiscolonizerandwhoiscolonized?Todoso,
studentswillneedtowrestlewithsomeofthetext’smostunsettlingcontradictions,suchas
howCalibanisacolonizeroftheislandevenasheisalsoenslavedbyProspero,andthatheisso
quicktoclaimtheislandashisown,evenifthatmeanserasingAriel’sclaimuponit.
• HavestudentswatchaperformanceofShakespeare’sTheTempestintranslation.Insmall
groups(orinareflectiveessay),thatmightconsiderwhatelementsoftheplayremainthesame
evenintranslationandwhicharesubjecttochange.Whatdothesesimilaritiesanddifferences
tellusaboutthedirector’saims?Didstudentslearnorexperienceanythingnewaboutanother
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worldculture—andaboutShakespeare—bywatchingtheperformance?Wasanythinglostin
translation?
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UNIT3•SCIENCE,SPECIMENS,SORCERERS
OBJECTIVE:ToexplorethefunctionofnatureinTheTempest;theinterrelationshipofscientificinquiry
andcolonialexpansionintheearlymodernperiod;thebranchofscientificknowledgecalled“natural
magic”asitistakenupintheplay;andthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenillusionandartistic
creation.
HANDOUTS
“AHistoryoftheWorldinTwelveMaps”(Time)
http://ideas.time.com/2013/11/21/a-history-of-the-world-in-twelve-maps/
JoanBlaeu,“MapofEurope”(Wikipedia)
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/1644_Europa_Recens_
Blaeu.jpg
JoanBlaeu,“MapofAfrica”(PrincetonUniversity)
http://libweb5.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/africa/mapscontinent/1644%20blaeu.jpg
PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADING
RazD.Chen-Morris.“Astronomy,Astrology,Cosmology.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsof
Shakespeare:Shakespeare’sWorld,1500-1660(Volume1).Ed.BruceR.Smith.Cambridge
UniversityPress,2016.257-65.
BrianCopenhaver.“Magic.”TheCambridgeHistoryofScience:Volume3,EarlyModernScience.Ed.Park
andDaston.CambridgeUniversityPress,2006.518-40.
HerbertR.Coursen.TheTempest:AGuidetothePlay.GreenwoodPress,2000.
GabrielEgan.“Country.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:Shakespeare’sWorld,
1500-1660(Volume1).40-6.
KatherineEggert.“Alchemy.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:Shakespeare’sWorld,
1500-1660(Volume1).309-16.
MaryFuller.“GeographicalMyths.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:Shakespeare’s
World,1500-1660(Volume1).24-9.
StevenHarris.“NetworksofTravel,Correspondence,andExchange.”TheCambridgeHistoryofScience:
Volume3,EarlyModernScience.341-62.
AndreasHöfele.“Zoology.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:Shakespeare’sWorld,
1500-1660(Volume1).283-88.
MikeHulme.“Climate.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:Shakespeare’sWorld,15001660(Volume1).29-34.
PamelaO.Long.“ScienceandTechnology.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:
Shakespeare’sWorld,1500-1660(Volume1).Ed.BruceR.Smith.CambridgeUniversityPress,
2016.247-57.
MarcoMincoff.ThingsSupernaturalandCauseless:ShakespeareanRomance.UniversityofDelaware
Press,1992.
WilliamMorse.“AMetacriticalandHistoricalApproachtoTheWinter’sTaleandTheTempest.”
ApproachestoTeachingShakespeare’sTheTempestandOtherLateRomances.Ed.Maurice
Hunt.MLA,1992.133-8.
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KatherineParkandLorraineDaston.“TheAgeoftheNew.”TheCambridgeHistoryofScience:Volume3,
EarlyModernScience.1-18.
ValerieTraub.“Cartography.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:Shakespeare’sWorld,
1500-1660(Volume1).265-76.
AldenT.Vaughan.“Introduction.”TheTempest:ACriticalReader.13-38.
PeterWhitfield.“MappingShakespeare’sWorld.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:
Shakespeare’sWorld,1500-1660(Volume1-13.
RaymondWilliams.“Nature.”Keywords:AVocabularyofCultureandSociety.OxfordUniversityPress,
1976.219-24.
UNITORGANIZATION
Thisunitisdividedintothreesub-sections:“StatesofNature”;“Cosmos,Globe,Specimen”;and
“Magic.”Together,thesesub-sectionsdeveloppointsforuseinlecture,whicharefollowedby
suggestedpassagesforclassdiscussionandquestionsforfurtherinquiry.Theunitconcludeswithideas
forin-classactivitiesandstudentprojects.
STATESOFNATURE
ThoughTheTempestisaworkofliterature,itissteepedinthelanguageandcultureofearlymodern
science.Disciplinesofknowledgedidnotexistintheearlymodernperiodasweknowthemtoday.
Playwrightsandpractitionersofsciencewere“membersofthesamethrivingintellectualculture”(Traub
266).InShakespeare’sage“artistsexploredthesignificanceofscientificdiscoveries,theiraesthetic
valuesinformedscientificinquiry,andnaturalscientistsemployedaestheticidiomstoexpresstheir
novelideas”(Traub266).Thatitopenswithatempestuousstorm—withanaestheticrenderingof
climateanditsuncontrollablecapacities—demonstratesthispoint.Thesescientificcontextsdeserve
closeattention,astheyareintertwinedwithsomeofthemostimportanthistoricaldevelopmentsto
whichtheplayresponds.ThesedevelopmentsincludetheexpansionofEuropeanimperialpower,the
dispossessionofindigenouspeoplesandthenaturalizationcolonialenterpriseasnecessaryandgood.As
notedinUnits1and2,“Shakespearelivedinaworldthatwasundergoingrapidexpansionasships
sailingfromPortugal,Spain,England,andHollandreachednewworldsinSouthandNorthAmericaand
soughtever-increasingcontactswithAfrica,India,Indonesia,Japan,andChina.”Thesetravels
uncovered“[n]newinformation,specimensofunheardofplantsandanimals,strangefoods,andnews
ofexoticpeoples,”expandingEuropeans’senseofglobalspaceand,withit,knowledgeofnature(Long
247).Scientistsinthiswaycapitalizedupontheroutesoftravelandexchangethatempireforgedto
increasetheirknowledgeofthenaturalworld.1Forthisreason,KatherineParkandLorraineDaston
speculatethat,“hadtheybeenaskedtogivetheirownepochaname,theywouldhaveperhapscalledit
‘thenewage’(aetasnova).Newworlds…hadbeendiscovered,newdevicessuchastheprintingpress
hadbeeninvented,newfaithspropagated,newstarsobservedintheheavenswithnewinstruments,
newformsofgovernmentestablishedandoldonesoverthrown,newartistictechniquesexploited,new
marketsandtraderoutesopened,newphilosophiesadvancedwithnewarguments,andnewliterary
genrescreatedwhoseverynames,suchas‘news’and‘novel’,advertisedtheirnovelty”(1).Thislistof
noveltiesmakesvisiblehowscienceisinseparablefromandattheheartofthesediscoveriesand
1
Theword“scientist”isananachronism,asitdidnotexistuntilWilliamWhewellinventeditin1833.
Nevertheless,forthesakeofclarity,thisunitreferstoearlymodernpractitionersofscienceasscientists,though
theydidnotcallthemselvesthesame.
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developments.Weshouldnotforget,forinstance,thattheprintingpressand,forthatmatter,books
aretechnologies.Likewise,“aesthetictechniques”orobjectsoftenemployandmanipulatescientific
processesforthepurposesofartisticcreation.HadShakespearenotcomeofageinthemomentwhen
changesinprinttechnologymadenewlypossiblethemassproductionofbooks,wemightnothaveas
manycopiesofhisplaysorevidencedocumentingtheirperformancecontextsandhistories—and,thus,
hisartmightnothavesoresilientlywithstoodthetestoftime.HadShakespearenotcomeofageina
momentofunprecedentedscientificdiscovery,hisplays—theircharactersandplots,imaginingsand
performances—mighthavelookedverydifferent.
AsParkandDastonnote,this“dynamicexpansion”ofscientificknowledgewasmadepossibleby“the
boomingtradewiththeFarEastandtheFarWestthatfloodedEuropeanmarketswithnew
commoditiesandnaturalia,manyofthempreviouslyunknowntolearnedEuropeans”(14).Butofwhat,
exactly,didthis“naturalia”consist?Writingattheendoftheseventeenthcentury,ascientistnamed
JohnRaygivesusabettersenseofthis“whenheoffer[s]hisreadersaninventoryofallknownanimal
andplantspecies:150differentquadrupeds;500speciesofbirds;1,000fishes;6,000plants;and10,000
insects”(Harris344).Thismightnotsoundlikemuchtocontemporaryreaderslikeourselves.Wenow
know,forinstance,thatthereareanestimated950,000speciesofinsectslivingonthisplanetand
thousandsofnewanimalspeciesarediscoveredeachyear.Nevertheless,inthesixteenth-and
seventeenth-centuries,thenumbersRaycitesinspiredwonderandawe.Theyrepresentedanewly
diverseunderstandingofthenaturalworld.Theyalsorequiredorganizationandmanagement.Scientists
begantodevelopnewmethodsformakingsenseofthisdiversity.Taxonomy—orthesystemof
classificationthatsortsmateriallifeintocategoriessuchas“kingdom,”“phylum”and“species”—was
oneofthesemethods.Anotherwasapatternofthoughtorlogicthatwenowcallthescientificmethod.
ThismethodtookinitialshapeintheworkofoneofShakespeare’scontemporaries,FrancisBacon,who
servedforatimeasLordChancellorofEnglandand“didmorethananyonetofashion[scientific
practice]intoanempirical”—or,rather,objective—“methodologywithwhichtoinvestigatetheworld”
(Long256).Itmadepossiblenewwaysofviewingandknowingtheworldthatseemedtrue,natural,
factual—thatseemedtodispelthetaintofsubjectivity,toneutralizethebiasesoftheobserverandto
mitigatethelimitationsofhumanperception.
ItisworthrememberingthattheNewOrganon(1620),themostfamousofBacon’sworks,was
publishedonlythreeyearsbeforetheFirstFolio.Init,Baconoutlinesamodelofrational,objective
knowledge”that,asWilliamMorseobserves,“isalsoshotthroughwithavocabularyofpower,empire,
andambition.”Usingthelanguageofrationalityandobjectification,inotherwords,theNewOrganon—
andthemethoditdescribes—imaginestheworldanditscontentsasthingstobeanatomized,
possessedandinstrumentalizedfortheobserver’spurposes.Itreducestheworldanditsbeings
(includingpeople—particularkindsofpeople)toobjectsofknowledgeandgain.Bacon’smethod,in
otherwords,demonstrateshowsciencedidnotsimplyexpandthroughorcapitalizeonalready
establishedcolonialnetworksofexchange.Rather,sciencehelpedtoestablishandexpandthose
networks,anditofferedtoEuropeanmonarchiesabodyofknowledgethatcouldbeemployedto
naturalizeandthusjustifycolonialactivity.Thus,“theprosecutionof[imperial]ends”suchas“tradeand
territorialconquest”actually“requiredarangeofscientificknowledge”(Harris350).Itisscience,of
course,whichhistoricallyhasenabled“warfare”to“evolve[e]andbecom[e]moredeadly”(Long256).
Sciencegavetheearlymodernsgunpowderandfirearms,anditmadepossiblesomeofthefirstusesof
biologicalwarfarewhen,intheeighteenthcentury,therewerereportsofAmericancolonists
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deliberatelyinfectingindigenouspopulationswithsmallpox.Sciencewasmobilizedtocreatemore
efficientformsofkilling,suchasthemachinegunandtheatombomb,aswellaschemicalwarfareinin
conflictssuchastheVietnamWar.InShakespeare’stime,itsubjectednaturetonewformsofmastery
andcontrol.Theseincludedtaxonomicsystemsoforganization,aswellas“thereconceptualizationof
spaceandwaysoffixinglocationsinspace”(Harris361).Thatearlymoderntravelersweremore
equippedthaneverbeforetolocatethemselvesinspaceandtimemightseemrelatively
inconsequentialinthecontextofempire,butasStevenHarrispointsoutitchangedhowpeopleviewed
theworldinbigways.Whereasoldermapsstrugglewithacaseof“tunnelvision”—they“depic[t]only
narrowpathwaysacrosslandandsea”—mapsoverthecourseofthesixteenthandseventeenth
centuriesemployedanincreasingly“peripheral”modeofvision“thatembracetheentiresurfaceofthe
Earth”andmaderealizablethe“possibilityoflocatingterraincognitaonamap”(361).Thus,“[o]ncethe
Earth’ssurfacehadbeenconceivedofasamappablespaceandconventionsformeasurementand
coordinateshadbeenstabilized,”Harrisobserves,“landmassesandplacenamescouldbeadded
indefinitelywhilestillpreservingcartographicnotionsofpositionanddistance”(Harris361).Theworld,
inotherwords,couldcataloguedandfixedinplace.Itsplaces,peoplesandthingscouldbemappedin
relationtotheEuropeanempiresthatsodesiredtopossessthem.
Whatunsettlesthishistoryofscientific—andbyextensioncolonial—masteryistheconceptof“nature,”
whichwasthen(asitisnow)amovingtarget.RaymondWilliamshasshownhowtheword“nature”has
accumulatedapluralityofcontradictorymeanings.Itcanrefertothe“essentialqualityorcharacterof
something,”suchashumannature,or“theinherentforcewhichdirectseithertheworldorhuman
beingsorboth,”aswellas“thematerialworlditself,takenasincludingornotincludinghumanbeings”
(219).Itcanbesingularorplural.Itcanrefertoaplacesuchasthecountryside(223)oranabstract
concept,a“personification”(221)—MotherNature,aGod,anabsolutemonarch—oraninhumanand
impersonalforceoflaw,the“primitiveconditionbeforehumansociety”(222)—aprelapsarian
innocence—orthebrutalityofbiological“competition”andthequestfor“survival”(224).Whilenotall
ofthesemeaningsmayhavebeenoperativeinShakespeare’stime,theideaof“nature”wasmost
certainlyascomplex.Thiscomplexitywasonlyheightenedthroughscientificenterprisewhich,evenasit
discoveredandcataloguedpreviouslyunknownormisunderstoodnaturalphenomena,helpedtoreveal
anunimaginablyandevenincomprehensiblyheterogeneousworld.Thestateofnaturewasdecidedly
undecidedintheearlymodernperiod.WecanseetheseambiguitiesondisplayinShakespeare’sworks,
wherein“theexperienceoflandscapeissubjective.”TheShakespeareanstage“d[id]notshowthe
environment”and“charactersmaydisagreeaboutit.”Intheseambiguitiesanddisagreementslurks“an
unspokenfearthatoursystemsofperceivingandclassifyingtheworld”—nature—“donotsomuch
reflectrealityasconstitute,”ormediate,orobscureit(Egan40).TheTempestisfullofsuch
contradictions.Unnamedandunmapped,itoffersaviewofnaturethatispluralandchallenging—which
frustratesreaders’attemptstoname,locateandmapitorrathertomasterandpossessit.Scholars
havearguedthattheisland’sambiguitiesheightenitsexoticismandthuscultivateafeelingofcolonial
romance.Buttakeninascientificcontext,theseverysameambiguitiessuggesthowtheislandmakes
visibleadifferentandinmanywaysanti-colonialpolitics.
CLOSEREADING
ToexploretherelationshipbetweenTheTempestandearlymodernscientificdevelopments,students
mightconsiderthefollowing:theplay’sislandsetting(look,inparticular,attheexchangebetween
Adrian,SebastianandAntonioinAct2,Scene1,aswellasstagedirectionsandthecharacters’
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movementsoverthecourseoftheplay);Prosperoasasymbolforscientificrationality(seeProspero’s
accountofhisintellectualpursuitsandsubsequentexileinAct1,Scene2,aswellashisdescriptionsof
SycoraxandCalibaninthesamescene,andCaliban’saccountofProspero’sbooksinAct3,Scene2);and
Caliban’sindigenousknowledgeoftheisland(seehisexchangewithProsperoinAct1,Scene2).
Studentsshouldclosereadthesepassageswiththefollowingquestionsinmind:
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• WhatdoesnaturelooklikeinTheTempest,asrepresentedbytheisland?Doyouhaveaclear
pictureofitinyourmindorisitdifficulttoimagine?Whatareitsdefiningcharacteristics?What
aboutitremainsambiguousorelusive?Dothestagedirectionstellusanythingspecificabout
theisland?Ordotheyheightenthesenseofambiguity?Whatdowemakeofexchangeslikethe
onethattranspiresbetweenAdrian,SebastianandAntonio,whereincharactersfrequently
disagreeaboutthenatureoftheisland(andheretheword“nature”mightrefernotonlytoits
overallcharacter,butalsoitsnaturallandscape)?Whatdoestheplaytellusaboutnatureasa
concept,anobjectofknowledgeandaplaceintheearlymodernperiod?Inwhatwaysdoesit
refusetobeobjectified,imaginedorunderstood?Howdoesitresistthemethodsofscientific
investigationastheyweredefinedbyShakespeareancontemporaries,suchasFrancisBacon?
• Prosperoisamagus,atitlethatintheearlymodernperiodpossessedscientificconnotations(a
topictowhichthisunitwillsoonturninmoredetail).CanwedescribeProsperoasapractitioner
ofscience,orofscientificthinking?Inwhatwaysdoesheviewtheworldscientifically(andhere
“scientifically”mightdescribebothhiswayofthinkingandhisunderstandingofnature)?Isthe
worldforProsperoorderlyandcontrolled—doesitunfoldthroughasetofuniformandperhaps
naturallaws?WhatkindsoflanguagedoesheusetodescribecharacterslikeSycorax,Caliban
andAriel,andwhatdoesthatlanguagetellusabouthisworldview?IsProsperoconcernedwith
hisimpactonthelivesofothers,ordoesheviewtheworldasanobjecthemight
instrumentalizefordifferentpurposes?Doesheremainthesameinthisregardoverthecourse
oftheplayordoesheeverchange?DoesCalibanimagineProsperoassomethinglikea
scientist?Howdoeshedescribehisbooks,knowledgeandmethods?WhatdoesCaliban’s
perspectivetellusabouttherelationshipbetweenempireandscience?
• Calibanpossessesanextensiveknowledgeoftheislandanditsnaturallandscape.Ofwhatdoes
thisknowledgeconsist?InwhatwaysdoesProsperotakeadvantageoforseizethisknowledge?
WouldProsperohavesurvivedontheisland—or,attheveryleast,havedevelopedsuchgreat
power—withoutthisknowledgeor,rather,withoutCaliban?Whatdoestheirrelationshiptellus
abouttherolescienceplaysintheestablishmentofempire?DoesCaliban’srebellionagainst
Prosperoeverinvolveorcapitalizeonhisknowledgeofthenaturalworldand,ifso,doesit
suggestthatnaturemightofferwaystoresistcolonialpower?
• Havestudentsstepbackfromthetexttoreflectmoregenerallyonthefollowingquestions:
Whatistherelationshipbetweenliteratureandscience?Howmightstudents’answerstothis
question—andassumptionsaboutthatrelationship—changeafterlearningthatwhatwenow
call“disciplines”ofknowledgedidnotexistintheearlymodernperiod?ThatShakespeare,in
otherwords,didnothavethesamesensethatliteratureandscienceweredistinct,aswedoso
now?Whenliteratureengageswithorrepresentsscience,doesitdososimplybymirroringit—
byreplicatingitsfindings—ordoesitdosomethingelse?Canliterature,forinstance,offer
commentaryonorcritiquescientificpracticeandknowledge?Canitrepurposescientific
knowledgeforaestheticorimaginativepurposes—fornon-scientificends?
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COSMOS,GLOBE,SPECIMEN
ShakespearelivedduringwhatsomearguewasthegreatestscientificrevolutionofEuropeanhistory.
Thisrevolutionunfoldednotonplanetearth,butintheheavensabove.Whilethehistoryofastronomy
mightseemtangentialtoTheTempest,whichrarelyinvokesscientificadvancementsincosmology,itis
ofcentralimportanceinsofarasitwaspartofabroaderscientificde-centeringoftheuniverseand,with
it,ofthehumanspeciesandtheplanetwecallhome.While“[f]oralmosttwothousandyears,scientists,
philosophers,andtheologiansoftheclassicalandmedievalworlds”hadtheorizedthattheuniversewas
geocentric—thatitrevolvedaroundtheearth—NicolausCopernicusin1543arguedforaheliocentric
model,wherein“thesunratherthantheearthwasthecenterofthecosmos.”Thoughittooksome
decadestotakeholdinintellectualaswellaspopularculture,thisproposalputintoquestion“ancient
notionsofcosmic,natural,andsocialorder”(Whitfield1).Itchallengedthegeocentrismwhich“was
acceptedbythemedievalCatholicChurch,”forinstance,andthusdirectlyopposedprevailing“Church
dogma”(Whitfield1and2).Italso,asPeterWhitfieldobserves,impliedthattheuniversewas“vaster,
perhapsinfinite”andthatthestars“werenottinypointsoflight”fixedinplacebutrather“fierybodies
likeoursun,madelessbrilliantthanthesunonlybytheirimmensedistance”(2).Theimplication,in
otherwords,wasthatthereexistothersunsandthusotherworlds—and,quitepossibly,otherformsof
life—beyondourown.IfCopernicusenlargedthecosmos,GalileoGalileibroughtitswimmingintoview.
“[H]avingheardofanewopticalinstrumentinventedinHolland”andhavingfailedtoacquireit,Galileo
builtatelescopeofhisownin1609.He“described(andmadedrawingsof)whathesaw”throughits
lens,includingpicturesof“thesurfaceofthemoon,whichhedemonstratedwasnotsphericalorperfect
butwascoveredwithmountainsandvalleys”(Long248).Thus,Shakespearelivedinade-centered
world.Whilehisplaysarenotalwaysovertlyengagedwiththescienceofastronomy,theyarepackedto
burstingwithcharacterswhoimagineanddebatewhatitmeanstobehumaninaworldofflux—who
askdifficultquestionsaboutthenatureofhumanexistence,agencyandcreationinaninfiniteuniverse.
Prospero—whoobsessesovermortalityandtime,aestheticproductionandfate—isoneofthese
characters.
Therewereother,terrestrialscientificdevelopmentswhichparticipatedinthisde-centeringofthe
world.Someofthemostimportantwerecartographic.Asdiscussedinearlierunits,theearlymodern
periodwasamomentoftravelandexploration.VariousEuropeanpowersdeployedfleetsofships
aroundtheworldonmilitaryexpeditionsandinpursuitoftrade.“Suchvoyagesbroughtaboutchanging
navigationalmethodsinstrumentation,”includingtheimprovementofthe“magneticseacompass”and
instruments“suchasthecrossstaffandthemariner’squadrant”whichwereusedtodeterminethe
positionofstarsusedfornavigationandtocalculatelatitude(Long251).Butperhapsmoreimportantly,
thesixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesproducedthefirstcomprehensivemapsofEnglandandthe
globe.Whitfieldcontends“[i]tisnottoomuchtosaythatcartographycreatedanimageofEngland
wherenonehadexistedbefore,forbeforearound1550therewasinEnglandalmostnotopographicart
ofanykind”(8).Oneofthegreatestmapmakerstohaveeverlived,GerardusMercator,createdan
oversizedmapofEnglandthat,togetherwithsimilarmapsmadebyhisrivals,ensuredthat“theimage
ofthemapofEnglandwasfirmlyestablishedinpeople’sminds”—aphenomenonthatgaveshapeto
“thenation’ssenseofidentity”bymakingavailablea“miniature”imageofEnglandthateveryone
“couldsee”andpossessintheirimaginations(10).ValerieTraubcallsthisgrowingpredilectionformaps
“mapmindedness,”suggestingthatthisformofknowledgedelineated“notonlytheboundariesofone’s
nationandtown”butalso“themyriadformsthatinhabittheearth.”Tomapandthus“know”aplace
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was“toidentifyitsinhabitants,itsfloraandfauna,anditscharacteristiccustomsand‘habits’”(265).
Concernedwithbothglobalspaceandthelifeformsofforeignnatures,cartographywasinthisway
inextricablefromempire.1
Earlymoderncartographyalsomakesvisiblehow,evenasitproclaimeditselfasobjectiveandrational,
sciencewasadeeplyrepresentationaloraestheticenterprise—andnotdisinterestedlyso.Traub
remindsusthat“[g]lobes,atlases,andmapsalldependonstrategicmanipulationsofperspective”that
mightbeinvisibletotheirviewers,butneverthelessconditiontheirperceptionofglobalspace.“Because
mapsreducethree-dimensionalspacetotwodimensions,theirproductioninvolvestechnicalaswellas
representationalchallenges,includingchoicesregardingrelativesize,scope,andscale”(268).These
choicesmatter.Earlymodernmaps,forinstance,often“adoptasynoptic,‘god-like’perspective,which
positionsthevieweroutinspaceandextendssighlinesfarbeyondwhatisphysicallyachievable,”thus
respondingtoandsatisfying“adesiretomaster,reify,andtotalizespace”(269).OneofMercator’s
famousworldmaps,theOrbisimago,isacaseinpoint.Thefirstmap“todividetheNewWorldinto
NorthandSouthAmerica,”itwasthus“thefirstwidelydistributedmaptousetheword‘America’”—to
popularizeanamethatreferences,ofcourse,aEuropeanexplorer(AmerigoVespucci)andthus
categorizeglobalspaceaccordingtoacelebratedhistoryofEuropeancolonialexpansion.Inamapmade
in1569,Mercator“widenedthelatitudesofthenorthandemphasizedthenorthernlatitudesofthe
Atlantic,whichEuropeanswereintheprocessofexploringandconquering…therebyunderscore[ing]the
significanceoftheseregions”(Long252).Hismapsinthiswaydemonstratehowcartography—and,
morebroadly,science—werebynomeansobjectiveendeavors,butinsteadproducedhighly
aestheticizedandrhetoricalrepresentationsoftheworld.Whatmadethemsopowerfulisthatthey
offeredknowledgewhichappearedtotheEuropeanobserverasthoughitwereobjective,factual,or
authorizedbynatureitself.
Therewere,however,waysinwhichmapsdisclosedtheirhighlywroughtcharacter.“Bytheearly
seventeenthcentury,”Traubobserves,“theworldmap,whetherproducedinEnglandortheLow
Countries,typicallywasadornedwithnongeographicalmotifs”(270),including“personificationsofthe
continents,”“tableau”whichhighlighted“thecontinent’snotablefloraandfauna,”and
“representatives”ofthecontinent’sindigenouspopulationswhose“costume”conveyedinformation
abouttribalandnationalaffiliation,“religion,”“ethnicity”and“skincolor,”and“custom”(272).Perhaps
notsurprisingly,Europeanpeoplestendtoberepresentedonthesemapsas“opulen[t]”and“well-todo,”whilenon-Europeansarehighlystylized,possessingexaggeratedphysiologicalfeaturesand
appearinginvariousstatesofundress(272).AsTraubargues,“[t]heresultingofreasoningwouldgive
significantsupporttoracism,colonialism,andimperialism.”ItiseasytoimaginehowCalibaninallofhis
stereotypicalphysicaldeformityandbehavioralsavagerywouldblendrightinwiththeseracist
representationsofindigenouspeoples.Atthesametime,however,the“universalizinglogic”ofthe
worldmap—itsjuxtapositionofthe“exotic”and“familiar”—positioned“theEnglishmanaswellasthe
Icelander”orAfricanasa“rationalizedobject[t]ofknowledge”(273).Howeverfavorablytheydepicted
1
Foranexample,seetheDutchcartographerJoanBlaeu’smapsofEuropeandAfrica(linkstothemapsare
providedinthe“Handouts”section).Thesemapsmakevisiblethedifferent(andtroubling)techniquesof
representationusedtodistinguishbetweenEuropeanandnon-Europeanspacesandpeoples.Seealso“AHistory
oftheWorldinTwelveMaps”(linkalsoprovidedinthe“Handouts”section),whichwillhelpstudentsdevelopa
senseofhowcartographyandworldviewaredeeplyintertwined.
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Europeans,inotherwords,thesemapsalsodemonstratedhowtheytoowerenotimmunefromand
susceptibletoobjectificationandcontrol.
Naturalhistory,too,isanimportantcontextforunderstandingTheTempest.Referringtothecollective
“studyofplantsandanimals,minerals,andfossils,”naturalhistoryhadbytheearlyseventeenthcentury
“becomeawell-developeddisciplinecarriedoutbyindividualswhosawthemselvesasnaturalisticand
whopossessedaspecializedbodyofknowledgeandspecifictechniquesofinvestigation”(Long252).
Naturalhistoryaspiredtoobjectivity,buttheexpandedsenseoftheglobecreateduniqueproblemsfor
itspractitioners.Unabletoundertake“personalobservations”ofeveryreportofanewspecies,for
instance,scientificaccountsof“mythicalcreaturessuchasgriffins…remainedpartofnaturalhistorical
accountsaspossiblecreaturesthathadnotyetbeenseenandthusverified.”Nevertheless,natural
historyofferednewandcompellingwaystocataloguetheplanet’smyriadlifeforms—to“describ[e]”
andthussystematize“plantsandanimalsinnewandmorespecificways.Strivingtodescribenaturein
itsentirety,naturalistswould“oftenaccompan[y]voyages”andtheyhelpedtoimport“hundredsof
heretoforeunheardofplantsandanimals”intoEuropeforfurtherstudy(253).Itwasn’tlongbeforenot
onlyscientists,butalsomonarchsandpeopleacrossEuropewereengagedinthetradeof“exotic
speciessuchasparrotsandturkeys,thejaguar,thetapir,thearmadillo”(Höfele283).AsAndreasHöfele
tellsus,“[s]trangebeastswerehighlysoughtafter,aprestigiouscurrencyinthediplomaticexchangesof
giftsbetweenrulers.Alive,theyadornedtheroyalmenageries;dead,theybecamecherisheditemsin
Wunderkammern,orcuriositycabinets.”Taxidermyemergedasa“newart”for“turn[ing]deadanimals,
theirplumesandfursintact,intodurableobjectsofwonder”(284).Carefulreadersknowthatthetraffic
inspecimensliesattheheartofTheTempest,for“[u]ponencounteringCaliban”Stephanoimmediately
beginstodeviseaplanforcapturingandtransportinghimbacktotheEuropeanmainland,wherehe
mightbegiftedtoamonarchorsold“tothehighestbidder”(284).
Naturalhistoryalsoproducedanewlogicof“physiognomy”wherein“animallikenesses—thenoble
leonineforeheadandaquilinenose,thebovineequine,ursine,orvulpine—werethoughttoprovidea
lexiconofhumancharactertraitsinscribedasfacialfeature.”Itsuggested,inotherwords,thata
person’scharacter—hishumanity—mightbedeterminedbyreadingthe“animality”ofhisfacial
structure.Themoreanimaltheface,themore“evil,sinful,ordisruptive”theindividual.Animalswerein
thisway“usedbothtospecifywhatclearlybelongtohumanityandtoexcludewhatsupposedlydid
not.”Demarcatingtheboundarybetweenthehumanandtheanimalwasanespeciallypressingconcern
intheearlymodernperiod,forShakespeareandhiscontemporariesdidnotunderstandthemassealed
offfromoneanother.Thehumanbody,forinstance,wasthoughttobepopulatedby“[a]nimalspirits”
thatcould“determin[e]hismotionsandemotions.”When“passionateimpulsesoverruledreason,”
then,humanswereunderstoodto“literally,notjustmetaphorically,becomeanimals”(285).Onceagain,
Calibanresonateswiththiscontext.ProsperomapsCaliban’sdeformedandinhumanphysiologyonto
hischaracter,usingtheformertodenythehumanityofthelatter—toexplainthesupposedanimalityof
hispassionsandrebelliousbehavior.
Lastbutnotleastisthescienceofclimate,anothercontextwithwhichTheTempestisdeeply
concerned.Fromthebeginning,theplayinvokesandinstrumentalizestheimaginativepossibilities
embodiedbyinclementweather.Thisseemsappropriate,giventhatwenowknowthat“Shakespeare
livedhisfifty-twoyearsfrom1564to1616inanEnglishclimatecolderthantoday’s.”Hislifetime
coincidedwithanovelperiodintheearth’sclimatologicalhistorycalledtheLittleIceAge.Thisisnotto
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sayShakespearelivedhislivesurroundedbysnowandice:“averagetemperaturesacrossnorthwest
EuropemayhavebeenuptoadegreeCelsiuscolderthaninthelatetwentiethcentury,perhapsstill
colderinwinter”(Hulme31).Ifthisfluctuationintemperaturewasrelativelyindiscernible,whatwas
remarkableweretheperiod’sstorms.Shakespeare“livedthroughthelatesummerandearlyautumn
stormsof1588thatsofamouslydisruptedthegreatSpanishArmada,”forinstance(Hulme32).Itislittle
surprisethatsuchstormsareafrequentfeatureofintheplays,appearingnotonlyinTheTempestbut
alsoingreatworkssuchasKingLear.Beyondthechaosoftempestuousweather,sixteenth-and
seventeenth-centuryscientistsbelievedthat“regionsofextremeclimate”gaveriseto“monstrous
races”—to“amonstroushumanity”(Fuller25).This,too,isabeliefthatmaybeatissueinTheTempest,
regardlessofwhethertheplayultimatelyendorsesit.WhetherwereadCalibanasIrish,Native
American,Afro-CaribbeanorAfrican,whatisclearisthatbothheandhismotheraremonstrousinthe
eyesoftheEuropeanshemeets.Thatmonstrosityechoedandperhapsheightenedbytheislandhe
occupies—bythetempestuousclimateinwhichhecameofage.
Climate,ofcourse,isalsoanabstractconcept—somethingimagined,nebulous,mobile.Whitfieldargues
thatif“therewasonewayinwhichexplorationanddiscoveryenteredprofoundlyintotheplaysina
metaphoricalsense,”theydidsothrough“thesea”andthroughclimate.The“destructivestorm”for
Shakespeare“becomesasymboloftransformation,sometimesinvolvingdeathandsometimesthe
openingofanewlife.”Climatologicaleventsoftenmark“turningpointsintheplot”orfunctionas
“catalystsinaprocessofdiscoverythatisnotgeographicalbutpsychologicalorspiritual”(7).Mike
Hulmeagrees,suggestingthat“climatewasanimaginativeideathatservedmanypurposes”inthe
plays.Itcouldsignifyorderorregimesofnormalcy—it“offer[s]asenseoftheprevailing,orexpected,
conditions,”forinstance—andyetatthesametimetheextremitiesofclimate—“theabnormalityof
untimelyorextremeweather”—unsettletheselogicsoforder,revealinghowtenuoustheywereinthe
firstplace(30).TheTempestbeginswithpreciselythiskindofdisorder.Thestormactsasakindof
levelingagent,destroyingtheusualboundariesbetweencharactersofdifferentsocioeconomicstatuses.
Thus,theBoatswainholdsthepowerintheopeningscene,commandinghisaristocraticpassengersto
dohisbiddingandprovokingthemtoacknowledgehowtheirfatesaretiedupwithanddependent
uponhis.Inthisscenewecanobserve,too,howclimateisa“vehicleforrevealingfateandconveying
judgmenttoindividuals”(31).Stormsareoften“asignofGod’sprovidence,”whetherforacharacteror
a“threatenednation”(32).Atempest,especiallyinShakespeare’splays,isneverjustatempest.
CLOSEREADING
ToexploretherelationshipbetweenTheTempestandcosmology,naturalhistoryandclimatology,
studentsmightconsiderthefollowing:theplay’stitle;thelanguageofhumannessandanimalityin
descriptionsofnotonlyCaliban(especiallythoseofferedbyTrinculoandStephanoinAct2,Scene2),
butalsoothercharacters,includingProspero,Ariel,theBoatswain,Ferdinand,StephanoandTrinculo;
Stephano’sdreamofcapturingandsellingCalibanforpoliticalfavorormoneyinAct2,Scene2;andthe
openingsequenceoftheplayinAct1,Scene1,whereinthestormragesandtheshipsinks.Students
shouldclosereadthesepassageswiththefollowingquestionsinmind:
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• Askstudentstolookup“tempest”inanetymologicaldictionary(suchastheOxfordEnglish
Dictionary).Towhatdoesthewordreferotherthanstormandclimate?Whatareits
connotations?Aretheword’sdifferentmeaningsinagreementorcontradictory,andhow?
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•
•
•
WhichapplytotheShakespeare’splay?Howmightweunderstand“tempest”or“climate”—
whichwere,intheearlymodernperiod,abstractconcepts,aswellassymbolsforthe
relationshipbetweenorderandflux—asitdescribestheplay?Doesthetitleoftheplayrefer
onlytothestormwithwhichitopens,orarethereothertempestsinitsaction?
TherepresentationofCalibaninmanywaysresonateswithracializeddepictionsofindigenous
peoplesassubhumanoranimalinnature.InwhatwaysisCalibanrepresentedasanimal-like?Is
heeverportrayedashuman?Howdowemakesenseofthesecontradictionsinperception?Are
thereothercharactersthataredescribedassomethingotherthanhuman?ProsperoorAriel,
forinstance?(Consider,too,howtheBoatswainislikenedtoafishinAct1,Scene1,aswellas
themomentwhenArielimaginesFerdinandashavingturnedtocoralandpearlinAct1,Scene
2.)HowdothesemomentscontradictorcomplicateCaliban’sstandingasalesserorinferior
character?Howdotheycomplicateourunderstandingofhumanness?
Whatdowelearnabouttherelationshipbetweenscience,politicalpower,economicsand/or
empirewhenStephanoimaginestransportingCalibantoEuropewherehemightsellhimfor
profit?Howissciencehereintertwinedwiththeimperialnetworksoftrade,forinstance,orthe
acquisitionofpoliticalfavor?HowdoesCalibanresistStephano’sattemptstoobjectifyhim—to
converthimintoaspecimenorcuriosityforamusementandprofit?Andwhatdowemakeof
thesimilaritiesbetweenStephano’svisionofaCalibanincirculationandtheslavetrade,which
alsomobilizedsciencetoenabletheconversionofhumanpersonsintoproperty?Whatdoes
TheTempesttellusabouttherelationshipbetweenscientificwaysofengagingwiththeworld
andtheconcept(andlimitations)ofhumannessorpersonhood?
Whatisthefunctionofclimateorweatherintheplay’sopeningscene?Inwhatwaysdoesthe
stormdisruptordestroyotherwisestablehierarchiesofrelationorofpower?(Toanswerthis
question,paycarefulattentiontotheinteractionsandrelationshipsbetweencharacters.Watch
forhowtheyshiftasthestormunfoldsandconsiderwhatthesechangessignify.)Evenasthe
stormisadestabilizingforce,doesitevercoincidewithsomeoverarchingsenseoforder?What,
forinstance,dowemakeofthelanguageoffateordestinyinthisscene?Thesensethatthe
storm,althoughchaotic,alsomakeslegibleasetofpredeterminedoutcomesorfuturethatare
immutableandbeyondthecontroloftheplay’scharacters?Whatdowemakeofthis
contradiction?Isthestormasymbolofinstability,stabilityorsomethingelse,andhowdoesthis
frametheremainderoftheplay?
MAGIC
Itmightseemoddtoincludeadiscussionofmagicinaunitonscience,butinShakespeare’stimemagic
waslargelyunderstoodasascientificenterprise.Thisdidchangeoverthecourseofthesixteenthand
seventeenthcenturies.Nevertheless,whatwewouldnowdescribeaspseudoscienceortheoccult—
astrology,naturalmagic,alchemy—wereintheearlymodernperiodscientificpracticesemployedbythe
mostseriousofscientists.Thus,FrancisBacon,thefatherofempiricism,defendedmagicas“ancientand
honourable”:“amongthePersiansitstoodforasublimerwisdom,oraknowledgeoftherelationsof
universalnature,asmaybeobservedinthetitleofthosekingswhocamefromtheEasttoadoreChrist”
(qtd.inCoursen20-1).“Powerfulevidenceofhowseriouslymagicwastaken”inShakespeare’sday,as
BrianCopenhaverargues,“wasthevehemenceofreligiousoppositiontoit”(529).ThatreadersofThe
TempesttakeProsperososeriously—thatheisanotaquack,butamanoflearning,rationalityand
power—likewisedemonstratestheextenttowhichmagicwasarigorousintellectualendeavorin
sixteenth-andearlyseventeenth-centuryEngland.Thissenseofrigorstemmedinpartfromthebelief
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thattheterrestrialandcelestialspheres,aswellashumanandanimalnatures,werenotas
disconnectedastheymightseem.Commonbeliefheldthat“celestialinfluences”affectedeventson
earth—thatthemotionsandzodiacalpositionof“celestialbodiesinthesky”coulddetermine“human
character”aswellas“individualfate”(Long249).Astrologersanalyzedthese“influences”bycreating
chartsor“mapsoftherelationshipbetweenheavenlyandearthlyevents,”whichwerethenused“to
locatemankindwithintheuniverse”(Whitfield3).RenownedscientistssuchasJohannesKepler
producedsuchmapsand“[d]r[ew]uphoroscopes”as“acommonsourceofemployment”and“an
importantsourceofincome”(Long249).Indoingso,theyproceededaccordingtoa“doctrineof
‘correspondences’,”whichsuggested“thatallthedifferentdivisionsofthenaturalworldarelinkedto
eachotherintheirinnernatures:animals,plants,minerals,elements,stars,andplanetscould
potentiallyinteractwithmankindinhisspiritualandphysicalaspects”(Whitfield3).
Whatscholarsnowcallednaturalmagicwasfoundeduponthesecorrespondences,whichits
practitioners—calledmagi—understoodtobevehiclesthroughwhichtocontrolthenaturalworldand
unleashits“latentpowers”(Whitefield3).AsLongnotes,“[n]aturalmagicassumedthatthephysical
worldandadivineworldwereconnected,theformerbeingamicrocosmofthelatter.”Magiusedthese
connectionsto“manipulatethedivineworldinordertoinfluencetheterrestrial”(256).Howtheydidso
wasnotonlythroughmagicalobjectsandinstruments,butalsothroughapowerbelievedtobeunique
tohumankind:language.Copenhaverobservesthat“[w]ords,images,andexperience,especially
vicariousexperiencestoriedinbooks,confirmedthemagicalpowersofphysicalobjects—naturalobjects
suchasmagnets,peonies,anddragons,andartificialobjectssuchasrings,amulets,andautomata”
(526).Thecirculationofprintedimagesandtextwasthusanimportantmediumthroughwhichmagical
knowledgewasdisseminated.Moreimportantly,therewasasensethatlanguageitselfwasasourceof
magic—that“thepronouncingofmagicalwords”offeredonewaytointerveneinandtransformthe
world(Whitfield3).ScholarshavelongmadeconnectionsbetweenProsperowhois,ofcourse,amagus
andShakespeare,whoemployslanguagetocastspellsofacertainsort—toconjureworlds.
Beyondthebroadcategoryofnaturalmagic,other,morespecificoccultsciences—suchasalchemy—are
attheheartofTheTempest.Alchemy,too,proceededaccordingtoacertainlogicofcorrespondence.
Understandingtheearthascomposedof“fourterrestrialelements—earth,air,fire,andwater—each
includetwoseparatequalities:earthiscoldanddry,firehotanddry,watercoldandwet,andairhot
andwet”(Long254).Alchemistsbelievedthat“byexchangingonequalityforanother”theymight
transform“oneelementintoanother”(Long254).Thesepracticesamounted,insomesense,toanearly
formofchemistry.Theyconcernedmineralogicalsubstances,andunderstoodthosesubstancesas
“active,livethings”that“slowlyperfectedthemselvesintheground,”suchthatcoalmight“veryslowly
growintoamoreperfectelementsuchasgold”(Long254).Thus,alchemistsbelievedthatiftheycould
properlymanipulatethesesubstancesandtheirqualities,theycould“expedit[e]thisprocess”and
manufacturepreciouselementsatwill(Long254).Thismightsoundludicroustousnow,butifwekeep
inmindthatinearlymodernEngland“mostpeopleassumedthatthetransmutationofelements
occurred,ascouldbeseeneverytimeboilingwaterchangedtosteam,”itthenwouldhaveseemed
highlyprobablethatmagimightmanipulateelementsandtheirqualitiestoproducesuch
“transmutations”inacontrolled,purposefulway(Long254).Alchemyisinvokedbothinthecontentand
theformofTheTempest.Ariel,forinstance,is“anairyspirit”whileCalibanfunctionsasanembodiment
ofearth(Vaughan28).AldenT.Vaughanandothershaveargued,too,thatTheTempest,bothintitle
andinform,“canbecomparedto…thealchemicalprocess”(63).Theplay,heargues,takesshape
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throughaseriesoftransformationsthatmovetowardahigherpurpose.TheseincludeProspero’s
effortstoreform“fallenhumannature”asembodiedbyCaliban(63).AndasVaughanobserves,
Prosperousesthelanguageofalchemytodescribehisprojectthroughouttheplay:he“‘boil[s]’his
enemies’brains”inordertotransmutateor“transformtheircharacters”intosomethingmorerefined
(64).
ScholarshavealsosuggestedthatProsperoishimselfareferencetotwoofEurope’smostfamousmagi:
CorneliusAgrippaofGermanyandJohnDeeofEngland.Whitfieldnotes,forinstance,that“Prospero’s
powerconsistsinamasteryovernature,whosepersonifiedspiritsandenergieshehaslearnedto
control,whichisexactlywhatAgrippahaddescribedinhisworks”(4).Indeed,theplay’smany
referencestoProspero’slibraryinvitesreaderstoimaginewhichbooksmighthavepopulatedit.Itis
easytoimagineAgrippa’samongthem.ButProsperoresemblesmostcloselyhiscontemporary,John
Dee,“whoconcernedhimselfwithmagic,amongmanyotherinterests”(Long256).DeewasawellconnectedLondoner.Hewasfamousforhislibrary—“thelargestinEnglandinhisday”—aswellashis
“laboratories”(Long256).Heunderstoodhisworkasstrivingto“revealthemysteryofdivinecreation”
(Long256).Thoughtoushemightsoundlikeaneccentric,DeewasrespectedbyLondon’selites.Long
notes,forinstance,that“QueenElizabethIandmanyothersalsoconsultedhimonmedical,political,
andphilosophicalmatters”(256).LikeDee’smagic,Prospero’s“hastheairnotonlyoftheoccultbut
alsoofthescholarly”—itinvolves“magicalequipmentandcharms,”tobesure,butalsoakindof
scientificrationalityorlineoflogicandanunderstandingoflanguageasdeeplytransformativeinits
power(Eggert315).TheTempestcontainsotherreferencestoDee,too,includingthenameofthe
belovedspirit,Ariel,whichcallstomind“‘Uriel,’thenameofanangelintheJewishcabala”andDee’s
“spirit-communicant”withwhomhewasincontactduringséancesandotheroccultpractices(Vaughan
27).
WhatisperhapsmostsignificantaboutTheTempest’sinvocationofmagic,however,isnotnecessarily
theconnectionsitmakestoparticularhistoricalfiguresordevelopmentsinthefieldofnaturalmagic,
butratherthequestionsitraisesaboutperception,illusionandart.Chen-Morrisnoteshowempirical
sciences—astronomy,inparticular—raisedahostofquestionsaboutthelimitsofhumanperception.As
astronomersbuiltnewvisualtechnologieswithwhichtoviewtheheavens,theydiscoveredthat
sometimeswhatappearsbeforetheeye—whatseemsverifiableandtrue—isinfactonlyan
“appearance”orillusion.Thus,earlymodernastronomersdemonstratedhowseeingisnotbelieving—
howwhatappearsbeforeone’sowneyesmightinfactnotbetruetotheworldasitactuallyis.Dee
foundthese“shortcomingsofopticaldevices”andperceptionsespeciallyfrustrating,fortheyproduced
“ever-growingobstacles”forthebeliefsatissueinhisprojectandhisaims(Chen-Morris261).Thisunit
mentionedabovethatProspero,thegreatmagus,isoftenidentifiedwithShakespeare,thegreat
playwright.Thisparallelissignificantbecausethoughmagicisimaginedasanintellectualand
meaningfulpursuitintheplay—asearchforknowledgeandtruth—itisatthesametimeasourceof
illusionandtrickery.Vaughanpointsout,forinstance,thatShakespearemayhavehadinmindnotonly
AgrippaorDeewhenhecreatedProspero,butalso“thestreetwizard”—“[s]treetmagicians,jugglers
andconjurers”—whoisnotapractitionerofscienceorasymbolofintellectualrigor,butrathera
“carnivalillusionist”(64).Theseperformerswerejustthat:performers.They,likeProsperooftendoes,
dealin“liesandstagetricks”(Eggert314).IfProsperoisanalogoustoShakespeare,then,oratthevery
leasttheplaywrightandtheartist,thenTheTempestasksustoconsiderwhatartactuallyproducesfor
theworld.Isitamereexerciseinmisdirection—infalsity—ordoesitrevealmeaningfultruths?Theplay
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emphasizesoverandoveragainthatmagic“islargelyaquestionofillusion,thatitsvictimsdonot
realizewhatishappeningtothem,andthattheyareplaythingsinthehandsofasuperiorpower”—ofan
illusionistwhotricksthemintofalsebelief(Mincoff98).Attheirworst,theseillusionscoveroverthe
realworldanddistractthosewhoaresubjecttothemfromtheir“responsibilities,whetherinthe
politicalworld…orintheprivateworld”(Vaughan155).
WecannotoverlookthefactthatitisbecauseofhisfascinationwithillusionthatProsperoisunableto
seetheplotsformingagainsthim—plotswhichultimatelyproducehisexile.TheTempestinthisway
considershowmagicandartareakinintheirillusoryproductions.Further,itexplorestheunsettling
possibilitythatart—thatthetheatreandtheplayitself—amounts,ultimately,to“trumpery”(Eggert
314).InthisplayShakespeareseemsathismostunsettledabouthisownartanditsroleintheworld.
Doesitproducemeaningfultruth?Orisitadeceptiveillusion—acheaptrick?Prospero’sspeechesinAct
4andintheepiloguedonotprovideanyclearanswers.SomescholarshaveinterpretedProspero’s
renunciationofhismagicandhisbooksasa“tacitadmissionofguiltandfraud”(Eggert314)thatmight
byextensionimplicateartandtheplaywright.Yet,othersarguetheopposite.MarcoMincoff,for
instance,arguesthatwhatTheTempestshowsusisthatrealityandillusionarenotsodifferent.“What
isassertedbyProspero”—andillustratedbythecharacters’experiencebothwhilesubjecttoandfree
fromthepowerofhismagic—isthat“lifeitselfislikeadreamandsubjecttothesameillusions”(98).
Thetheatre,then,wouldconstituteanidealplacetoexplorethiscuriousconfluenceofthefictiveand
thereal—ofwhetherandhowhumansspendtheirlives(asastronomershadbeguntodiscover)
mistakingsuperficialappearancesforobjectivereality;ofwhetherwemistakethingsastheyseemfor
thingsastheyare.
CLOSEREADING
ToexplorethefunctionofmagicinTheTempest,studentsmightconsiderthefollowing:Act1,Scene2,
whichcontainsmanydescriptionsofmagicfrommultiplepointsofview.SeeinparticularCaliban’s
descriptionofProsperoandhisbooks,Prospero’sexchangewithMiranda,Ariel’sexchangewith
Prosperowhereinherevealshowheconjuredtheillusionofastorm,andGonzaloattemptstomake
senseofhowhisclothingisimpossiblydrydespitehishavingsurvivedashipwreck.Toconsiderthe
relationshipbetweenmagic,illusionandartortheater,studentsshouldturntoProspero’s“revels”
speechinAct4andtheepilogue.Studentsshouldclosereadthesepassageswiththefollowing
questionsinmind:
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• ProsperoandCalibanreiteratethepowerofbooksthroughouttheplay.Whatistherelationship
betweenProspero’spowerasamagicianandhisbooks—or,morebroadly,language?What
doesthisrelationshiptellusaboutlanguageanditscapacitytoshapetheworld?Isthiscapacity
alwaysgoodorcanitbemanipulatedfordangerouspurposes?Keepinginmindtheplay’ssense
oflanguageasamediumofmagicandpower,considerhowthismightresonatewithour
contemporaryunderstandingofShakespeareasoneofthegreatestwordsmithsandwritersto
everlive.InwhatwaysisShakespeare,likeProspero,asorcerer?Howdoeshissorcerydepend
uponlanguageandthemagicoftheprintedbook?
• WearetoldbynumerouscharactersthatProsperoisagreatmagician,unparalleledinhis
power.WhatspecificactsofmagicorsorcerydoesProsperoperform?Beyondtheactofmagic
thatisrecountedfrommemory—themomentwhenProsperofreedArielfromimprisonment—
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•
doeshecastotherspells?CompareProsperotoAriel,whoalsopossessesmagicalpowersandis
responsibleforconjuringthetempest.WhatkindsofmagicalactsdoesArielperformon
Prospero’sbehalf?DohispowerseverrivalProspero’s?DoesProsperoreallypossessasmuch
powerasothercharactersassume,orisitsomewhatofanillusion?InwhatwayisProspero’s
power(whethermagicalorotherwise)dependentoncharacterssuchasAriel,Calibanor
Miranda?
TheTempestispreoccupiedwiththerelationshipbetweenmagic,illusionandart.These
preoccupationsareespeciallyvisibleinProspero’smonologueinAct4(wherehedirectly
referencesthetheatre)andtheplay’sepilogue.Inwhatwaysismagicascientific,substantial
empiricalenterpriseinTheTempest—oneconcernedwithreal,actualtruths?Inwhatwaysisit
theopposite?Howdothesecontradictionsinformtheplay’simaginingofitsownpurposeasa
workofart?Andoftheatremoregenerally?Isart,accordingtotheplay,onlyanillusion?IsThe
Tempestitselfamereworkoftrickery?Ordoesitoffersomethingmoremeaningful?Isit
possible,accordingtotheplay,fortruthtoemergefromfiction,ormeaningfromillusion?Are
thefictiveandtherealreallysodifferent?
ACTIVITIES,ASSIGNMENTS&PROJECTIDEAS
• Shakespeare’slanguage,likeProspero’sbooks,ismagicalandevenincantatory.Itisintendedto
bereadaloud.Havestudentschooseaspeechfromtheplaytobeperformedinfrontoftheir
peers.Studentsshouldmemorizethespeechandshouldtryrecitingitinanumberofways,
whichwillhelpthemdecidehowbesttopresentthelanguage—howbesttoshowcaseits
magicaleffects.Aftertheirperformances,studentsmighthowtheyapproachedthetask—the
choicestheymadetobestshowcasetheirchosenspeech’sauraleffects,forinstance.
• Askstudentstowriteanessaythatstudiesawordwhichiscentraltotheplayandhasscientific
and/orsupernaturalconnotations.Thesewordsmightinclude“tempest,”“magic,”“book,”
“fate,”or“monster.”Studentsmightuseanetymologicaldictionarytoconductabriefsurveyof
thewordasitsmeaningshavechangedovertime.Theymightthenconsiderwhenandwhere
thewordappearsintheplay,andtowhateffect(s).Forinstance,studentsmightwriteanessay
aboutthewords“monster”and“monstrous”andtheirrelationshiptoCaliban’sfunctioninthe
playasascientificcuriosity.
• Havestudentswritereflectivepapersthatexploretherelationshipbetweenmagicandtheatre
inTheTempest.Theymightconsidermorefullythequestionslistedabove.Otherquestionsto
whichtheymightrespondinclude:whyinthisplay—thelastofwhichhewasthesoleauthor—
doesShakespeareseemmostuncertainaboutthevalueorpurposeofthetheatrical,the
aestheticand/orthefictive?Doestheplayresolvethisuncertainty?Whatdowemake,for
instance,ofProspero’schoicetorelinquishhisbooksandthushismagic?IsShakespearedoing
thesameattheendofTheTempest?Howdoestheepilogue,inparticular,informand
complicatethesequestions?
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UNIT4•THEATRE,MUSIC,MASQUE
OBJECTIVE:ToexploretheperformancecontextsandhistoriesofTheTempest;theconceptoftheatre
andembodiedperformance;andthesignificanceofmusicandmasqueastheyarestagedintheplay.
HANDOUTS
AernoutvanBuchel’ssketchoftheSwanplayhouse(Wikipedia)
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/The_Swan_cropped.png
KingJames’spatentoftheKing’sMen(ShakespeareDocumented)
http://www.shakespearedocumented.org/exhibition/document/king-jamesestablishes-kings-men-warrant-under-privy-seal
PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADING
KristiaanP.Aercke.“‘AnOddAngleoftheIsle’:TeachingtheCourtlyArtofTheTempest.”Approachesto
TeachingShakespeare’sTheTempestandOtherLateRomances.Ed.MauriceHunt.MLA,1992.
146-52.
JohnH.Astington.“AudienceandPlaygoing.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:
Shakespeare’sWorld,1500-1660(Volume1).Ed.BruceR.Smith.CambridgeUniversityPress,
2016.95-101.
MartinButler.TheStuartCourtMasqueandPoliticalCulture.CambridgeUniversityPress,2009.
GabrielEgan.“Playhouses.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:Shakespeare’sWorld,
1500-1660(Volume1).89-95.
ReginaldFoakes.“Romances.”Shakespeare:AnOxfordGuide.Ed.StanleyWellsandLenaCowenOrlin.
OxfordUniversityPress,2003.249-60.
AndrewGurr.“Theatre.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:Shakespeare’sWorld,
1500-1660(Volume1).67-77.
DavidLindley.“Blackfriars,MusicandMasque:TheTheatricalContextsoftheLastPlays.”The
CambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare’sLastPlays.Ed.CatherineM.S.Alexander.Cambridge
UniversityPress,2009.29-46.
——.“Music.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:Shakespeare’sWorld,1500-1660
(Volume1).135-41.
JeanMacintyre.“CourtMasques.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:Shakespeare’s
World,1500-1660(Volume1).155-60.
MichaelE.Mooney.“DefiningtheDramaturgyoftheLateRomances.”ApproachestoTeaching
Shakespeare’sTheTempestandOtherLateRomances.Ed.MauriceHunt.MLA,1992.49-56.
EmmaSmith.“TheCriticalReceptionofShakespeare.”TheNewCambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare.
Ed.MargretaDeGrazia.CambridgeUniversityPress,2011.253-68.
KeithSturgess.“‘Aquaintdevice’:TheTempestattheBlackfriars.”CriticalEssaysonTheTempest.Ed.
VirginiaMasonVaughanandAldenT.Vaughan.G.K.Hall,1998.107-29.
AldenT.Vaughan.“Introduction.”TheTempest.Ed.VirginiaMasonVaughanandAldenT.Arden
Shakespeare,1999.1-160.
UNITORGANIZATION
Thisunitisdividedintothreesub-sections:“EarlyModernPlaygoing”;“ADesigner’sPlay”;and“Music&
Masque.”Together,thesesub-sectionsdeveloppointsforuseinlecture,whicharefollowedby
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suggestedpassagesforclassdiscussionandquestionsforfurtherinquiry.Theunitconcludeswithideas
forin-classactivitiesandstudentprojects.
EARLYMODERNPLAYGOING
WilliamShakespearecameofageatamomentinwhichtheatreexploded.AsLondon’spopulation
boomed,moreandmorepeopleflockedtoseeplays.Playwrightsscrambledtomeetthedemand.As
AndrewGurrtellsus,fromthebeginningoftheseventeenthcentury“atleastfourorfivecompanies
performedregularlyinLondon,mostofthemofferingaplayeveryafternoonforsixdaysoftheweek”
(69).Butthetheatrelandscapelookedmuchdifferentthenthanitdoesnow.Forinstance,“[t]he
modernpracticeofrunningplaysforaweekorlongerdidnotdevelopuntilthelastfewyearsupto
1642,whentherewereenoughcompaniescompetingwitheachothertoallowanyespeciallypopular
playtohaveanextendedrun”(69).Eachactingcompanyhadtohaveawiderangeofplaysinthe
repertoireatanygiventimeinordertocompeteforanaudience.“[N]oplaywasperformedtwicein
succession,”Gurrobserves,“andeventhemostpopularplaysonlyrecurredonceeverytwoorthree
weeks”(69).Playwrightshadtoprovide“constantnovelty”—bynomeansaneasyorlow-pressure
undertakinginthecosmopolitanspaceandcompetitivemarketofLondon(Gurr69).Thisonereasonfor
whichactingbecameatrulyprofessionalactivityrequiringextensivetrainingandtalent.Manyactors
startedtheircareersasyoung“apprentices”whowerecarefully“train[ed]”toperform“variousduties,
includingallthewomen’sparts”—for,ofcourse,womenwerenotallowedonthestagein
Shakespeare’stime(71).Together,theactorswerealsoresponsibleforoverseeingallaspectsofthe
playanditsstaging:thejobof“director”didnotyetexist.“[E]xperiencedcompan[ies]couldtakeanew
playfromafirstreadingtoperformanceonthestagewithinthreeweeks”(Gurr71).
Toaccomplishthisfeattheactorsorganizedthemselvesintohighlycoordinatedactingcompanies
whereinthey“work[ed]asteams,eachmemberplayingtheirownpartinthesharedproduction”(Gurr
67).ShakespearebeganhiscareerasanactorintheLordChamberlain’sMen—thetitleoftheirroyal
patron,HenryCarey,thefirstBaronHunsdonand,later,GeorgeCarey,whoservedastheElizabeth’s
LordChamberlainsoonafterhisfather’sdeath.UnderthepatronageofKingJamesI,thecompany’s
namewouldchangetotheKing’sMen—theircompany“becamethegreatestofitstimeor,”assome
scholarssuchasGurrargue,“anyother”(67).Withinthecompanies,seniorplayers—calledactorsharers—“tookanequalshareinthecostsandprofitsofthecompany”(Gurr67).Scholarshavenoted
thatactingcompaniesareofparticularinterestfortheiregalitarianstructureandpolitics.Forthe
purposesofprofitsharing,theywere,ofcourse,organizedinahierarchicalmanner,butitwaspossible
formemberstorisethroughtheranks—thisispreciselywhatShakespearedid,movingfromplayerto
sharer.“Inaheavilyauthoritariansociety,ruledbyamonarchandthelordsofthemanymanors
throughoutthecountry,”actingcompanies“werealmostuniquelydemocratic,organizedasequal
‘sharers’”whoworkedcollaborativelyandmadedecisionsaboutcompanybusinesstogether(Gurr67).
Theplaystheseactingcompaniesstagedusuallyranabouttwohoursinlength.Shakespeare’sworksare
litteredwithreferencestothistimeperiod,callingitthe“twohours’trafficofourstage”intheprologue
toRomeoandJuliet.Prospero’splotinTheTempestrequirespreciselythisamountoftimetounfold,as
hespecifieswhenhesaystoArielthattheywillneed“Atleasttwoglasses.Thetime‘twixtsixandnow/
Mustbyusbothbespentmostpreciously”(1.2.85-6)—“twoglasses”herereferring,quiteliterally,to
twohourglasses.Whenplayswerelongerinlength,actingcompaniesusuallyoptedtocutthemdown,
makingeditorialdecisionsaboutwhichpartsshouldremainintactandwhichmightgo.Thebeginningof
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aplaywas“heraldedbyaflagwavingfromthetopoftheplayhouseandtrumpetcalltoannounceits
commencement”(Gurr70).StudentswhohaveseenaShakespeareproductionattheAmericanPlayers
TheatreinSpringGreen,Wisconsinmayrecallhearingarecordedtrumpetcallpriortoitsstart—a
practicethatmeanttocaptureonefacetoftheexperienceofseeingaplayinShakespeare’stime.Inside
thetheater,theaudiencetooktheirplaceseitherinseatsinthegalleriesorintheopenspaceinfrontof
thestage,calledtheyard,wheretheystoodforthedurationoftheplay.Whereasnowaudience
memberspaymoremoneyforaseatthecloseritistothestage,intheearlymodernperiodthe
cheapestplacefromwhichtowatchaplaywastheyard.Hamletfamouslyand“contemptuously”refers
tothoseintheyardas“‘groundlings’,thewordforsmallfishwithgreatmouthswhosuckedlichenoff
thestonesintheriverbed”(Gurr70).WhateverHamlet’scontemptmightimply,playwrightshadto
writewiththegroundlingsinmind.Theyhadtoprovidetheiraudienceswith“vigorousactionandrapid
speech”which,beyondprovidinggeneralentertainment,mightencouragethosemembersofthe
audiencewhowere“ontheirfeet”toreturnforanotherperformance(Gurr70).
Anyonewhohasenjoyedaconcertorattendedaneventthatrequiresonetostandforitsdurationwill
alsounderstandwhatGurrmeanswhenhesaysthata“mainfeatureofsuchplaygoing,largelylostnow,
wasanessentialawarenessofwhereyouchosetostandorsit”—“ofthecrowdcrammedinwithyou
shouldertoshoulder”(70).Playgoingwasadistinctlycollectiveexperiencesharedbypeopleofalltypes
andranks.Scholarssuspectaudiencesizerangedinthe“thousandsratherthanhundreds,”with
“Perhapsasmanyasthreethousand”inattendance“whentheGlobewasfull”(Astington96).Asmany
as“[t]enthousandpeoplemighthavebeenaccommodatedatplayhousesonthebusiestdaysofthe
year”fortheLondontheatrebusiness—anumberthatissomewhatastoundingwhenweconsiderthat
“theestimatedpopulationofLondonin1600”wasonly“twohundredthousand”(Astington96).Itwas
impossibleto“forgetthatyouwerepartofacrowd,givingearandeyetoawhollyfakeimitationof
reality”(Gurr70).Theexperienceofplaygoing,inotherwords,isnotnecessarilyasimmersiveaswe
mightthink—itcertainlyopenedupnewworlds,butthefictionalityofthoseworldswasalwaysvisiblein
partbecauseofaudiencemembers’proximitytooneanotherandtothestage.Atthesametime,this
proximitypermittedandinvitedacertainamountofaudienceparticipation.CharactersinShakespeare’s
playsoftenmakeasidestotheaudience,makingtheminsiderstotheactionitself.Likewise,playsoften
incorporated“metatheatricalin-jokes,”whereinactorswouldstepoutsideofthecharacterstoaddress
aknowingaudience.AsGurrnotes:“Suchin-jokesoccurforinstancewhenPoloniusinHamletclaimsto
haveplayedJuliusCaesarandwaskilledbyBrutus.Asthefirstaudiencesknew,theactorplayingHamlet
himselfhadplayedBrutusoppositetheotheractor’sJuliusinthepreviousyear’sgreatplayatthesame
playhouse…Itwaseasytomakesuchjokeswhentheplayersandtheiraudiencesweresoclosely
acquainted”(70)—whenplaywrightswerewritingforanaudiencewhoseattendancewasrelatively
regular,andwhothuspossessedarelativelyintimateknowledgeoftheactorsinagivencompanyand
theplaystheyhadproduced.
Thisisanelementoftheatrethatissomewhatlosttousnow,thoughwemightfindsomesemblanceof
itinfilm.Whatdoesremainisthesenseofcollectivitythattheatrecreatesasitprovokestheaudience
tojointogetherin“spontaneousreactiontothesurprisesanddelightstheperformersareproducingon
stage”(Astingon98).Playswerewellattendedinpartbecausetheywereaffordable.“[W]hentheGlobe
wasbuiltin1599,”accordingtoAstington,“itremainedpossibletoattendtheolderplayhousesfora
penny,thepriceofbasicadmissiontoaplacestandingintheyard”(96).Foreveryone“butthevery
poorest,”thiswasanamounttheycouldspare(Astington96).Therelativelylowcostofattendance
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meantthataudienceswererelativelydiverse.Peopleofallkinds—richandordinary,womenandmen,
youngandold—wenttothetheatre,sometimesaloneandsometimesingroups.Theselargeand
diverseaudiencesconstituteonefacetof“thetheater’sdemocraticnature,”whichofferedan
alternative“withinasocietythatofficiallyinsistedonhierarchy”(Astington96).
Beyondtheplays,theactingcompanieswhostagedthemandtheaudienceswhosawthem,playhouses
areofcourseacrucialpartofthetheatrelandscapefromwhichTheTempestemerged.InShakespeare’s
time,theLondontheatrestooktheformofopen-airamphitheaters.Thereweretwomajorplayhouses
inlatesixteenth-centuryLondon:theTheatreandtheCurtain.AsGabrielEgandescribesit,“[t]he
standardlayoutwasatimber-framedpolygonoffourteentotwentysidesformingaroofedseatingarea
onthreelevels,rangedaroundanopenyardintowhicharectangularortrapezoidalstageprojected.
Thewholestructurewasbetweenseventyandonehundredfeetindiameterandcouldholdaroundtwo
thousandtothreethousandpeople,dividedroughlybetweenthosestandingintheyardandthose
sittinginthegalleries”(90).Perhapsevenmoreimportantthanthearchitectureofplayhouseswasthe
structureoftheirstages.Themainstagehadacoverpositionedatoptwoposts,whichprotectedthe
actors’costumesintheeventofrain.IntheGlobe,thiscoverwaspaintedwithcelestialimageryto
invoketheheavensabove.Thecoverwasalsousuallyoutfittedwithadoor,which“allowedcharacters
tobewincheddowntothestagebyrope,aprimitiveformoftheatricalflying”(Egan90).Asitwas
originallybuilt,theGlobedidnotfeaturesuchanopening,butonewasadded“forflyingcharactersin
1609”(Egan91).Itseemsnocoincidencethatwhilehisearlierplayshadnevernecessitatedsucha
structure,Shakespeare’snexttwoplays“madespectacularuseofone:Jupiterdescendsonaneaglein
Cymbeline(1610)andJunoandAriel-as-HarpydescendinTheTempest(1611)”(Egan91).Andasthere
washeavensabove,sowasthereanunderworldbelow:“Atrapdoorinthefloorofthestagecould
representagraveforscenesofburial…orthewaydowntohell,upfromwhichdevilscouldemerge”
(Egan90).Thetrapdoorwasused,forinstance,todepictagraveinproductionsofHamletandscholars
arguethatTheTempestwaspurposefully“designedtomakeuseofthisconfigurationwiththestageas
earth,heavenabove,andhellbelow”(Gurr71).Whatstoodbehindthestagewasalsoimportant,for
thisapparatusdictatedwhereandhowcharactersexitedandenteredagivenplay’saction.Intherear
wallofthestagetherewere“twoopposingdoors”for“theopposingsidesineachplay”(Gurr71).For
instance,inRomeoandJuliet,CapuletsandMontagueswouldusedifferentdoors,signalingtheirfamilial
alliancetotheaudiencenotonlyinspeech,butalsointheiruseofstagespace.Therewasalsoalarger,
“moresubstantialopeninginthecenter”oftherearwall,likely“fortheentryofauthorityfiguresand
forharmoniousexitshandinhandattheplay’sclose”(Gurr71).Thestagealsofeaturedabalconyfor
“scenesinvolvingcharactersaddressingthoseonthemainstageasiffromoutofawindoworatopcity
walls”(Egan90)—themosticonicexamplebeing,ofcourse,whenJulietcallsouttoRomeofromher
bedroomintheupperfloorsofherhome.1
Shakespeare’sactingcompany,theLordChamberlain’sMen,werehousedinthefamousGlobetheatre.
Buttheydidnotstartoutthere—or,atleast,notexactly.Inactuality,thegroupbeganitscareerin1594
attheTheatre,whichwasbuiltbyJamesBurbage,thefatherofRichardBurbage,whowasthe
company’sprincipalactor.Buttheysoonranintoaproblem:whiletheyhadbuiltandownedthe
structureofthetheatreitself,“theirleaseonthelandonwhichtheplayhousestoodwasduetoexpire
1
ForanearlymodernvisualizationofaplayhouseliketheGlobe,seeAernoutvanBuchell’sillustrationofanother
open-airamphitheater,theSwan(linkcanbefoundunder“Handouts”).
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inearly1597”(Egan91).Whilenegotiatingwiththepropertyowner,however,theycontinuedtopay
rent.Failingtocometoanagreement,thecompanymovedtemporarilytotheCurtainandBurbageset
tostrategizing.Becausetheyhadcontinuedtopaytheirrentevenaftertheleasehadexpired—and
becausethepropertyownerhadcontinuedtoacceptpayment—thecontractwas“stillinforce”insofar
asitgaveJamesBurbage“therighttoremoveanybuildingshehadputup”sothathemight“re-erect
[them]somewhereelse”(Egan92).Andso,thecompanydevisedaplanwhichmightseemunthinkable
toustoday:he“employedamastercarpenter,PeterStreet,tostealthilydismantletheTheatreovera
fewdays,beginningonDecember28,1598”(Egan92).TheytransportedtheTheatreinpiecesacross
theriverThamesandputitbacktogetherunderanewname:theGlobe.Thecompanymaintaineda
happyresidenceinthetheatreuntil1613,whenafireburnedittotheground.Resilientasalways,they
“rebuiltonthesamefoundations,anoperationthatagainwouldpreservethesizeandshapeofthe
building”(Egan92).WhenscholarsrefertothefirstandthesecondGlobe,thesearetheeventstowhich
theyrefer.Really,theplayhousewasactuallythreeplayhousesinone:theTheatre,theGlobeIandthe
GlobeII,thelatterofwhichremainedintactuntilit“wasclosedwiththeotherplayhousesastheCivil
Warloomedin1642”(Egan92).
WhileTheTempestwasmostcertainlyperformedattheGlobeandperhapsimaginedwithitsnewly
outfittedcoverinmind,thereisanotherspacethatisequallyifnotmoreimportanttoitshistory:the
Blackfriarstheatre.TheLordChamberlain’sMenweresosuccessfultheywereabletomaintainnotone,
buttwovenuesfortheirproductions.In1596—twoyearsaftertakingupresidenceattheTheatre—the
companyacquiredanindoorspaceinawealthyareaofLondoncalled“theBlackfriarscomplex”thathad
previouslybeen“usedforboy-companyperformancesfrom1576to1584”(Egan91).Burbage
immediatelystartedworkonoutfittingitforcompanyuse.Theworkstoppedalmostassoonasithad
begun,for“residentsofthiseliteareasuccessfullypetitionedthePrivyCounciltobanthisnewtheater’s
usebytheLordChamberlain’sMen”(Egan91).Burbagehadnochoicebuttoleaseitouttoanother
boy-companyinthehopesofrecoupingsomeofhismoney.Butin1608thecompanyofboyactors
madeadisastrouschoice:theyperformedaplay“whichoffendedKingJames,andthecompanywas
disbanded”(Egan94).Atthispoint,theLordChamberlain’sMenboastedthekingasapatron—apoint
towhichwewilldiscussingreaterdetailinthenextparagraph—andhadconsequentlyrenamed
themselvestheKing’sMen.Thisisalltosaythatwhateverobjectionstherehadbeentotheirpresence
atBlackfriarsinthe1590s,therewerenolongeranyobstaclesthatwouldpreventthemfromusingthe
space.Thus,“from1609theybegantousetheindoorBlackfriarsinthewinterandtheopen-airGlobein
thesummer”(Egan94).Theseperformancespaceswereverydifferentfromoneanother.Whilethe
Globewasprimarysourceofilluminationwasdaylight,theBlackfriars’swascandles.TheBlackfriars
theatrewasalsomuchsmaller,offeringamoreintimatespacethatworkedespeciallywellwith
Shakespeare’s“domestic”andemotivetragedies,butwasnotespeciallysuitedto“largebattlescenes”
or“eventwo-handedduels”(Egan94).Amoreconstrainedspacemeantasmalleraudiencewhosat“in
boxes,galleries,andindeedonstoolsattheedgesofthestageitself”(Egan98).Italsomeantmore
money(perticketatleast):“entrancefeeschargedatindoorhallplayhousestypicallystartedatsix
timestheusualpennychargedtostandinanopen-airamphitheater,andforthisaspectatorwouldnot
getclosetothestage”(Egan94).TheaudienceatBlackfriarsperformanceswasforthisreason
comprisedprimarilyofthewell-todoandthearistocraticelite.Monarchsdidnotattendperformances
attheGlobe,forinstance,butrecordsshowthattheydidsoattheBlackfriars.Herewecanbegintosee,
asEganargues,atransitiontowardthe“modernpracticeofchargingmoreforseatsnearthestage”
(94).SpaceslikeBlackfriarswereidealforproductionsthatinvolvedmusic,anditisforthisreasonthat
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somescholarsbelievethatTheTempest,Shakespeare’smostmusicalplay,waswrittenwiththe
Blackfriarsinmind.Wewillexplorethisargumentinmoredetaillaterinthisunit.
Asmentionedbrieflyabove,Shakespeare’sactingcompanychangeditsname—theLordChamberlain’s
Men—in1603toreflectitsnewpatronage,becomingtheKing’sMen.Whereasintheearlysixteenth
centurytheatrehadbeenarelativelynewandunregulatedenterprise,intheearlyseventeenthcentury
ithadassumedaprominentplaceintheculturalsceneofLondon.AsGurrputsit:“BythetimeofKing
James,playgoingwassodominantafeatureofLondon’sactivitiesthatthewritersofroyalpatents,
essentialtovalidatetheworkingsofeachoftheroyallypatronizedcompanies,concededopenlythatall
thecompanieshadasecondaryduty…toservethepublicinLondon”(68).Theatre,atleastintheeyesof
theking,hadbecomeapublicservice—aforceofpublicgood.Thus,inaletterannouncingthe
formationoftheKing’sMenunderthesponsorshipoftheking,JamesIwrote:
Weeofourspeciallgrace…havelicencedandauthorized…theiseourServauntesLawrenceFletcher
WilliamShakespeareRichardBurbageAugustynePhilippesJohnHeningesHenrieCondellWilliamSly
RobertArmynRichardCowlyandtherestoftheiseAssosiatesfreelytouseandexercisetheArteand
facultyofplayingComediesTragedieshistoriesEnterludesmorallspastorallsStageplaies,andSuche
otherslikeastheiehavealreadiestudiedorhereaftershalluseorstudieaswellfortherecreationofour
lovingeSubjectesasforourSolaceandpleasurewhenweeshallthinckegoodtoseethemduringeour
2
pleasure.(qtd.inGurr68-9) ItisnoexaggerationtosaythattheKing’sMen,andbyextensionthetheatre,werebytheearly
seventeenthcentury—howevertemporarily—aroyalinstitution.Thisdevelopmentwasnot,however,
entirelyJames’sdoing.“Royalprotectionofprofessionalplaying,”asGurrobserves,“wasbegunby
QueenElizabethin1583withthefirstQueen’sMen”(75).ButwhenJamesascendedtothethrone,this
“protection”—andendorsement—intensified.TheBlackfriarstheatre—forwhichsomesuspectThe
Tempestwaswritten—wasonespacewhereinthisintensificationtookplace.TheBlackfriars,asalready
noted,offeredamoreintimateandexclusivespaceinwhichtoviewplays.Itwasmoreexpensivethan
theGlobeanditsclienteleweremoresophisticated.“UnderKingJames”it“becametheprimesocial
venueforthearistocracyinLondon”:“itsauditoriumbecameahauntforroyaltyanditsdependents”
(Gurr95).Thus,bythe1630s,royaltylikeQueenHenriettaMaria—whowasmarriedtoCharlesI,the
secondsonofJamesandthenextkingofEngland—wereattendingplaysattheBlackfriars,albeitas
anonymouslyaspossible.Thisreversedthelongstandingtraditionwherein“playshadalwaysbeen
takentocourt,whereroyaltywatchedthem”(Gurr75).Asitturnsout,thefortunesofLondon’sacting
companieswouldnotonlyrisebutalsofallasaconsequenceoftheirincreasingintimacywiththe
Englishmonarchy:“Oneindirectbutdrasticconsequenceofthisroyalandsocialdevotiontoplayingwas
that,onceCharleshadfledfromLondoninearly1642andsetuphisbaseatOxfordagainstthe
Parliamentaryforces,LondonbecameParliament’sownfief,freefromandhostiletotheking”(Gurr75).
OneofParliament’sfirstordersofbusinesswastoissuean“ordinanceaboutpublicplays”thatshut
downtheLondonplayhousesforthenexteighteenyears—until“therestoredKingCharlesIIadmitted
twonewcompaniestoplayinLondon”(Gurr75).
2
Seethe“Handouts”sectionforalinktoanimageoftheoriginalpatentissuedbytheking.
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TheroyalpatronageofShakespeare’sactingcompanyremindsusthatwhileplayhousessuchasthe
GlobeandtheBlackfriarsarecrucialfixturesintheperformancehistoryofplayssuchasTheTempest,
theroyalcourtwasanequallyimportantvenue.AsAstingtonputsit:“OnlyinVictorianromance,andin
ShakespeareinLove”—or,inthecaseofQueenHenriettaMaria,carefuldisguiseandanonymity—did
royalty“gototheplayhouse”(97).Elizabethcertainlyneverwent,but“rathersawplaysinherown
chambersinthevariousroyalpalaces,accompaniedbyherattendantladiesandcourtiers”(Astington
97).Inthelatesixteenthandearlyseventeenthcenturies,actingcompanieswentonasortofroyaltour.
Theywould“pac[k]theircostumesandpropertiesingoodtimeforunimportantandwell-rewarded
performance,givenintheevening,indoors,undercandlelight,onatemporarystagebeforeagrand,
richlydressedaudienceassembledonraisedranksofseating,thequeenpositionedinthesymbolic
centeroftheauditorium,directlyfacingthestage”(Astington97).DuringElizabeth’sreign,thiswasthe
chiefwayinwhichthearistocracysawplays.ThistraditioncontinuedunderJames.“Theygaveannual
performancesatcourt”andwereprepared“togooffwhenevertheycouldbepaidtodoso,drawnto
performatthehousesofthegreat,inLondonandaroundthecountry”(Gurr74).Jamesmadefrequent
useoftheKing’sMenonceremonialandotherspecialoccasions,suchasChristmasorthemarriageof
hisdaughterElizabethin1613,thelatterofwhichwascelebratedwithaperformanceofTheTempest.
Allinall,“[t]hroughhisfirstChristmas,heattendedtwentyperformances,includingalleightbythe
companytowhichhegavehisname”(Gurr74).ThattheKing’sMenroseinstatureduringJames’sreign
ismadeclearbythefactthatthey“providedmorethanhalfofeverythingstagedatcourtthroughthe
1630s”(Gurr74).
Themonarchywasnot,however,strictlyanenableroftheatre—itwasalsoitschiefregulator.Asmore
playhousessprungupandplaysmultiplied,theEnglishCrownfacedsomeuniquechallenges.Therewas,
forinstance,deepconcernaboutthecontentoftheplaysperformed.Earlierinthisunit,wementioned
thattheKing’sMenwerefinallyauthorizedtoperformatBlackfriarsbecauseanotheractinggroupput
onaplaytowhichthekingtookoffense.Thiswasnotunusual:“[a]sthousandsofpeopleflockedtosee
andhearplays,theauthoritiesfounditvitaltoregulatewhatwasdoneatthevariousplaygoingvenues”
(Gurr67).UnderQueenElizabethanewofficeforthecensorshipofplayswasestablished.Theman
taskedwith“readingallplaysbeforetheycouldbestaged”wascalledtheMasteroftheQueen’sRevels
and“[f]rom1578,heappliedhissignatureofapprovaltotheendofeveryplaymanuscriptto‘allow’it
forpublicstaging”(Gurr67).Thesemanuscriptsinclude,ofcourse,thoseShakespearehadwritten.Also
ofconcernwerecrowds:“controllingthecrowdsplaysattractedwasseenasamajorproblem,since
Londonthenhadnoregularpoliceforce”(Gurr68).Moreover,unrulybehaviorwasnottheonly
concern.Standingshouldertoshoulder,audiencememberswereatriskofspreadingdisease.Thus,
Astingtoncallscontagion“[t]hemostdangerouspartofbeingamongacrowdatthetheater”—a
problemofwhich“Londonauthoritieswerewellaware”(99).Theplayhouseswouldinfactclosenoless
thanthreetimesandfor“monthsonend”in1603,1625and1636,theyearsinwhichtheplaguewas
“particularlybad”inLondon(Astington99).Andtheplayhousesthemselveswerealsosubjectto
regulation.Through1594,actingcompanieshadperformednotinplayhousesbutin“largecoaching
inns”whichfeatured“opencourtyards”forsummeruseand“greatupperrooms”forwinter
performances(Gurr72).ButtheLordMayorofLondonwantedsuchperformancesbannedand,in1594,
hewaspermittedtodopreciselythis,leavingonly“twodesignatedtheatresinthesuburbs”availableto
London’sactingcompanies.Togetaroundtheban,actingcompaniessuchastheLordChamberlain’s
Menbuilt“roofedplayhousesinprecinctsinsidethecitythatwere,byhistoricalaccident,freefromthe
LordMayor’scontrol”(Gurr72).Eventually,Shakespeare’scompanywasoneofonlytwowhowere
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“licensed”byauthoritiestoplayat“thetwoLondonvenues”available:theRoseandtheTheatreor,asit
waslatercalled,theGlobe.Itmightcomeasasurprisethat,intheend,thisregulatorybattleproved
quiteprofitablefortheLordChamberlain’sMen,for“[t]helicensingofjusttwocompaniesgavethepair
soleaccesstothelucrativeLondonmarket”(Egan91).Shakespeare’scompanyinthisway“grewrichin
atimeofrelativeeconomichardship”(Egan91).
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
Tohelpstudentsthinkthroughthishistoricalcontextand,later,howitrelatesspecificallytoThe
Tempest,askstudentstoconsiderthefollowingquestions.Theyofferwaystoexploretheconceptof
theatre,theactoftranslationthatoccurswhenadramaticworkisconvertedintotextforindividual
consumption,thequestionofembodimentnotonlyasitrelatestotheperformersbutalsotothe
audienceandreader,andtheverydifferentperformancespacesthatwereavailablewhenTheTempest
waswritten.Thisdiscussionwillserveasagoodframeworkforthediscussionquestionsofferedinthe
remainingsub-sectionsofthischapter,whichwillaskstudentstoclosereadTheTempestinthecontext
oftheatreandperformancehistory.
• Whatistheatre?(Andwhycallittheatreandnottheater?)Whatisperformance?Whatarethe
differencesbetweenreadingatextandperformingit?BetweenreadingaplaylikeTheTempest
andactingitout?Orwatchingasitunfoldsthroughthevoices,gesturesandactionsofagroup
ofactors?Inotherwords,howisthismoreembodiedexperienceoforengagementwitha
dramaticworkdifferfromreadingitonthepage?Whatislost?Isanythinggained?Tohelp
studentsthinkthroughthesequestions,askthemtoperformscenesaloudinsmallgroupsand
tothenindividuallybrainstormsomeinitialthoughtsonhowthismoreembodiedexperience
comparestotheoneofreadingsilentlytooneself.Theseactivitiescanserveasaframeworkfor
discussion.
• MuchaboutthetheatrehaschangedsincethetimeinwhichShakespearelived.Thesechanges
havetodonotonlywiththespaceandtechnologyoftheplayhouseitself,butalsowith
audienceexperience.Whatisitliketoseeaplaytoday?Whatdomodernstagesusuallylook
likeandwithwhatkindsofthingsarethey—andtheatres—outfitted?(Consider,forinstance,
curtainsandlighting.)Inwhatwayswouldseeingaplayintheearlymodernperiodhavebeen
different?Howdoestheexperienceofseeingaplaychangewhentheaudienceisoutsideand
theproductiondependentondaylightasitsonlysourceofillumination,forinstance?Howdoes
theexperiencechangewhenoneisnotseated,butjostlingforapositioninanopenspacein
frontofthestage,orstandingshoulder-to-shoulderwithotheraudiencememberswhoyoumay
ormaynotknow?WhataboutShakespeareantheatrehistoryhavewebeenabletopreservein
modernproductionsoftheplays?Whathavewelost?
o TeachersmightalsoaskwhohasseenaShakespeareplayonthestage.Thosewhohave
mightthendescribetheirexperience.Wheredidtheyseetheproduction:inaspace
thatattemptstopreserveorreplicateShakespeareandramaasitwasoriginally
experience(suchasthereconstructedGlobetheatre),orthatissomewhereinbetween
(suchastheAmericanPlayersTheater)orinaspacethatisX?Askstudentstodescribe
whatwas“authentic”abouttheirexperienceandwhatwasnot.Andwhatdoes
authenticitymeanwhenwetalkaboutShakespeare?Doesitmeanseeinghisplays
underconditionsthatreplicateascloselyaspossiblehowtheywouldhavebeen
performedbyanactingcompanyandexperiencedbyanaudience?Ordoesitmean
seeinghisplaysinaspacethat,thoughnottruehistoricalcontext,offersthebest
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•
opportunitytoexperiencethelanguageforShakespeareisknown?Orseeinghisplays
onstagestechnologicallyequippedtosupplyeffectsthat,thoughunavailablein
Shakespeare’stime,somehowrevealorenhancethemeaningofagivenplay?Or—asa
finalpossibility—doesthispursuitofauthenticitytellusmoreaboutwhoShakespeareis
tousnow—abouthowwewanttorememberandexperiencehiswork?Whenwesee
“authentic”Shakespeare,areweactuallyexperiencingauthenticity?Inwhatwaysis
authenticityimpossible?Orinformedhoweverunconsciouslybyassumptionsand
desiresthatweprojectontoShakespeare’stexts?
CompareandcontrastthespaceoftheGlobewiththatoftheBlackfriarstheatre.Howarethey
different?Whataretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeachofthesespaces?Canweimagine
howaplaylikeTheTempestmighthavetransformedaccordingtoeachtheater’sunique
characteristics?Whatdoesthistellusaboutthespaceofperformancemoregenerally?How
doesspacemoldoralteraplay,orsubjectittoakindoftranslation?Mightweunderstand
theatricalspaceasacharacterwho,likeProsperoorCaliban,directsthewaytheactionofaplay
unfolds?Howisaplayinthiswaysomuchmorethanitstext—thanwhatisvisualizedonthe
printedpage?Howcanweaccountforthissenseofspace—andofembodiment,more
generally—whichissoeasilyforgottenorlostwhenwereadthetextofaplaysilentlyto
ourselves?
ADESIGNER’SPLAY
ButwhatabouttheperformancehistoryofTheTempest,inparticular?Howwastheplaystagedbythe
King’sMen?Whatpossibilitiesdoesitaffordandwhatparticularchallengesdoesitpresent?These
questionsaretakenupinthefollowingparagraphs.KeithSturgessobservesthat“[e]itherTheTempest
wasfirstplayedattheBlackfriarsinthewinterof1610/11butnotactedattheglobeinthefollowing
summer,or,morelikely,theplaywaspremieredattheBlackfriarsseasonofautumn1611andwasstill
quitenewwhenitwasplayedatcourt”tocelebrateElizabeth’smarriage(107-8).Scholarshavepicked
upadditionalcluesfromadaptationsofTheTempest,suchasJohnDryden’soperaticrenditionof1670,
whichstatesthatTheTempest“hadformerlybeenactedwithsuccessintheBlackfriars”(qtd.in
Sturgess108).ThatDryden’scollaboratorwasWilliamDavenant—whorevivedtheLondontheatre
followingtherestorationofKingCharlesIIandclaimedtobeShakespeare’sbastardson—reinforces
scholarlysuspicionsthatDrydenwasright:TheTempestwaslikelyimagined“asa‘privatetheatre’play”
forperformanceatBlackfriarsandatcourt(Sturgess108).Butwhydowecarewhethertheplaywas
designedforBlackfriarsorwhetheritwassimplyperformedinterchangeablyatbothoftheKing’sMen’s
playhouses?BecausetheBlackfriarscontextlendsweighttotheclaimthat“[d]esign,notnarrative,is
TheTempest’smajorimpulse”—that“itsstructureisarchitectural,notdynamic”(Sturgess107).As
Sturgessputsit:“TheTempestisadesigner’splay.Shortofconflictandroundedcharacterization,ithas
alwaysbeenstagedinaspectacularlyvisualway”(111).Here,wecanseehowtheplay’smany
ambiguities—forinstance,itsislandsettingwhichsosteadfastlyresistslocationandrepresentation—
mightafford,ratherthanlimit,thepossibilitiesofspectacle.TheTempestinmanywaysisless
concernedwithplotandmoreconcernedwithvisuality.Encounteringanarrativethatdoesnotofferthe
sameintricatetwistsandturnsas,say,AMidsummerNight’sDream,readersareinsteadinvitedto
lingerwithandvisualizeTheTempest’senigmatic—andforthatreasonenticing—world.TheBlackfriars
wouldhaveofferedtheidealspaceinwhichtoprovokesuchimaginings.“Thestagewasaplatformfor
theactors,notalocalerealisticallypresentedthroughflats,bordersandcurtains”—thestage,inother
words,didnotpresentitselfasawindowintotheplay’sworld,butratherheighteneditsscenic
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ambiguity(Sturgess112).ThisscenicimprecisionallowedShakespeareto“experimen[t]withgraphic
kindsofstageimagery,”suchas“[a]specialpoetry”thatoffers“aseriesofstagepictureswhich,like
visionsinadream,haveasharp-edgedclarityandasenseofcarefulcomposition”(Sturgess112),but
alsosteadfastlyresistapprehension.Likeadream,theyare“bothemblematicandnotreadilyaccessible
tosimpleinterpretation”(Sturgess112).Onesetof“stagepictures”emergesasthecharactersoffer
variantinterpretationsoftheisland,whichis,asSturgessputsit,“asymboliclandscape”:Gonzalo
envisionsthatlandscapeasautopiawhileforFerdinanditis“anewGardenofEdenwhereAdamremeetsEve;forAntonioandSebastian,adesertplace;forCaliban,anempireandpossession;forAriel,a
prison;forProspero,a‘poorisle’whereherefindshisdukedomandloseshisdaughter”(113).Thus,
Blackfriarsoffereda“‘magic’space”—alocaleas“unlocalized”asTheTempest’sislandsetting—wherein
to“enact[Shakespeare’s]presentfancies”(Sturgess113).
TheTempestisalso“adesigner’splay”inthesensethatitisdeeplyself-consciousofitsown
theatricalityorstaging—andofthetheatreasaninstitutionthatblurstheboundariesbetweenillusion
andtruth,realityandspectacle.Thisself-consciousnesstakesmostimmediateshapeinProspero,whois
simultaneously“presenterandparticipant”—he“draw[s]attentiontotheoverttheatricalityofevents,
remindingusthatwearewatchingaplayinwhichtheactorsassumedifferent‘shapes’”(Mooney55).
Thus,justafterthemasqueinAct4,Scene,1,Prosperodeclaresthat“Ourrevelsnowareended,”
revealingthe“actors”hehasdirectedandthepageantryhehasstagedtosecurehisdaughter’s
marriageand,byextension,hisrestorationtopower.Themasqueisputonby“‘shapes’likeAriel,who
have‘perform’d’‘bravely’intheinsubstantialpageantcontainedinthelargerillusionthatisThe
Tempest”(Mooney55).Intheepilogue,Prospero,too,describeshowhe“hasbeenanactorinthis
insubstantialpageant.Hismagicalandmusical‘charms…allo’erthrown’,heisleftwithonlyhispersonal
magic”(Mooney56).Heisafoilfortheplaywright,“draw[ing]attentiontoartificeandthetechniques
ofartandillusion”(Aercke147).AsProspero’sassistant,Arielisthus“notonlytheidealcourtierbut
alsoastagehandwhorespondspromptlyoncueandwhosechangesincostumeindicatehisdifferent
functions”(Aercke147).Havinggivenuphisbooksandthushismagic,Prosperoisdeprivedofhispower
touse“Spiritstoenforce,arttoenchant”(Epilogue14).Intransferringhispowertotheaudience—in
makingan“appealforapplause”thatwillbreakthespellthatisTheTempest—Prosperodemonstrates
howtheaudienceareequalparticipantsinthespectaclethatunfoldsonstage.They,too,are“actors”of
asort.They,likeProsperoandShakespeare,arecollaboratorsintheperformance.TheTempestinthis
wayshowshowplaysaredesignednotonlybyplaywrightsandactors,butalsothosewhoattend
individualperformancesandreacttotheminspontaneouswaysthatareneverexactlythesame.
TheTempestisself-consciousofitsowntheatricalitynotonlyasitpertainstoactorsandpageantry,but
alsotothespaceofthestageitself.Theepilogueimagines“theislandasanexplicitmetaphorforsucha
stage”(Aercke147).Asalreadynoted,the“island-stageisvaguelylocatedbutperfectlycircumscribed,
inaccessiblefromprofanerealityexceptbysomemagicact”(Aercke147).Significantly,theisland-stage
istemporalizedrepeatedlyoverthecourseoftheplay.Prosperoemphasizesoverandoveragainthat
thelengthoftheactionintheplayisthesameasthestandardruntimeofperformancesintheearly
modernperiod.TheTempest’sstagedirectionsheightenthissenseofself-consciousspectacle.Theyare,
asKristiaanP.Aerckenotes,“unusuallydetailed”(147)and“expansive”(Smith166).Assuch,they
“emphasizerepresentationalartificeand‘acting’”(Aercke147).Theyhighlight,inotherwords,thatThe
Tempestisahighly-wroughtworkof“artifice”orillusionandisself-consciouslyso.Takeforinstancethe
stagedirectionswhichprefacetheweddingmasque:“SolemneandstrangeMusicke:andProsperoon
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thetop(inuisible:)Enterseuerallshapes,bringinginaBanket;anddanceaboutitwithgentleactionsof
salutations,andinuitingtheKing,&c.toeate,theydepart”(qtd.inSmith166).Thiskindofstage
direction—which“contain[s]adjectivesoradverbs”andconveysarichersenseofthescene—are
accordingtoEmmaSmith“rare”inShakespeare’soeuvre.Comparethem,forinstance,todirections
suchasthefollowing:“‘EnterTimoninarage,’EnterMarinerswet,’‘EnterKingsick’”(qtd.inSmith166).
Suchdirections“areminimal,sometimesapparentlyinconsistentorincompleterecords”ofthesetting,
actionandtoneofaperformance,andassuch“offerlittlenarrativepadding”and“plac[e]more
emphasisonthereader’sactiveworktoconstructfromthelinesarangeofpossibleaccompanying
actions”(Smith166).TheTempest,ontheotherhand,isburstingwithstagedirectionsthatsuggestthe
playisdeeplyawareofitsown“quaintdevice[s],”astheyarecalledinAct3,Scene3.Theplayinthis
way“balancesasimultaneousawarenessofthetechnicalresourcesoftheatricalmagicandthe
inexplicabilityoftheireffects”(Smith165).
CLOSEREADING
Toexploretheself-conscioustheatricalityofTheTempest,studentsmightconsiderthefollowing:stage
directionsthroughout;Act3,Scene3,whereinProsperostagesabanquetandArielputsontheroleof
harpy;theweddingmasqueofAct4,Scene1,especiallyProspero’s“Ourrevelsnowareended”speech;
andtheepilogueofAct5,Scene1.Studentsshouldclosereadthesepassageswiththefollowing
questionsinmind:
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• WhatdoesitmeantocallTheTempestadesigner’splay?Whichelementsoftheatrical
productiondoesthephrase“designer’splay”emphasize?Whichdoesitdownplayorignore?
Doestheplay’srelativelackofnarrativecomplexity,forinstance,setthestageforitsmore
overtlyvisual,architecturalortheatricalaspects?WhatdoesthistellusaboutTheTempest?
What,accordingtothislogic,areitsmostimportant,experimentalandmeaningful
components?Whyistheplaysoself-consciousofitselfasaworkoftheatricalproductionandto
whatend?Studentsmightturntostagedirectionsforhelpansweringthesequestions.
• InwhatwaysdoesTheTempestidentifyitselfasaworkoftheatre?Consider,forexample,when
ProsperoreferstoArielandtheplay’sothercharactersasactors.Whatdowemakeofthis?If
youweretoassignrolestothecharacters—toimaginethemasanactingcompanyin
miniature—whatwouldtheybeandwhy?Howdoestheplay’ssenseofspaceandtemporality
positionitasaworkofartifice?Whatistheeffectofdescribingthelengthoftheplay’splotas
equivalenttotheruntimeoftheperformance?Toputitanotherway,whatistheeffectof
viewingaplaythatostensiblyunfoldsinrealtime?Andwhatroledoestheaudienceplayin
theatricalproduction,accordingtoTheTempest?HowdoweinterpretProspero’sappealtothe
audienceattheplay’send?
• HowmightTheTempest’sself-conscioustheatricalitysuggestnewpossibilitiesforour
understandingoftheplay’scharactersandthepowerdifferentialsbetweenthem?Forinstance,
ifArielistheessentialstagehandthroughwhichtheproductionunfolds,howdoesthisinformor
complicateourreadingofhisrelationshipwithProspero?IsProsperotheplaywright,asscholars
haveargued?Doesheholdswayoverthepageantrythattakesplaceintheplay,orarethere
othercreativepowersafoot?HowmightProspero’sappealtotheaudiencechangeour
understandingofhisapparentpower?Whatdoesitmeanthat,attheplay’send,an
autonomousandsupremefigureofpoweracknowledgesandisdependentonthecapacitiesof
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amorecollectiveanddemocraticbody,suchastheaudience?Whatmightthistellusabout
Prospero’srelationshiptothecollectiveof“actors”withintheplayitself?
MUSIC&MASQUE
Ascriticshavenotedtimeandagain,TheTempestisthemostmusicalofShakespeare’splays.Itwas
writtenatatimewhenthetheatricalspace,personnelandtechnologyavailabletotheKing’sMenwas
inastateofchange.Theplayreflectsthesedevelopments,whichwerereflectiveofbroadertrendsin
earlymoderntheatreandperformance.ThatTheTempestissomusicalisperhapsunsurprisinggivenits
deepengagementwithscientificdiscourse.AsoutlinedinUnit3,cosmology,naturalhistoryandnatural
magicweresitesofinvestigationintoarapidlyexpandinguniversethatinvitednewquestionsabout
materiallife—includingwhetheritwasgovernedbycorrespondencesorharmoniesthatmightbe
manipulatedforhumangain.DavidLindleyemphasizesthat,“asascienceandanart,”musicwas
equallyconcernedwith“abstractprinciplesofharmony,”thoughthisconcernwaspredominantly
mathematical(“Music”135).It,likeotherbranchesofscience,“speculat[ed]abouttheharmonious
proportionsoftheuniverseandtheirreflectioninthevisibleworldandthehumansoul”(Lindley,
“Music,”135)—ideasthatwerebeginningtofadeawaybutneverthelessatissueinShakespeare’stime.
Thus,SturgessunderstandsmusicinTheTempestasinvoking“thegroupofideasconcernedwiththe
harmonyofspheresandastralinfluences,”whiletheplay’smanydisharmonioussoundscalltomind
“chaos,painandpunishment”(115-6).Poetsinvokedinmeterandotherformaldevicesmusicallogicsof
relationshipsandharmonytoimagine“theorderofanidealcommonwealth,orthewell-temperedbody
oftheindividual”(Lindley,“Music,”135).WhileTheTempestisthemostmusicalofShakespeare’splays
inthesensethatitincorporatesmusicsoemphaticallyintoitscontent,studentsshouldalsokeepin
mindthatverse—thatShakespeare’siambicpentameter—possessesamusicalqualityofitsown,and
thatthisformofmusiccutsacrosstheplays.
Asdiscussedelsewhere,scholarsspeculatethatTheTempestwaswrittenfortheBlackfriarstheatre.The
mostcompellingevidenceforthisclaimisthepresenceandroleofmusicintheplay.Havinghosted
priorto1608aboys’actingcompanywhoseperformancespossessedchoralandinstrumental
components,itaffordedtheKing’sMenanopportunitytoacquire“someoftheirinstrumentalists”
(“Music,”137),whichLindleydescribesasa“famedconsortofmusicians”(“Blackfriars”35).These
includedplayersofpercussionand“brasstrumpets”—whose“piercingsounds”wereusedtomark
“ceremonialentrancesandexits”—aswellas“huntinghorns”and“woodwinds”(Gurr75).Whereasthe
musicattheGlobepriortotheacquisitionoftheBlackfriarsin1608“wasprovidedbymembersofthe
actingcompanythemselvesandtheirapprentices,”theKing’sMennowhadaccesstonew“resources,
bothinpersonnelandequipment,”thatopenedupnewpossibilitiesfortheirrepertoire(Lindley,
“Blackfriars”35).Thisisnottosay,however,thatthereemergedadeepdividebetweenthe
performancesofferedattheGlobeversustheBlackfriars.Scholarswarnitisnotsafetoassume,for
instance,thatTheTempestwasperformedexclusivelyattheBlackfriarswhileother,lessmusicalplays
remainedattheGlobe—andinfactwehaveevidencethatcontradictssuchassumptions.Whatremains
trueisthattheacquisitionoftheBlackfriarsopeneduptherangeofpossibilitiesavailablefor
performancesattheGlobe.Armedwithnewresources—instrumentsandmusicians,amongothers—the
King’sMenconstructed“[a]musicroomabovethestage”attheGlobeinorder“tomatchthepractice
ofBlackfriars”(Lindley,“Music,”137).Attheveryleast,weknow“thatmusicalresourcesgrewduring
theseventeenthcenturyandthatplaywrightsnotinfrequentlyrespondedbyprovidingmore
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opportunitiesforinstrumentalandvocalmusicintheirplays”(Lindley,“Music,”137).Shakespearewas
oneoftheseplaywrightsandTheTempestoneoftheseplays.
TheTempesttakesfulladvantageofthesenewopportunities,employingarangeofmusicalelements—
ceremonialblastsandsoftinterludes,songsforsingingandsoundeffects—forvariouspurposes.
AccordingtoLindley,“itistheworkaboveallotherwhichexploresthedramaticandthematicpotential
ofmusictoitsfullest”(“Blackfriars”37).Whereasmusicwasputtoearlieruseforpurposes
inconsequentialtoagivenplay’saction—toprovidebackgroundnoise,forinstance—inTheTempestitis
the“causeandengine”ofnarrative(Lindley,“Blackfriars”37).Musicisthatwhich“bringsFerdinandon
stagein1.2,itcharmsthelordstosleepin2.1andclearstheiraddledbrainsin5.1”(Lindley,
“Blackfriars,”137).Itis,inotherwords,consequential:itcreatesandcomplicatesmeaningasittriggers
eventsandactsascommentary.WhiletheoriginalmusiccraftedforuseinTheTempestnolongerexists,
itisstillpossibletoclosereaditsfunctionusingclueswhichremainpreservedinthetextoftheplay
itself.AsSturgessstates,“thesuggestivedescriptionsofthestagedirections”veryoftenhelpusto
recover“arichscore”of“songandinstrumentalpieces”towhichwenolongerhavedirectaccess(116).
Theplaydistinguishes,forinstance,betweenloudandsoftmusic,thelatterofwhichpossessesa
magicalqualityandheightenstheplay’sambiguities.“[I]tisalwaysassumed,”asLindleyobserves,“that
themusictheaudiencehearsisalsoheardbythecharactersonstage”(“Music”138).WhenAntonioand
Sebastiandonothearthesoft,strangemusicthatisaudibletoothers—includingtheaudience—
Shakespeareoffersus“asignoftheirmoralimperfection”(Lindley,“Music,”138).
Here,wecanalsoseeatplayanearlymodernfascinationwithhow“musicworksverydifferentlyon
differentpeopleindifferentcircumstances”(Lindley,“Music,”135).Assuch,itwasasourceofnotonly
transformationbutalsorebellion—itcouldrevealandevenmanipulatepotentiallydangerousmaterial
possibilitiesordefectsthatrequiredcarefulmanagementor“control”(Lindley,“Music,”135).Thisis
oneexampleofhowmusicmakesmeaning—ratherthansimplyreflectingwhatthetexttellsus,orwhat
wealreadyknow—inTheTempest.Therearetimeswhenitdoes,ofcourse,“simplyendorseor
underlinetheactionitaccompanies,”butwemustrememberthat“itisalwayscapableofinterrogating
thatactionorcreatingacomplicitywiththeaudience”(Lindley,“Music,”138).Wecanseehowmusic
creates“complicity”orasenseofcollectivityinTheTempestinAct3,Scene2,whenCaliban,Stephano
andTrinculodevisetheirplotagainstProspero.Lindleyreadstheselines—particularlythechantof
“Flout‘emandscout‘em”—asemphaticallymusical.Thepassage“emphasize[s]thesolidarityofthe
conspiratorialgroup”and,byextension,invitestheaudiencetoimaginehowthey,too,“couldjoinin
themusicalensemble”(Lindley,“Music,”139).Songs,too,drivetheactionoftheplay,disclosingsecrets
aboutthecharacterswhosingthemandfunctioningasmechanismsforcastingProspero’sspells.“[T]he
songsofAriel,”forinstance,are“acrucialmediuminProspero’sexerciseofmagicpower”(Lindley,
“Music,”139).Theyareinthiswaytheplay’senginesofnarrativeactionand“influenceourresponseto
thesituationasawhole”(Lindley,“Music,”140).
Lindley’sgesturetotheaudience,here,isimportant,foritemphasizeshowmusicworksuponnotonly
thecharactersandactionwithintheplay,butalsowithout.Theplay’s“firsteffect,”asSturgessnotes,is
notvisual—it’saural(114).InShakespeare’stime,personnelpositionedin“theupperlevelofthe
Blackfriarsfaçadeoraresinboxprovidedthelightningandthethunderwasmimickedbydrumsinthe
tiring-houseormusicroomorbycannonballsrolledinathunderrun”(Sturgess114).Othersound
effectsincluded“aseamachine”comprisedof“smallpebblesrevolvedinadrum”aswellas“awind
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machine,”devisedusing“alooselengthofcanvasturnedonawheel”(Sturgess114).Together,these
devicesworkedtocreate“abriefmasterpiece”thatrenderedaudiblethequestion“ofhumanconstancy
inaninconstantworld”(Sturgess114).Intheplay’sfinalact,Prosperopleadstheaudiencetoselfconsciouslyjoininasoundscapethattheyhadalreadyhelpedcomposebycontributingspontaneous
sounds—suchaslaughter—tothescore.TheTempestcanonlycometoanend,Shakespearereminds
us,withanother,crucialsound:applause.Thattheplayculminatesinthiswayhighlightshowmusicnot
onlyoperatesonthelevelofcontent,butalsoonthelevelofform.Itis,inotherwords,afeaturewhich
givesstructureorshapetotheplayitself.MichaelE.Mooneyargues,forinstance,thatTheTempest’s
subplots—the“Ferdinand-Miranda,courtly,andcomicsubplots”—all“turnonamusicaland
‘spectacular’climax”(55).“Noiseandmusicframeeachepisode,”accordingtoMooney,“enclosingthe
actionandintroducinganillusionisticplanethatsurroundtheevents”(55).Musicalsomarksthebreaks
betweenacts—atopictowhichwewillreturninthenextunit—duringwhich“stagehandstrimmedthe
candlesthatamplifiedthelittledaylightthatwindowsonthewallsadmitted”attheBlackfriarstheatre
(Gurr75).OutdoorvenuessuchastheGloberequirednosuchintervals,butthey“werenecessaryand
expected,andcouldthereforebedesignedfor,”inindoorperformancespaces(Lindley,“Blackfriars,”
30).Thisexplains,perhaps,whyTheTempestaspublishedintheFirstFolioincludesinitstextthebreaks
betweenacts,whichwerenotformallymarkedbutonly“implicit”inperformancesatopen-air
playhouses,where“playswereprobablyperformedstraightthroughwithnointerval”Lindley,
“Blackfriars,”30).MusicinthiswaymakesvisiblenotonlydevelopmentsintheactionofTheTempest,
butalsodevelopmentsintheperformancehistoryandeditorialpracticeofearlymoderntheatre.
TheTempest’smusicisintertwinedwithanother,overtlymusicaltradition:thecourtmasque.Readers
oftheplayknowalreadythatitcontainswithinitaweddingmasque,whereinMirandaandFerdinand
arebroughttogetherbyProsperoinpreparationfortheirmarriage.Thisisarelativelycommonfeature
ofShakespeare’slatework.AsReginaldFoakesobserves:“Shakespeare’sromancesare…consciously
theatrical,andeachthemcontainsamasqueormasque-likeelements”(253).Consistingofspectacular
artificeandhighlystylizedlanguage,themasqueisanotherpartofTheTempestthat“invitesaudiences
toexperiencenewwaysofunderstandingthehumanpredicamentthroughthetheatricalself-awareness
ofhisromances”andoftheatre(Foakes253).NoaspectofTheTempestshowcasesthis“selfawareness”mostforcefullythanthemasque,whichservesasapreludetoProspero’sdeclarationthat
the“revels”—withintheplayandwithout—arecomingtoanend.Butwhatisamasque,exactly?“Inthe
sixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,theelaboratearistocraticentertainmentsknownas‘masking’
formedpartofcourtfestivityalloverEurope,”whichJeanMacintyretellsuswas“associatedwith
jousts,seasonalfeasts,andothercelebrations”(155).Thesefestivitiescouldbeseasonal,butwerealso
stagedtomarkspecialoccasions.Bytheearlyseventeenthcentury—whenTheTempestwaswritten—
“courtmasque”referredto“whatmaskingbecameduringthereignsofJamesIandCharlesI,
performanceselaboratedfromTudormaskeddancesintoquasi-dramaticentertainments”(Macintyre
155).Theseperformancesalwaysinvolved“someformofdisguise,anddancing,”and“frequently
deployedmythologicalfiguresintheirfictions”(Lindley,“Blackfriars,”40).Playedby“costumed
aristocrats,”thesefiguresorcharactersrangedfromrepresentativesoffar-flungandcoloniallocales—
suchasAmerica,AfricaorIreland—topersonificationsof“thecloudsorthemoon”(Macintyre155).The
“players,”aswemightcallthem,“firstdancedchoreographeddances,then‘tookout’audience
membersfor‘therevels’,courtsocialdancesthatcontinuedaslongasthekingpleased”(Macintyre
155).Itisperhapsnosurprisethatmasqueswerestronglyassociatedwith“heated,evenillicitdesire,”
andthusaffordafittingbackdropforShakespeare’sloveandmarriageplots(Lindley,“Blackfriars,”39).
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Itmightseemasthoughmasquesweremereentertainmentsorgames,buttheywereinfactinvested
withsymbolicmeaningandpoliticalsignificance.MartinButlernotesthatthey“wereperformedbefore
comparativelysmallaudiencesandwereusuallyseenonlyonce”(2).Theaudienceconsistedofthoseof
wealthandpoliticalpower—“socialelites,”aswellas“officialsandmagistrates”—and,thus,masques
constituted“animportantpointofcontactbetweenthecrownanditspoliticalclass,cementingtheir
bondsofloyaltyandoutlook”(Butler2).Inadditiontofunctioningasamechanismforbringingtogether
themembersofEngland’srulingclass,thecourtmasquealwayscontainedwithinitan“explicitpolitical
function”—anovertlypoliticalargument—that“usuallytook[its]pointofdeparturefromsomeaspect
ofroyalpolicyorcurrentevents”(Butler3).Sometimesthekingwouldparticipateinthese
performances,whileatothertimestheywereputonforhim.Ineithercase,“[t]heysoughtto
underwritehisauthority,fosterconfidenceinhisrule,affirmhistieswithhisnation,andinvesthimwith
politicalandpersonallegitimacy”(Butler3).Theargumentsthatmasquesofferedonbehalfoftheking
werenotalwaysfocusedondomesticornationalpolitics,andtheywereoftenintendedforanonEnglishaudience.Theywere,forinstance,“anopportunityforhonoringtherepresentativesofforeign
powers”andfordisplayingthepoweroftheEnglishCrowntothoserepresentativesinasymbolic,highly
aestheticizedform(Butler2).Extremelylavishandthuscostlytoproduce,“[m]asquesproclaimedthe
Stuarts’abilitytocommandattentionontheworldstageanddeckedtheminthesymbolicformsof
Europeankingship”(Butler2).ItwasbywayofthecourtmasquethatWhitehall—theroyalvenuein
whichmasqueswereusuallyperformed—“cametolooklikeacenterofpowerequivalentinprestigeto
Paris,Vienna,andMadrid”(Butler2).Thus,inearlymodernEngland,powerwasinextricablefromwhat
mightotherwiseseemlikeentertainments:masque,inthiscase,aswellasart,music,literatureand,of
course,theatricalproduction.Justasmasques“didnotpassivelyreflectastableorpre-existingreality
butwerethemselvespartofanunfoldingpoliticalnarrative,”sotoowereplayssuchasTheTempest.
Whilecourtmasquesmostcertainlyrepresentedafavorableviewofthekingandhispolicies—whether
domesticorforeign—theatreand,byextension,literaturebecameamediumforarticulating
controversialperspectivesonnationandpoliticsthatwereotherwisedisallowedin“asocietywithno
freedomofspeech”(NortonAnthology486)—anideatowhichwewillreturnattheendofthisunit.
WhatisthesignificanceofthemasqueasstagedinTheTempest?Act4,Scene1hasbeenasourceof
heateddebatesforscholars,andoffrustrationforstudents.Infact,studentsarenotaloneintheir
irritation.AsAldenT.Vaughannotes:“CriticshavesometimesdispraisedtheverseShakespearecreated
forhismasque,orevenderidedtheentireepisodeasaninterpolationbysomeoneelse”(70).The
masque,inotherwords,seemssooutofplace—bothnarrativelyandstylistically—thatithasprovoked
sometospeculateShakespeareisnotevenitstrueauthor.Whetherheauthoreditisnotthepoint,
thoughitisworthnotingtheweddingmasqueplaysuponthosequestionsoftheatricalityandillusion
thatlieatthecenterofTheTempestandsoactuallybelongs.Rather,whatstudentsshouldrecognizeis
thatthescenefeelsdifferent—jarring,strange,outofplace—becauseitintroducesnewlanguageand
aestheticconventions—“highlystylizedandartificial”techniquesofrepresentation—thatwerein
keepingwiththecourtmasquetradition(Vaughan70).“Godsandgoddesses,”afterall,“donotspeak
conversationalblankverse”—whoseso-callednaturalrhythmreplicatesthepatternsofEnglish
speech—butinstead“areelevatedhighabovetheaudienceandspeakanelitelanguage”thatishighly
symbolicandself-consciouslywrought(Vaughan70).This“elitelanguage”makesvisibletheallegorical
characterofcourtmasqueand,byextension,thesymboliccharacterofShakespeare’sscene.Thisovert
symbolismisboundupinthemasque’scastofmythologicalfigures,whoembodyvariousaspectsof
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MirandaandFerdinand’slove,aswellastheirfuturemarriage.Juno,forinstance,personifies“afertile
futurewiththepresenceofCeres,thegoddessoftheharvest”(Lindley,“Blackfriars,”43).Together,
“Ceres,IrisandJunopresentadoubleimageofthecosmicunionofearthandair,fireandwater,witha
visionoftheunionofFerdinandandMirandaasthereturnofuniversalharmony”(Vaughan70).The
absenceofVenus,goddessoflove,isnotableandtheplaydrawsattentiontoitwhenCeresasksafter
her.ThatVenusandCupid—“goddessofsensuallove”and“purveyorofpassion”—arenotpresentis
crucial,foritdiminishesthethreatofuncontrolleddesire,blessingMirandaandFerdinand’sfuture
marriagewiththepromiseofa“chastelove…thateschewsextremesofpassion”(Vaughan70and71).
ThisisespeciallyimportanttoProspero,forhisfateandlegacyareboundupinthesuccessofhis
daughter’sunion:he“hopestoseehisdynastycontinueinpeaceandprosperity,withhisgrandchildren
asheirstobothMilanandNaples”(Vaughan71).
TheTempestemploystheconventionsofacourtmasque,butwithatwist.Typically,masquesincluded
andbeganwitha“grotesqu[e]”anti-masquethatservedasacomicpreludetothemasqueitself
(Vaughan68).Theeffectofthetwoparts,together,wasoneof“idealclosure”—of“harmony,unity,and
consolidation”orresolution(Butler6).Theorderofthetwopartswascrucialtothissenseofresolution,
forthemasque“sublimate[d]conflictintoaestheticaccord”(Butler6).Iftheperformance
unsuccessfullydismissedits“contradictory,unresolved,orembarrassed”elements—whetherdisplayed
intheanti-masqueovertlyorinthemasqueasdefects—thesefailures“expose[d]thepoliticalgapwhich
eachwasinthebusinessofbridging”(Butler6).Theymadevisible,inotherwords,“howfarkingly
symbolismstruggledtoaccommodatestructuralstrainsinthebodypolitic”(Butler6).TheTempestis
interestedinexploringsuchexposuresorfailures.Thestructureoftheweddingmasqueemphasizesthis
point:“Prospero’smasqueinvertsthisorder”—thatofanti-masqueandmasque—“endingabruptlywith
hisrecollectionofCaliban’sconspiracy”(Vaughan73).Shakespeareinthiswaydoesnotsimplyreflector
employunrevisedthecourtmasque,butmanipulatesthemtofurthertest“thelimitsofart,andof
magic”(Lindley,“Blackfriars,”42).The“interruptedmasque,”accordingtoLindley,“imagesboththe
appealandthelimitationsoftheatricalspectacle”(“Blackfriars”42).Hegoesontopointoutthatwhile
masquedealsin“allegory”—that“aim[s]atpinningdownandconfiningtheinterpretationofattributes
andqualitiesinthefiguresitdepicts”—Shakespeare’splays(includingTheTempest)“operat[e]atthe
otherendofthespectrum”insofarastheyareconcernedwith“moralcomplexityandambivalences”
disallowedbythecourtmasque(Lindley,“Blackfriars,”43).Lindleyarguesthatthegenreofthecourt
masquewasone“tobechallengedevenasitwasexploited”inTheTempest(Lindley,“Blackfriars,”43).
Itturnsout,then,thatthemasqueisinmanywaysintentionallyorself-consciouslyunsuccessfulinits
refusaltoblendinseamlesslywithwhatprecedesandfollowsit,aswellasitsstrangeandsometimes
opaquesymbolism,anditsresistancetoclosure.Theweddingmasque—especiallyitsfailures—tellsus
muchaboutthequestionsdiscussedalreadyinpreviousunits,includingthoseabouttheatreand
illusion,meaningandambiguity,resolutionandirresolution.
CLOSEREADING
ToexploretherolesofmusicandmasqueinTheTempest,studentsmightconsiderthefollowing:stage
directionsthroughout,whichoftenincludeinformationaboutthemusicalsoundscapeoftheplay;
Ariel’ssongsinAct1,Scene2,andFerdinand’sexchangewithCalibanabouttheisland’ssoundscapein
thesamescene;andtheweddingmasqueofAct4,Scene1.Studentsshouldclosereadthesepassages
withthefollowingquestionsinmind:
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DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• WhatistheroleofmusicinatheatricalproductionlikeTheTempest?Howdoesitcompareto,
say,thewaymusicisemployedinafilm?Inwhatwaysaretheysimilarordifferent?Underwhat
conditionsmightmusicnotsimplyreflectorintensifysomethingwealreadyknow,butconvey
itsownmeaning?WhendoesmusicinTheTempestachievethatpurpose?Canyouthinkofa
moment(ormoments)whenreferencestomusicandsound—whetherinstagedirectionsor
elsewhereinthetext—helpedyoudiscoversomethingnew,orcontradictedyourinterpretation
ofagivenplotpointorcharacter?
• WhatkindsofsoundareinvokedinTheTempest?Isitallmusic?Whataboutsoundeffectsused
tosetascene?OrCaliban’sdescriptionoftheislandas“fullofnoises”?Howdoesthisvaried
landscapeofsoundinformorcomplicateourimaginingofthespaceimaginedintheplay—of
theislandandtheactionthatunfoldsonit?Whatdoesitmeanthatourfirstsensoryimpression
ofthatactionisnotvisual,butaural?Inwhatwaysdoestheplayde-privilegesight,whetherin
theactionoritsengagementwiththeaudience?Whymightthisbesignificant?
• Systematicallyanalyzetheweddingmasque.Whoarethemythologicalandsymbolicfigures
thatappear,andwhatmighttheyrepresent?Whichfiguresmightyouexpecttoseeinamasque
thatservesasapreludetoawedding,andwhatdowemakeoftheirabsence?Howwouldyou
describethelanguageoftheweddingmasque?Howisitdifferentfromthatusedintherestof
theplay?Whatdoesitsignalaboutmasque,whetherwithinTheTempestorwithout?Whatis
Prospero’spurposeinputtingonthemasque?Whatdoesitaccomplishorsecureforhim?For
MirandaandFerdinand?
• Nowsystematicallyanalyzetheweddingmasque’sfailuresor“exposures.”Doesthewedding
masquefitseamlesslyintotheactionthatbookendsit?Ordoesitseemoutofplace?Ifso,why?
WhatdowemakeofShakespeare’sreversalofthemasquestructure,whereintheanti-masque
follows(insteadofprecedes)themasque?Howdoesthisreversalheightenorcomplicateour
sensethatthemasquedoesnotbelong?Whyarethesefailuressignificant?Whatdotheytellus
aboutcourtlylove,forinstance,ortheatricalityandillusion?WhywouldTheTempestexpose
andmanipulatethemomentsinwhichthepageantryofmasquecollapses?
ACTIVITIES,ASSIGNMENTS&PROJECTIDEAS
• HavestudentsworkinsmallgroupstoprepareindividualscenesfromTheTempestfor
performance.Aftereachgrouphaspresentedtheirwork,holdadiscussionthattakesupthe
followingquestions:havestudentscomparetheexperienceofreadingtheplay,viewingitand
performingit.Howaretheseexperiencesthesameandhowaretheydifferent?Whatdoesthe
textualversionofadramaticworkfailtopreserve?Isthereanythingtobegainedfrom
reading—ratherthanviewingorperforming—TheTempest?Studentsmightalsodiscussthe
choicestheymadeabouthowtorepresentcertaincharactersorplotpoints.WhataboutThe
Tempestdidtheychoosetoemphasizeordownplayintheirperformances?Howisperformance
aninterpretationofthewrittentext?Whatdothedifferencesbetweenthegroups’
performancestellusaboutperformanceasanactofinterpretation?
o Studentsmightalsotakeupthesequestionsinaformalessayassignment.Another
approachwouldbetoaskthemtofocustheiressaysononecharacter,andtothen
spendtheessayshowingthedifferentwaysyoumight“read”orinterpretthat
character’sactionsandmotivations,andtherangeofmoralorpoliticalimplicationsthey
mightconvey.
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•
•
StudentsinterestedinmusicmightreconstructthesoundscapeofTheTempestusingcluesfrom
theplay’sstagedirectionsandtext.Todoso,theymightaskthemselves:whatwouldThe
Tempestlooklikeifitcouldnotbeseen,butonlyheard?(Don’tforgetthatwewouldstillbe
abletoheartheactorsspeak.)Whatkindsofmusicwouldyouuseandwhy?Wouldyoucreate
certaineffectsusingmoderntechnology,orwouldthatseemoutofplace?Howwouldyou
reconstructinsoundtheexperienceofbeinginastorm,forinstance?Howmightsoundworkto
createorcomplicatetheplay’smeaning(s),andwhatkindsofmusicorauraleffectswouldyou
incorporatetodoso?Dosilencesplayanimportantroleand,ifso,wheredotheybelongand
why?
Askstudentstoreimaginethefunctionofthecourtmasqueformoderntimes,andtoproduce
oneoftheirown.IfthePresidentoftheUnitedStatesusedmasqueasmechanismfordisplaying
hispoliticalpower,whatwouldthatlooklike?Whowouldparticipateinthemasque?Which
symbolicormythologicalfigureswouldappearinitsaction?Whatkindofstorywouldtheytell?
Wherewouldthemasquebestagedandusingwhatkindsofmaterials?Whowouldbeinthe
audience?Whatpoliticalmessagewoulditdeliver?
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UNIT5•GENRE,FORM,LANGUAGE
OBJECTIVE:ToexploreTheTempest’sgenerichybridityandthedifficultiesitpresents;thefunctionof
andrelationshipbetweennarrativeandpoeticstructures;andShakespeare’slinguisticdevices.
HANDOUTS
GlossaryofLiteraryTerms(PurdueOWL)
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/575/1/
PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADING
DavidCrystal.“Language.”TheCambridgeGuidetotheWorldsofShakespeare:Shakespeare’sWorld,
1500-1660(Volume1).Ed.BruceR.Smith.CambridgeUniversityPress,2016.161-71.
JonathanCuller.“TowardaTheoryofNon-GenreLiterature.”TheoryoftheNovel:AHistoricalApproach.
Ed.MichaelMcKeon.JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2000.51-6.
ReginaldFoakes.“Romances.”Shakespeare:AnOxfordGuide.Ed.StanleyWellsandLenaCowenOrlin.
OxfordUniversityPress,2003.249-60.
ScottMaisano.“NewDirections:Shakespeare’sRevolution—TheTempestasScientificRomance.”The
Tempest:ACriticalReader.Ed.AldenT.VaughanandVirginiaMasonVaughan.Bloomsbury,
2014.165-94.
RussMcDonald.“ReadingTheTempest.”CriticalEssaysonShakespeare’sTheTempest.Ed.Virginia
MasonVaughanandAldenT.Vaughan.G.K.Hall,1998.214-33.
MarcoMincoff.ThingsSupernaturalandCauseless:ShakespeareanRomance.UniversityofDelaware
Press,1992.
MichaelE.Mooney.“DefiningtheDramaturgyoftheLateRomances.”ApproachestoTeaching
Shakespeare’sTheTempestandOtherLateRomances.Ed.MauriceHunt.MLA,1992.49-56.
“romance,n.”OxfordEnglishDictionaryOnline.OxfordUniversityPress.
MeredithAnneSkura.“DiscourseandtheIndividual:TheCaseofColonialisminTheTempest.”Critical
EssaysonShakespeare’sTheTempest.60-90.
AldenT.Vaughan.“Introduction.”TheTempest.Ed.VirginiaMasonVaughanandAldenT.Arden
Shakespeare,1999.1-160.
UNITORGANIZATION
Thisunitisdividedintothreesub-sections:“Genre”;“Narrative”;and“Language.”Together,thesesubsectionsdeveloppointsforuseinlecture,whicharefollowedbysuggestedpassagesforclassdiscussion
andquestionsforfurtherinquiry.Theunitconcludeswithideasforin-classactivitiesandstudent
projects.
GENRE
Tointroduceyourstudentstotheconceptofgenre,youmightbeginbyaskingthemtoimaginewalking
intoabookstore.Whatdotheysee?Dotheyliketovisitaparticularsectionofthestore?Whatother
sectionsaretheyfamiliarwith?Asstudentsbrainstormtheextensivelistofpossibilities—fiction,poetry,
drama,youngadult,graphicnovelandmanga,mystery,sci-fiandfantasy,romance,biography,history—
theywillsoonrealizewhattheyalreadyknewallalong:thattheyarefamiliarwithahostofliterary
genresandthatthesegenresconstituteasystemthroughwhichtoorganize,distinguishbetween,and
comparedifferentkindsoftexts.Whenwesearchforabook,weusegenericguidelinestohelpusmake
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aselection.Doyoupreferthrillers?Yourbestbetistolookinthe“Mystery”sectionofthestore.Ordo
youfrownupondetectivefiction,sci-fiandfantasy?You’remostlikelytofindsomethingyoulikeinthe
shelvesholdingworksof“Fiction.”Thus,“genre,onemightsay,isasetofexpectations,asetof
instructionsaboutthetypeofcoherenceoneistolookforandthewaysinwhichsequencesaretobe
read”(Culler51).Someviewgenresascomprising“taxonomiccategoriesinwhichweplaceworksthat
sharecertainfeatures”(Culler52).Agenre,inthissense,isasystemofrules,guidelinesornorms
accordingtowhichaliteraryworkgenerallybehaves.Butthisnotionofthegenreastaxonomyignores
howtextsmightexhibitcharacteristicsfromarangeofgenresand,thus,mightnotbesoeasily
classified.Manyworksofliteraturemight“fal[l]outsideofestablishedgenres,”inotherwords,thus
puttingtheintegrityofthosegenresintoquestion(Culler52).Genrefiction—mystery,sciencefiction,
fantasyandromance—isafamiliarcategorythatexemplifiesthisresistance:eachmanipulatesthe
novel’scharacteristics,includingnarrativeform,soastocreateanew,hybridcategoryofliterature.
EventhoughShakespeare’splaysareallunmistakablyworksofdrama,theyneverthelesscomplicatethe
borderlinesbetweengenres.TheTempestemphaticallyresistsgenericcategorizationanditsgeneric
hybridityhasbeenthesourceofmuchscholarlydebate.TheeditorsoftheFirstFolio(1623)publishedit
asthelead-offplayofthesectioncontainingcomedies.TocallTheTempestacomedyisnotexactly
incorrect.AsAldenT.Vaughannotes,itcontainsa“mainplot”whichis“paralleledin[a]comicsubplot”:
“Ferdinand’scourtshipofMiranda,”forinstance,“isjuxtaposedwithscenesofclowningbythedrunken
servantsStephano,TrinculoandCaliban”(9).Atthesametime,however,theplayisshotthroughwith
elementsthataredecidedlynotcomedic.“Thecomicclowning”isnotstrictlyhumorous,foritmarksthe
unfoldingofaplotthat“threatenstheverylifeoftheplay’sprotagonist”(Vaughan9).Inthisway,The
Tempestexhibitsthe“darkerthemesofShakespeare’stragedies—regicide,usurpationandvengeance”
(Vaughan9).Suchpotentialmisfortunesarealwaysseethingjustbeneathitsuseofhumor.MichaelE.
Mooneynotes,too,thattheplay“openswithallthesightsandsoundsofatragedy”(49).Consider,for
instance,howthetempestwithwhichTheTempestbeginsrecallstheturbulentstormwhereinKingLear
ragesagainsthismortalityandtheindifferenceofthenaturalworld.Suchparallelsillustratehow“inhis
finalplaysShakespeareputstonewpurposespreviousthemesandconventions,enlistingtheminthe
serviceofavisionthatmovesbeyondtragedyandlosstorenewalandreconciliation”(Mooney49).So
whatdowecallTheTempest,then?Somescholarscategorizetheplayasatragicomedy—ahybridgenre
that“mingle[s]episodesofmiseryorgriefwithincidentsofjoyandtriumph”(Foakes250).Thisgenre
tookrootinthe“changingtheatricalclimate”ofearlymodernEngland,accordingtoVaughan(10).“By
1610-11,”heobserves,“FrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher”—twoofShakespeare’sfellow
playwrights—“hadbegunaproductiveliterarycollaboration,specializinginmixed-modeplaysthatwere
oftenlabeled‘tragicomedies’”(Vaughan10).Describingthenewgenreofthe“tragi-comedie,”Fletcher
arguesthatwhatdistinguishesitfromtragedyisthat“itwantsdeaths,whichisinoughtomakeitno
tragedie”—andwhatdistinguishesitfromcomedyisthatit“bringssome”charactersso“neere”
“inough”todeaththatitcouldneverbea“comedie”(qtd.inVaughan10).Foakesspeculatesthat
“[t]ragicomedyseemstohaveappealedtoawell-bredaudience”—suchastheoneatBlackfriars—“by
allowingthemtostayrelaxed,andbynotdemandingastrongemotionalengagementwhileofferinga
pleasantvarietyofentertainingincident”(251).Ultimately,tragicomedystrivesfor“reconciliations”that
produce“somekindoffinalharmony”(Foakes251).Wecanseesuchreconciliationsandharmoniesat
playthroughoutTheTempestandespeciallyinthefinalact,whenFerdinandandMirandaarejoined
together,ProsperogivesuphisbooksandseemstoreconcilehimselfwithCaliban,andthedisjunctions
betweenillusionandtruthdissolveastheaudienceassumesProspero’spowerandapplauds.
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ButTheTempestisalsoaromance.Romancedoesnotinthiscontextconnotetheeroticpulpnovelwith
whichweasmodernreadersarefamiliar.Rather,romancerefersto“afictitiousnarrativeinproseof
whichthesceneandincidentsareveryremotefromthoseofordinarylife,esp.oneoftheclass
prevalentinthe16thand17thcenturies,inwhichthestoryisoftenoverlaidwithlongdisquisitionsand
digressions”(OxfordEnglishDictionary).Foakesoffersamoreextensivedefinition—aswellasabrief
terminologicalhistory—whichisespeciallyusefulforthinkingthroughTheTempest’srelationshipto
romance:
[I]t[‘romance’]usefullysuggeststheideaoffictionsthatareunrealistic,worksthatcreateaworld
dominatedbychanceratherthancharacterorcauseandeffect,andplaysinwhichweareattunedto
delightinandwonderattheunexpected…TheEnglishword‘romance’wasderivedfromFrench,andat
firstassociatedwithlongFrenchpoems…InShakespeare’sagethewordwaschieflyidentifiedwithold
chivalricversenarrativesandfolktales,andthereweremany…whoregardedthesewithacertaindisdain,
ifonlytodifferentiatethemfrommoresophisticatedkindsofromancethatwerewidelyreadbyeducated
readers,suchworksasEdmundSpenser’sTheFaerieQueene(1590-9),andSirPhilipSidney’sprose
Arcadia(1590)…Theword‘romance’isonlyasoldasFrench,butfictionscontainingromancemotifsare,
ofcourse,mucholder,perhapsasoldasliteratureitself,anotableexamplebeingHomer’stalesofthe
wanderingsofOdysseusintheOdyssey.(249)
Foakeselaboratesfurtherthatromancesoften“takeplaceinfar-offorinventedplacesortimes”and
thus“openedupimaginativevistasforShakespeare’sagewhenmostpeople,liketheplaywrighthimself
asfarasweknow,hadnoopportunityfortraveloverseas”(250).Theyalsotendtoberelatively
directionless,“spinningonefictionoutofanother”(Foakes250).Whilethisstatementappliesmoreso
tolengthierproseandpoeticworksandnotplays,it’sworthconsideringhowTheTempest’srelatively
simplisticnarrativestructureinvitesreadersto“takepleasureinthetellingofthetale”—or,rather,
shovesintotheforegroundtheplay’smoreambiguous,transformativeandopen-endedqualities,such
asitsattentiontomagicandillusion(Foakes250).ThisisoneofmanywaysinwhichTheTempest
announcesitselfasromance.Theislandsettingisperhapsthemostovertlyromanticoftheplay’s
elements,itsunlocalizedpositioninspaceandtimeinvitingtheaudiencetoexercisetheirimaginations
freelyandtoengageinvirtualtravel.ThehistoricalcontextsandantecedentsofTheTempest,too,are
“coloredbyromance”(Skura61).AsnotedbrieflyinUnit3,theplayinvokes“voyagingdiscourse”and
“theromanceandexoticismofdiscoveriesintheOldaswellastheNewWorld”inordertodevelopa
“stylizedallegory”whichexploits“theromancecoreofallvoyagers’experience”(Skura61).
Thereisoneother,perhapssurprising,genreinwhichTheTempestparticipates,thoughitdidnothavea
nameinShakespeare’stime:sciencefiction.ScottMaisanoventurestheclaimthattheplay“isamong
theearliestworksofscientificromance,”or“whatwecallworksofsciencefictionproducedbeforethe
term‘sciencefiction’becamestandardinthe1920s”(166).Studentswhohaveconsideredtheplay’s
scientificcontextsastheyaredescribedinUnit3willlikelyfindthisgenericcategorizationappropriate.
Thoughneitherthedisciplineofsciencenortheword“scientist”existedinearlymodernEngland,The
Tempestisneverthelessconcernedwiththepossibilitiesandlimitsofscientificinquiry—thinkofthe
play’ssimultaneousengagementwithnaturalhistoryandnaturalmagic—aswellastheempirical
methodofviewingtheworldthatFrancisBacon,oneofShakespeare’scontemporaries,developed.Was
Shakespeare’sTheTempestoneofthefirstworksofsciencefiction?Studentsmightdebatethis
questioninclassortakeitupinaformalessayassignment.
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CLOSEREADING
AskstudentstobrainstormalistofTheTempest’spotentialgenericcategories.Theyshouldprovide
evidencefromthetextthatjustifieseachproposedgenre.Aftercomposingtheirlists,studentsmight
considerthefollowingquestions:
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• Whatisgenre?Howdowecategorizeliteraryworksaccordingtogenre?Whichcharacteristics
aremostvaluable,tellingorimportantforhelpingus“read”thegenreofagivenworkof
literature?Whatdowedowhenatextwillnotfitneatlyinonegenericcategory?Dowe
categorizeitunderboth,ordevelopalogicaccordingtowhichwechooseoneoveranother?Is
itpossibleforaworkofliteraturetohavenogenre—toresistanyandallattemptsat
categorization?Canyouthinkofanexample?IsTheTempestsuchawork?
• HowwouldyoucategorizeTheTempestwithrespecttogenre?Whatisitsrelationshiptothe
genreswenormallyassociatewithShakespeare’splays:comedy,tragedy,tragicomedyand
history?Toromance?Tosciencefiction?Whatshouldwecallit,ifitisallofthesethings?Does
itpresentuswithanewgenreentirely?
• TheTempestbelongsnotonlytothegenresdiscussedindetailabove,butalsotothe
overarchinggenreofdrama.CompareTheTempesttoacanonicalAmericanorBritishdramatic
workthatyoumightreadinoneofyourliteratureclasses(forexample:LorraineHansberry’sA
RaisinintheSun,ArthurMiller’sTheCrucibleorDeathofaSalesman,orThomasStoppard’s
RosencrantzandGuildensternareDead).Whatcharacteristicsdothesedramaticworksshare?
Whatdotheseconvergences(andanydivergencesyoumightidentify)suggestaboutgenre?Isit
astablesystemofcategorization?Ordoesittransformacrossliteraryworksandovertime?
Howdoweknowthataworkofdramais,infact,aworkofdramaifitscharacteristicsare
subjecttochange—andif,likeTheTempest,itcutsacrossarangeofothergenres?
NARRATIVE
TheTempesttransversesarangeofnotonlygenres,butalsoliteraryforms.Thissub-sectionprovidesa
broadoverviewofoneoftheseforms:narrative.ScholarshavefrequentlynotedthatTheTempestis
somewhatofananomalyinShakespeare’soeuvreasaresultofitsnarrativestructure.Whereasthe
comediesfeatureintricateplotswhosetwistsandturnshingeuponchancemeetingsbetween
charactersandfortuitouscircumstancesbeyondhumancontrol—andwhereasthetragediesinvolve
carefullylaidplansofmurderandrevengethatcometogut-wrenching,engrossingandsometimes
unexpectedfruition—TheTempest’snarrativeiscomparativelysimpleanduneventful.AsVaughanputs
it:“Despitetheplay’suniquepanoplyofvisualwonders,verylittlehappensonProspero’senchanted
island”(4).World-shatteringeventsliketheplay’sopeningstorm,whileseeminglytragic,amountto
nothingmorethanillusion,andsodonotmakeforanextendedandcompellingnarrativetrajectory.
Fromtheverybeginning,forinstance,weknowthatFerdinandisnotdeadand,thus,thathisfather’s
woeisonlytemporary.Wespendtheplayfollowing“clusters”ofcharacterswho—withtheexceptionof
Ariel—wanderaimlessly“aroundtheisland”(4).Theplay’smaincharacter,Prospero,remainslargely
stationary,conjuringthoseeventswhichactuallydooccurfromafar.Eventheendingisrelativelyanticlimactic.“ThelastscenebringseveryonetoProspero’scellforafinalrevelation”but,asVaughan
observes,“theywerealwaysnearby”(4).Theconclusionisonetheplayhasalreadyforetoldandfrom
whichithasdeclinedtodeviate.TheTempestinthiswaydeviatesfromgenericexpectations:itoffers
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“nothingoftheupsanddownsandsuddenreversalsofromance”(Mincoff94).Theendingisless
fortuitousthanexpected.Therearefewifanysurprises.Asacharacter,Prosperoarguablyheightensthe
play’santiclimacticqualities.Mincoffarguesthat“byplacinginthecenterofthisplayapowerfuland
benevolentmagician,Shakespearepreventedthepossibilityofanyrealtension”(97).Theproblemwith
Prospero,inotherwords,issimilartotheonewithSuperman:therewouldseemtobenoadversary
equippedtomatchhiminafight.ThatProsperowillgethiswayappearsinevitable—and,asthe
conclusionoftheplayillustrates,thatappearanceprovestrue.
TheTempestisalso,withtheexceptionofTheComedyofErrors,theshortestofShakespeare’splays.Its
plotissimilarlyabbreviated,transpiringoverthecourseofonlyafewhours.Scholarshavespeculated
thatit“mayindeedbeShakespeare’smosttightlystructuredplay”(Vaughan14).Itunfoldsthrougha
“tightpattern”ofeventsandrolesthatareoftendoubledorexistinparallel.“Prospero’soverthrowin
Milantwelveyearsearlier,”forinstance,“isnearlyrepeated”(Vaughan15).OfallShakespeare’splays,
TheTempestistheonlyonetoadheretowhatiscalledtheunityoftime:aclassicaldramaticprinciple
thatmandatestheactiontakeplacewithinthecourseofaday.Toprovidenecessarybackgroundand
context,theplayreliesheavilyonmemory.“[C]haractersmerelyremembertheeventsofthetwelve
yearspreceding”(Vaughan15).Thiscanmakeforafrustratingreadingexperience—“[t]hecompression
ofeventstooneafternoon…leavesmanylooseends”—butitalsoproducesproductivepointsof
ambiguity(Vaughan16).“Caliban’srecollections,”forinstance,sometimes“challengehismaster’s”
(Vaughan15).Thefunctionofmemorywithintheplayalsohighlightsthelimitationsandproblemsof
humanindividualityandperception.Wearenotsure,forinstance,ifweshouldtakeProspero’s
experienceastruthfulorasbiased.WhenherecountshowCalibanattemptedtorapeMiranda,weare
notsureifweshouldbelievehim.WhenhecompelsArieltorehearsehisimprisonmentatthehandsof
Sycoraxandhissubsequentliberation,wearenotsureifProsperoisfeedingAriellines,sotospeak—if
heisforcingArieltonarrateeventsashewouldhavethemplayout.ThenarrativestructureofThe
Tempestinthiswayplaysuponandcomplicatestheideasandquestionstakenupintheplay’scontent.
Thetwoareinseparablefromoneanother.Together,theyworktocreatemeaning—to,forinstance,
offerinterpretivepossibilitiesuponwhichwemightdrawinouranalysisofProspero,ourunderstanding
oftherelationshipbetweenillusionandtruth,etcetera.
Beyonditsuneventfulqualityanditsconstraint,TheTempest’snarrativestructuredeploysrepetitionin
waysthatcoincidewiththeplay’smusicalandpoeticqualities—andwhichmightinformorcomplicate
ourinterpretationofitsmeaning.AsRussMcDonaldobserves,theparallelsbetweenplotandsub-plot—
aswellasthetemporal“symmetries”betweenpastandpresent—arefrequently“thesubjectof
comment”intheplay(223).“Theplayisfamousforthedensityandcongruityofitsmirroredactions”
(McDonald223).Whilenotalothappens,whatdoeshappenunfoldsaccordingtoatemporal
simultaneitythatpositstimeasthickandhistoryasrepeatable—or,attheveryleast,asalwaysatwork
inthepresent.Prospero’soverthrow,forinstance,ripplesintothepresentandthreatensthefutureas
Calibanplotshisfall.McDonaldarguesthattheplayproducesa“reticulumofstories”—alayered
narrativethatreconfigurestherelationshipbetweenpast,presentandfuture—which“seemsboth
familiarandwonderful”(223).Thus,evenastheplay’seventsareanticipatedanditsplotstructure
contained,itsnarrativestructureisonsomelevelmagical.Theplay’snarrativestructurehighlights,too,
how“Shakespeareisrepeatinghimself”—howheismakingasimilar“reticulum”ofhisownworkasThe
Tempest“unashamedlygaz[es]backover”andreimagines“hisentireoeuvreandsummon[s]upscenes,
persons,themes,metaphors,bitsofvocabulary,andotherminortheatricalstrategies”thatappearin
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earlierplays(McDonald223).Therepetitiouselementsoftheplay’snarrativeinthiswayarenot
necessarilysourcesofboredom.Rather,theyarerewarding,especiallyforavidreadersofShakespeare,
whoknowhisworkandcanidentifythe“meaningfulpatternoffamiliarandyetrearrangedmaterial”
thatTheTempestdeploys(McDonald223).Repetitioninthiswayisanimportantnarrativefeatureof
TheTempestthat,whileitmightundercuttheexcitementofplot,ishighlysuggestive.
CLOSEREADING
Toexplorethestructureandfunctionofnarrative—and,byextension,temporalityandmemory—inThe
Tempest,studentsmightconsiderthefollowing:theplay’sbeginninginAct1,Scene1;theplay’sendin
Act5;passageswhereinProsperoobsessesovertime(suchasAct1,Scene2);passageswherein
charactersresorttomemoryinordertoofferahistoryoftheplay’scharactersandevents(suchas
Caliban’srecollectionsoflifeontheislandpriortoandjustfollowingCaliban’sarrivalinAct1,Scene2or
Miranda’snearinabilitytorememberhermotherandcaretakersinthesamescene);andmoments
whencharacterstellstorieswhosestructure—ortelling—isrepetitive(suchaswhenProsperonarrates
toMirandatheirfamilyhistoryinAct1,Scene2orwhenhecompelsArieltorecounthispriorlifeonthe
islandinthesamescene).Studentsshouldclosereadthesepassageswiththefollowingquestionsin
mind:
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• Whatisnarrative?Whatisitsrelationshiptoplot,ortothefamiliarsequenceofbeginning,
middleandend?Howarenarrativeandplotthesame?Howaretheydifferent?Whatis
temporality?Ifyouareunsure,trytodescribethesenseoftime—ortemporality—conveyedby
thesequenceofbeginning,middleandend.Isnarrativealwayslinear?Doesitalwaystakeshape
throughsequentialseriesofevents?
• CharactersinTheTempestfrequentlyusetheirmemoriesinordertodescribeapointintime
priortotheeventsstagedintheplay.Attheplay’sconclusion,somecharacters’fatesare
decided,whilethoseofothers(suchasCaliban)remainshroudedinmystery.Inwhatwaysdoes
TheTempest’sinvocationofmemoryandinconclusiveendingcomplicatetheconventional
notionofnarrativeascontainingabeginning,amiddleandanend?Howdoesitcomplicateor
resisttheconventionalnotionoftimeasalinear,sequential,orderlyseriesofevents?Howdoes
theplayimaginetime?Whatshapedoesittakeandhowmightitsuggestadifferentsenseof
temporalitythanthelinearonewithwhichwearemostfamiliar?
• Prosperoisobsessedwithtime.Why?Howwouldyoudescribehissenseoftemporalityand
whyishesoconcernedwithtimeliness?ConsiderhowthemomentsinwhichProsperotells
stories—suchaswhenhenarrateshisfamilyhistorytoMiranda—arestructuredbyrepetition
(heconstantlyasksMirandato“mark”himandquestionswhethersheispayingattention).
Whatistheeffectoftheserepetitiveinterruptions?Howdotheyinteractwithorcomplicatethe
structureofthestoryProsperotells?Howdoparallelsbetweenpastandpresent,aswellasplot
andsub-plot,undercutalinearmodeloftime,andwhymightthismatter?Whatdowedowith
thefactthattheplayunfoldsthroughtwosensesoftime:onethatisrepetitiveorcyclicaland
anotherthatislinearorsequential?Howdotheyinteractwithorcomplicateoneanother,and
howdowemakesenseofthemtogether?Aretheyeverreconciled?
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LANGUAGE
ThereisathirdwayinwhichTheTempestcutsacrossgenres:theplay’samalgamationofproseand
verse.Whilesomecharacters’speechunfoldsthroughunembellishedprose,othersspeakintheiambic
pentameterforwhichShakespeareisknown.Thesedifferencesaresignificant.AsDavidCrystalnotes,
“thesocialsituationorthenatureoftheinteraction”betweencharactersisoftentransmittedthrough
Shakespeare’suseofproseandverse(163-4).Poetryintheearlymodernperiodwas“characteristicofa
‘highstyle’oflanguageusedbyhigh-statuspeople”whileprosewasindicativeofa“lowstyle”(Crystal
164).WecanseethesedivisionsatworkinTheTempest,whereincharactersliketheBoatswain,
StephanoandTrinculospeakinprosewhileothers—Prospero,Mirandaand,notably,Caliban—dosoin
verse.Andwhilebothproseandversedemandclosereading,thelatterismoreintricateonthelevelof
thewordand,thus,requiresespeciallycarefulattention.“[M]ostwordsinalanguagehavemorethan
onemeaning—theyarepolysemic”andthis,asCrystalremindsus,“allowsauthorsanopportunitytosay
severalthingsatonce”(166).Thisisespeciallytrueinthecaseofverse,whichismoreconstrainedthan
proseandso,perhapsparadoxically,offersamultitudeofinterpretativepossibilities.Thisisinpart
becausepoetryemploysandmanipulatesarangeoflinguisticdevicestodrawoutandcomplicatethe
multiplicityofmeaningsatissueinasinglelineandevenasingleword.Theseincluderepetitionsthat
unfoldbywayofmeterandrhyme.InTheTempestShakespeareemploysblankverse—unrhymedlines
offivemetricalfeet,eachofwhichcontainsashortsyllablefollowedbyalongone—which,though
unrhymed,employsarepetitiousalternationofunstressedandstressedsyllableswhichgivethe
impressionofrecursivemovementand“elliptical”ambiguity.Theformoftheverse—especiallyasit
differsfromprose—callsattentiontoitself.Thus,eventhoughblankverseisthepoeticformsaidto
comeclosesttonaturalpatternsofhumanspeech(inEnglish,thatis),itsmetricalqualityand
appearanceonthepagedenaturalizeslanguage;itemphasizeshowlanguageisalwaysamechanismof
creationandrepresentation—onethatsometimesoperatesofitsownaccord,outofthecontrolofthe
personwhouttersit.
InTheTempest,verseperformsimportantrepresentationalwork.Poeticdevicesareusedtoconveyand
intensify“theisland’sdreamlikeeffect,contributingtotheaudience’ssenseofsuspensionfromtime
andspace”(Vaughan21).1Theseincludeapostrophes,whichShakespeareemploys“toomitsyllables
fromwords,notsimplytosuittheiambicpentameterlinebutinalllikelihoodtocompressthelanguage
andrevealtheemotionsboilingbeneath”(Vaughan21).Theuseofcontractionsinversehighlightshow
poetry,likenarrative,isasiteofcompressioninTheTempest,andthisimpulsetowardconstraintis
whatmakespossibletheplay’smanyenigmaticbutalsoproductiveandprovocativeambiguities.Infact,
wordsarenotonlyabbreviated,butsometimesleftoutaltogether,“leavingtheobservertomakethe
linecoherentbysupplyinganall-importantnoun,pronoun,verboradverb”(Vaughan21).Atother
times,wordsthatarekeytothemeaningofagivenpassage“aredelayed”bywayofenjambmentsand
linebreaks,which“interrupt[s]”theplay’ssyntax.Bothtechniquesinvitethereadertofillinlinguistic
andbyextensionconceptualgaps—toreadcloselyandtoworkhard;toassesstherangeofsignificances
alexicalomissionordeferralmightmakeavailableforinterpretation.Theplaycontainsa“high
proportionofirregularlines”aswell(Vaughan22).Theseirregularitiesmayseemunintentionalor
erroneous,buttheyveryoftensignalsomethingimportant.Ifwethinkoftheblankverseformasa
guidingnormintheplay,inotherwords,irregularities—deviationsfromthatnorm—might
1
Seethesuggestedclosereadinganddiscussionactivitiesbelowforasamplepassagethatemploysmanyofthese
devices.
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communicateandcomplicatethemeaningofthelinesorspeechesinwhichtheyoccur.These
irregularitiesincludethebreakingupofindividuallinessothattheyaresplitacrossthespeechof
differentspeakers—somethingthathappensoverandoveragainduringtheplay—andtheuseof
feminineorunstressedsyllablesattheendofagivenline(linesofiambicpentametershouldalwaysend
onastressedsyllable),aswellasother,non-iambicmetricalforms(includingtrochaicmeter,which
unfoldsthroughalternatedstressedandunstressedsyllables,andisthustheoppositeofiambic).These
irregularitiesemphasize“theplot’sunderlyingtensionbetweenharmonyanddisruption,between
utopianlongingsandthechaoscausedbyhumannature”(Vaughan22).Theirpresenceisoften
unsettling.
Versealsomakesvisiblesomeofthelexicalinnovationsandwordplaythatrunthroughoutthewholeof
theplay,includingitsprose.Vaughanemphasizesthat“[e]ditorsofTheTempestfrequentlynoteits
unusualrelianceoncompoundwords,”whichestablishunexpectedrelationshipsbetweenwords,things
orideaswemightneverhavethoughttoputtogether(22).Thesecompoundsarepoeticintheireffect,
destabilizingmeaningatthelevelofthewordandthusamplifyingthelinguisticambiguitiesthatverse
alreadymanipulatesandexploitstoproliferateimaginativepossibilities.Likepoeticcompounds,
Shakespeare’sfiguresofspeechareemphaticallypoetic—theyofferevocativedescriptionsofseemingly
mundaneorfamiliarobjects,andthosewhichhavelosttheirmeaningovertimeheighten,however
inadvertently,theplay’sfascinationwithambiguity,illusionandmagic.AsCrystalobserves:“Westilltalk
aboutsomethingbeinghardassteel,softassilk,andblackasink,”yet“wehaveforthemostpartlost
theimmediacyofrecognitionthatisrequiredbysuchimagesassoftaswax,swiftasquicksilver,and
blackasjet”(166).Shakespearemaynothaveanticipatedthatsomeofhisfiguresofspeechwouldbe
illegibletofutureaudiences,buttheynonethelesscontinuetopossesssomeresonanceinthesense
that—detachedfromthearchaicoresotericmeaningstheyheldinanotherhistoricalmoment—they
becomeincantatory,evenmagicalencapsulationsofthequestionsandthemestheplayasawhole
explores.TheoveralleffectofShakespeare’sverseandhispoeticfiguresofspeechistocreate“verbal
andideationalpatterns”which“enticetheaudiencebypromisingandwithholdingillumination,
demonstratingtheimpossibilityofsignificationalcertaintyandcreatinganatmosphereofhermeneutic
instability”(McDonald216).TheverseofTheTempestisincantatoryandmagical,conveyingasenseof
howlanguageisatitsmostpowerful—itsmosttransformativeanditsmostdangerous—whenit
operatesoutofandbeyondthecontrolofitscreator;whenitsformsandconnotationsworktogetherto
makevisibleunexpectedandseeminglyimpossibleinterrelationshipsbetweenandamongthings,
personsandentireworlds.
CLOSEREADING
Toexplorepoeticformanddevices,studentsshouldworkcloselywithandannotateapassage.Toteach
themscansion—orhowtoreadmeter—havethemspeakthewordsaloudtooneanother,searchingfor
whichsyllablesarestressedandwhicharenot.Readingthestressesofalineincorrectlywillfeel
unnaturalor“off”andthuswillhelpstudentsmapmetricalforms.Oncetheyhavemarkedthese
structures,theycanbegintotracktheotherdevices—suchasrepetition,alliterationandassonance—
thatgiveshapetoShakespeare’sverse,andcanthenbegintoassesshowtheyinteractwithand
complicatethemeaningofthewordsthemselves.Belowisanexampleofapassagewhosefirstlines
havebeenscanned(themeterinthispassageisquiteirregular,soitwillbeachallengeforstudents)and
whosemostprominentpoeticfeatureshavebeenmarkedusingboldfont.Afterworkingthroughit—
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andthesupplementarydiscussionquestions—withyourstudents,assignanewpassage—orsetof
passages—forthemtoclosereadeitherindividually,orinsmallorlargegroups.2
///
Caliban
Imusteatmydinner.
/ /
//
Thisisland’sminebySycorax,mymother,
Whichthoutak’stfromme.Whenthoucam’stfirst,
Thoustrok’stmeandmademuchofme,wouldstgiveme
Waterwithberriesin’t,andteachmehow
Tonamethebiggerlightandhowtheless,
Thatburnbydayandnight.AndthenIlovedthee,
Andshowedtheeallthequalitieso’th’isle,
Thefreshsprings,brinepits,barrenplaceandfertile.
CursedbethatIdidso!Allthecharms
OfSycorax,toads,beetles,bats,lightonyou,
ForIamallthesubjectsthatyouhave,
Whichfirstwasmineownking;andhereyoustyme
Inthishardrock,whilesyoudokeepfromme
Theresto’th’island.(Act1,Scene2)
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• Notethepassagebeginsandendswithasplitline.Observehowthefirsttwolines—thesecond
ofwhichmentionsSycorax,Caliban’smother—concludewithfeminineendings.Themeter,as
mentionedabove,isachallenge—studentswilllikelybecomefrustratedastheyattemptto
parseit.Thatisokay!Knowingthatthepassagedivergesmarkedlyfromtheconventionsof
blankverseisenoughtoanswerthefollowingquestions:whatdowemakeofthispassage’s
metricalirregularities?WhywouldCaliban’sspeech—whichtracesahistoryofcolonial
2
Studentsmayalsowishtoconsultalistofliterarytermsanddevicesastheyclosereadtheintricaciesof
Shakespeare’slanguage(seethelinktoanonlineglossaryunder“Handouts”).
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•
•
dispossession—beginandendinfragmentarylines?Whywoulditdivergesomarkedlyfrom
blankverse,thepoeticformmostemblematicofthenormativepatternsofEnglishspeech?
(Don’tforgetthatCaliban’snativelanguageisnotEnglish—thatEnglishispresentedinThe
Tempestasamechanismofcolonization!)Whatisthesignificanceofthefeminineendinginthe
secondline?DoesitsimplyreflectthefemalenessofCaliban’smother,ordoesthisdoublingof
thefeminine—ofmetricalsoftness—conveysomethingmoremeaningful?
Payattentiontotheuseofpronounsandpossessivesinthepassage.Whatdowemakeofthe
constantjuxtapositionofthepronouns“I”and“thou”?Ofthedoublingandtriplingof
possessivesinsinglelines(suchasthesecond)?How,ontheleveloftheword,doesthepassage
capturetheplay’sengagementwiththeproblemsofcolonialpoweranddis/possession?How
doweinterpretCaliban’suseof“thou”torefertoProsperointhefirsthalfofthepassageas
comparedwithhisuseof“you”inthesecondhalf?Whatisthedifferencebetween“thou”and
“you”?Isonemoreintimatethantheother?Isonemorepossessive,distancedoraccusing?
Considertheuseofalliteration,assonanceandrepetition.Notehowassonancealigns“tak’st”
with“cam’st”inthethirdlineofthepassage.WhatdoesCalibanheresuggestaboutthe
relationshipbetweenthesetwoactions—comingorarrivingandtaking—andhowdoesthis
intersectwiththebroaderthemesoftheplay?Whatistheoveralleffectoftheseaural
repetitions—oflineswhereinwordspossesseithersimilarbeginningsorendings?Whatabout
therepeateduseoftheword“and,”whichdrawsoutthesyntaxofthepassage,delaysthe
conclusionofitsnarrativeandgivesusasenseofaccumulation—oflanguagepilingupupon
itself?
ACTIVITIES,ASSIGNMENTS&PROJECTIDEAS
• StudentsmightwritepositionpapersorformalessaysonthegenericcategorizationofThe
Tempest.Towhichgenre(s)doesitbelongandwhy?Doesitestablishanewgenreorbelongto
nogenreatall?Howdothesequestionsandtheiranswersinformoraffecthowweinterpret
theplayasawhole?Thesepapersmightbeusedasthestartingpointforadebateaboutgenre
asitisatissueinTheTempest.
• HavestudentschooseapassagefromTheTempestto“translate”intoadifferentgenre.For
instance,theymightconvertaproseparagraphintoblankverseorviceversa.Then,havethem
writeareflectiveassignmentontheeffectoftheirtranslations.Howdoesthetransitionfrom
prosetoverse(orfromversetoprose)alteragivenpassage’smeaning?Whatdoesthistellus
aboutthedifferencesbetweenverseandprose,bothinandbeyondTheTempest?
• AskstudentstowriteproseorblankverseimitationsofShakespeare’slanguage.Theseshould
bespokenbyacharacteroftheirchoice.Theymightofferawindowintoacharacter’s
interiority—into,say,Ariel’sperceptionofProspero—orreimaginesomeaspectoftheplay(or
somethingelse).Astheyreimaginesomeaspectoftheplay,theywillalsofunctionas
interpretationsoftheplay,aswellasthequestionsorideasitexplores.Theseimitationsshould
carefullymanipulateformaldevices—suchasplotandtemporality,ormeterandalliteration—so
thattheythefurthertheinterpretationoftheplaytheimitationoffersonthelevelofcontent.
Studentsmightwriteashortreflectiveessaytoaccompanytheirimitations.Theseessaysshould
offerareadingoftheimitationthestudenthascreated—theyshouldoutlinetheinterpretation
orargumenttheimitationmakesaboutTheTempest—andanexplanationforthechoicesthe
studentmadeonthelevelofform.
Note:thefollowingclip,inwhichJonStewartdefendshisroleaspoliticalsatirist,mightbeofinspiration:
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UNIT6•MAKINGSHAKESPEARE
OBJECTIVE:ToexploreTheTempest’srelationshiptotheFirstFolio;theimpactofearlymoderneditorial
andpublishingpracticesontheplay;andShakespeare’sidentityasanindividualandcollectiveauthor.
HANDOUTS
PrefatorymatterfromtheFirstFolio(FolgerShakespeareLibrary)
http://www.folger.edu/the-shakespeare-first-folio-folger-copy-no68#page/To+the+Reader/mode/2up
PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADING
AnstonBosman.“ShakespeareandGlobalization.”TheNewCambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare.Ed.
MargretaDeGrazia.CambridgeUniversityPress,2011.285-302.
GabrielEgan.“TheProvenanceoftheFolioTexts.”CambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare’sFirstFolio.
Ed.EmmaSmith.CambridgeUniversityPress,2016.68-85.
B.D.R.Higgins.“PrintingtheFirstFolio.”CambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare’sFirstFolio.30-47.
ChrisLaoutaris.“ThePrefatorialMaterial.”CambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare’sFirstFolio.48-67.
EricRasmussen.“PublishingtheFirstFolio.”CambridgeCompaniontoShakespeare’sFirstFolio.18-29.
UNITORGANIZATION
Thisunitisdividedintothreesub-sections:“TheFirstFolio”;“Publishing&Printing”;and“Making
Shakespeare.”Together,thesesub-sectionsdeveloppointsforuseinlecture,whicharefollowedby
suggestedpassagesforclassdiscussionandquestionsforfurtherinquiry.Theunitconcludeswithideas
forin-classactivitiesandstudentprojects.
THEFIRSTFOLIO
ThattheFirstFolio—publishedposthumouslyin1623—hasbeenmentionednumeroustimesoverthe
courseofthisguideisnotsimplybecauseitgaveusthefirstversionofTheTempestinprint.Itisalso
becauseitwasacarefullycraftedframingdeviceforShakespeare’sdramaticworksthataimedto
canonizetheauthor,agenreand,byextension,Englishliterature.Havingdiedin1616Shakespearedid
nothaveasayinhowhisplayswerepresentedintheFirstFolio,exceptinsofarashismanuscripts
servedasthebasisforthevolume’stext.ButwhatistheFirstFolio,exactly?Therearemanyanswersto
thisquestion.ThemostbasicisthattheFirstFoliois,essentially,ananthology—acollectionofworks
that,inthiscase,arethecreationofasingleauthor.ButwemustrememberthatShakespearewasnot
onlyanauthorofplays,butalsoofpoetry.Focusingonhisdramaticworks,theFirstFolioisthus
organizednotonlyaroundoneauthorbutalsooneoverarchinggenre(drama).Assuch,itcapitalizeson
andmakesanargumentfortheburgeoningreputationsofbothShakespeareandtheatre.Thisisan
argumentwhichwewillexploreinmoredetaillaterinthisunit.Butfirst,weshouldtakeaquicktourof
thebookitself,forwhileplayslikeTheTempestmakeupthebulkofitscontent,thevolume’sprefatory
matterfunctionsasarhetoricalframingdevicewhichdictateshowreadersreadtheworks—andthe
author—publishedtherein.ChrisLaoutaris’sessayontheprefatorymaterialoftheFirstFolioisan
essentialresource,andwouldofferstudentsausefulintroductiontothepublicationhistoryofThe
Tempest.Laoutarisoffers,first,abriefoutlineofthevolume’sprefatorymaterial:it“beginswithashort
poem‘TotheReader’by‘B.I.’,believedtobeBenJonson,”afamedplaywrightandcriticofearly
modernEngland.Theopeningpoemoffersacommentaryonwhatcomesnext—“thefacingtitle
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page”—whichfeaturesoneofthefewportraitswehaveofShakespearebyMartinDroeshout,askilled
engraver.“ThisisfollowedbyadedicatoryepistletoWilliamHerbert,EarlofPembroke,andhisbrother
PhilipHerbert,EarlofMontgomery,”which“issignedby‘JohnHeminge’and‘HenryCondell’”—two
actorsinShakespeare’sactingcompany,theKing’sMen.Theyarealso“signatories”ofasecond
dedicatorypieceaddressed“TothegreatVarietyofReaders.”Whatfollowsvariesinorderdepending
onwhichcopyoftheFolioyouread,butgenerallyincludesmemorialpoemsbyBenJonson,Hugh
Holland,LeonardDiggesand“‘I.M.’,generallythoughttobeJamesMabbe.”Thesepoemsarefollowed
bythe“Catalogue”ortableofcontentsandalistofactorswhoperformedintheplayscollectedinthe
volume(Laoutaris48-9).Whatstudentsshouldtakeawayfromaquickglancethroughtheprefatory
matteroftheFirstFolio—whetherornottheyrecognizethevariousmentowhichitrefers—isthat
thesematerialsmakevisibleanetworkofassociateswithwhomShakespeareisintertwined.Thefolio
collectsandcelebratestheworkofasingleauthor,butitalsotakespainstomarkthatworkasa
collectiveendeavor—apointtowhichwewillreturnlater.
ClosereadingtheprefatorymatteroftheFirstFoliowillprovejustasfruitfulasclosereadingThe
Tempest.Laoutaris,forinstance,extrapolatesmuchfromthevolume’stitlepagealone.First,hedraws
ourattentiontothesubtitle:“PublishedaccordingtotheTrueOriginallCopies.”Thetitlepagethus
makes“thepromisethatthereaderwillgainthereinaccesstothe‘Originall’wordsnotsimplyofa
playwrightandmanofsingulartalentbutofanindividualofsomesocialstatus,designatedbythe
honorifictitle‘M[aste]r’”(50).TheFirstFolio,inotherwords,promisesexclusiveandunmediatedaccess
totheplaysasShakespearehadwrittenthemand,byextension,tothe“master”playwrighthimself.
Thisclaimisreiteratedonthelistofactorsthatappearssomepageslater,atthetopofwhichissection
titleclaimingthattheComedies,Histories,andTragedies”thatfolloware“Truelysetforth,accordingto
theirfirstORIGINALL.”Thattheplaywrightismanof“socialstatus”andesteemisreinforcedby
Droeshout’sportrait,“whichdepictsShakespeareinadoubletembellishedwith‘metalbraiddecoration’
and‘flatband’collar.Thiswasattirebelongingtoagentleman,thoughmorefashionablein1616than
1623”(Laoutaris50).Theportraitissignedbyits“Graver”:“MartinDroeshout,SculpsitLondon.”
Underneathwefindinformationaboutthevolume’spublishers:“LONDON/PrintedbyIsaacJaggard,
andEd.Blount,1623.”Thus,onitsownthetitlepageremindsusthatShakespeare“isinfactthe
productofacollaborativenetworkoperatingataspecifictime,andfromalocationidentified”multiple
timesoverthecourseoftheprefatorymatter(Laoutaris54).Stratford-upon-Avonismentioned
nowhere,andtheFirstFoliooffersnothinginthewayofbiographicaldetails.Thismaybeinpart
becausethevolumeiscraftingacarefulportraitofitscelebratedauthor—bothinimageandintext—
thatdoesnotmeshwithanarrativeofhumblebeginningsandreducedstature.Itmayalsobebecause
theFirstFolioattemptstomakevisiblethecollaborative“foundationuponwhichtheimmortal
‘Shakespeare’israised”(Laoutaris54).AsLaoutarisputsit,theFirstFoliois“abookbook-endedwith
personalities”(54).
StudentsfamiliarwithShakespeare’sactingcompany,theKing’sMen,anditsroyalpatronmightfind
thededicatoryepistleespeciallysurprising,foritisnotaddressedtothepersonwemightexpect:the
king.Laoutarisoffersacompellingexplanationforthisnotableomission:whiletheKing’sMengainedin
influenceandwealthunderking’spatronage,thepublishersoftheFirstFolio“benefittedfrom
projectingalonger-standingrelationshipbetweentwoprolificandpowerfulpatronsandtheacting
company”(58).ThesepatronsweretheHerbertbrothers,EarlsofPembrokeandMontgomery.The
epistlenamestheEarls“Guardians”oftheShakespeare’splays,whichareinturncalled“Orphanes.”
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LaoutarisspeculatesthatPembroke,whowasclosetothekingfromthetimehetookthethrone,“was
instrumentalinthe[King’sMen’s]rapidpromotion”(59).AndasLordChamberlain,Pembrokehimself
possessedgreatpoweroverEnglishactingcompaniesandtheirproximity(orlackthereof)totheCrown:
itwashewho“hadcontroloftheprogramofperformancesatcourt”and,assuch,heactedas“an
importantmediatorbetweentheplayersandtheKing”(Laoutaris59).ButwheredoesMontgomery
comeintothepicture?AtthetimeoftheFirstFolio’sproduction,Pembrokehadbeenpromotedtothe
officeofLordTreasurer,buthe“hadrepeatedlyrefusedtovacatetheLordChamberlain’sofficeunless
hisbrotherwasinstalledinhisplace”(Laoutaris59).Thetakeaway,here,isthattheFirstFolio’s
publishersrealizedthattheycouldcount“onatleastoneofthebrothersremaininginth[e]influential
position”ofLordChamberlain,whichalsohad“jurisdictionovertheMasteroftheRevels”who,as
discussedinpreviousunits,wasacensor—hecontrolledwhichplayswereallowedtobeperformedand
whichwerenot.Thededicatoryepistleisinthiswaystrategic.Atthesametime,italsocommunicates
totheFirstFolio’sreadersthattheShakespeare,theKing’sMenandthevolumespublisherswere
intimatelyinterconnectedwiththoseinthehighestseatsofpower.Theyhad,inotherwords,developed
“apowerhouseofclose-knitrelationshipswhichencompassedtheofficeswhichcontrolledplayingand
censorship”(Laoutaris60).Theserelationshipsareinvokedbothtoreinforceandinviteroyalfavor,and
tomakeasubtlerhetoricalargumentonbehalfofShakespeareandhisplays.Thatthededicatoryepistle
isfollowedbyanappealtothevolume’sreadersillustratesthispoint.Havingidentifiedtheirroyal
patronsandtracedtheirpowerfulconnections,theactorsHemingeandCondelladdressthereader
directly,positioningtheFirstFolioasa“chancetobuyintothestructuresofliterary‘priviledges’”
(Laoutaris61).Emphasizingonthetitlepagethatthevolumeoffers“originall”orunmediatedaccessto
Shakespeareandhis—andbyextensionthepowerfulnetworkofwhichheandhiscontemporariesare
players—theFirstFolio“dangle[s]beforethereader”theideathat,inpurchasingthebook,sheassumes
“theroleofpatron”(Laoutaris62).Inbuyingandreadingthebook,shegainsentrytothe“glamour”and
advantagesofanother,morewealthy,morepowerfulwayoflife.
Butwehaveyettoaddressthemostimportantofthetwowordsinthevolume’stitle:“folio.”Whatisa
folio?WhycalltheFirstFolioafolioatall?Because“folio”describestheformatinwhichthevolume
appeared.Previously,Shakespeare’sworkshadappearedin“quarto.”AsEricRasmussenobserves:“In
thethreedecadesbetween1593and1623,ninety-fivequartoeditionsofShakespeare’sworkshadbeen
published”(23).Thedifferencebetweenquartoandfolioeditionswasmostimmediatelyoneofsize.
Whereasquartosmeasuredapproximately9.5x12inches,folioscameinatawhopping12x19inches.
Theywere,asthesenumberssuggest,considerablylargerthantheirquartocounterparts.Whydoesthis
matter,though?WhydowecarethattheFirstFoliowasnotaFirstQuarto?Becauselargervolumes
weremuchmoreexpensivetoproduceandtopurchase.“Scholarsestimatethatthecostofproducing
eachcopyoftheFirstFoliowas6s.8d,”accordingtoRasmussen(18).“Iftheprintrunwas£750copies,”
asscholarssuspect,“thenthetotalcostoftheprojectwas£250,anastronomicalamountinanagein
whichashoemakercouldexpecttoearn£4inayearandagoldsmithupto£5”(Rasmussen18).Should
theFirstFoliohavefailed,theriskswereenormousforthosewhohadinvestedinitsproduction.
Rasmussentellsusthat“theretailpriceinLondonforanunboundcopy”—itwascommonpracticefor
bookstobesoldunboundandfortheirbuyerstothencommissionabindingtofittheirbudgets—“was
15shillings.”Thismeansthevolume’s“publisherswouldhavetohavesold333copiesofthis
enormouslyexpensivebookbeforetheycouldbreakeven—andthat’sassumingthattheysoldthe
copiesontheretailmarket.Withawholesalepriceof10shillings,theywouldneedtohavesold500
copiestocovertheirinitialinvestment”(27).ScholarshavelongdebatedwhattheFirstFolio’s
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publisherswerethinking:“Whyth[e]publisherswerewillingtorisksuchavastsumonan
unprecedentedventure—anexpensivefoliodevotedexclusivelytoplays—andwhethertheirinvestment
ultimatelyleftthemwealthyorbankruptarecurrentlytwoofthemosthotlydebatedissuesin
Shakespeareanstudies”(Rasmussen18).Laoutarisarguesthatthefolioformatwasassociatedwith
well-respectedgenresofwriting,including“theologicaltracts,legaltreatises,tomesrecordingnational
history[and]worksbyclassicalauthors”(51).Assuch,theformatofthevolume—alongwithits
organizationalemphasisonthe“classicalcategories”ofcomedyandtragedy—elevatedShakespeare
andhisplaystoasimilarlywell-respectedandtimelessstatus.Theformatmighthavethusencouraged
otherwiseskepticalbuyerstomakeapurchase.ButwhethertheFirstFoliowasultimatelyacommercial
successisunknowntous.While“[s]omescholarshavearguedthat[it]wasarunawaysuccess,given
thatdemandwasapparentlysogreatthatasecondedition…wasrequiredwithinlessthanadecade,”
othershavenotedthatthefortunesofatleastoneofthevolume’spublishers“declinedrathersharply”
intheyearsfollowingitspublication(Rasmussen28).WecanonlyguessatwhethertheFirstFolio“le[ft]
itsrisk-takingpublishersappropriatelyrewardedorironicallyimpoverished”(Rasmussen28).Whatever
thecase,thevolumehelpedtoensureShakespearewouldrewardreadersforcenturiestocome.
CLOSEREADING
HavestudentsreadandannotatetheprefatorymaterialfromtheFirstFolio,eitherinselectionsorasa
whole.Astheydoso,havethemconsiderthefollowingquestions:
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• Whatisananthology?Whatdoesitmeantopublishacollectionofanauthor’sworks?Ofan
author’sworksastheypertaintoaspecificgenre?Howistheexperienceofreading
Shakespearechangewhenyoureadanindividualplayonitsownversuswhenyoureadthat
playaspartofalargerbodyofwork?Forinstance,howdoesreadingaplayprintedinan
anthologyre-contextualizeitscontentandmeaning?Ofwhatdoesananthologyremindits
readers?
• TheTempestisthefirstplayprintedintheFirstFolio.Itiscategorizedasacomedy.Howdoes
theFirstFolio’sprefatorymatterandlogicofgenericcategorizationreframetheplay?Doesset
upcertainexpectationsfortheplayorguidehowitshouldberead?Whatdowemakeofthe
factthatTheTempest,thelastoftheplaysShakespeareauthoredonhisown,ispositionedfirst
inaposthumouscollectionofhisdramaticworks?Howdoesthestructureofthevolume—and
TheTempest’spositionwithinthatstructure—informourreadingoftheplayandour
understandingofShakespeare?
• WhatwouldithavemeanttobuytheFirstFolioasanearlymodernreader?Whoand/orwhat
arereadersbuyinginto?Whyspendsomuchmoneyonabook?Whatpowerandpromisedida
booksuchastheFirstFolioholdforitsreaders?Doestheprefatorymaterialofferanycluesto
helpyouanswerthesequestions?
• Whatisprintformat?Howdoesitinfluencethekindsofbooksyouchooseordeclinetobuy?
Think,forinstance,ofhardbacks,tradepaperbacksandmassmarketpaperbacks.Whichareof
higherquality?Whatkindsofbooksdoyouassociatewitheach?Inwhatformat,forinstance,is
“seriousliterature”mostoftenpublished?Inwhatformatisgenrefiction—suchasromanceor
thrillers—published?Whatdoesprintformatcommunicatetoareader,whetheraboutabook’s
contentoritsprice?Withthisinmind,whatwerethepotentialbenefitsandpitfallsof
publishingShakespeare’sworksinfolio—ratherthanquarto—format?Towhomwasthebook
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mostcommerciallyaccessible?Werethereincentivesforbuyingthebookifitwasalittle(or
very)outofabuyer’spricerange?HowdoestheprefatorymaterialoftheFirstFolioexplainor
justifyitslavishchoiceofformat?Inwhatwayswasthefolioformatapracticalchoice?For
instance,doesalargerformatmakebettersensewhenpublishingabookcontainingsomany
works?Howdoesformatinthiswaynotonlytellussomethingaboutabook’saudience,but
alsoaboutthepragmatismsorrealitiesofpublishing?
PUBLISHING&PRINTING
HowTheTempestandtheotherplaysintheFirstFoliowerepreparedforpublicationraisesimportant
questionsabouteditorialpracticeandprintproduction,bothofwhichhaveatremendousimpactonthe
finalpresentationofatext—andwhichcanremainlargelyinvisibletoitsreaders.Thestoryofhowthe
FirstFoliowaspublishedandprintedalsomakeslegiblesomeimportantdifferencesbetweenthe
publishingindustryasitexistedintheearlymodernperiodasopposedtotoday.Whereasmodern
readersusetheword“publisher”torefertothepersonorcompanythatpreparesbooksandother
writtenworksforpublication,“nooneinShakespeare’sLondonwouldhaveknownwhata‘publisher’
was”(Rasmussen18).Atthetime,thesepersons—andanyoneelse“involvedinanyaspectofthe
booksellingtrade”—werecalled“stationers”(Rasmussen18).Thesepersonsmightinclude“printers,
publishers,booksellersandbookbinders,”allofwhomweresubjecttoregulationby“guild”knownas
theStationers’Company(Rasmussen18).Intheearlymodernperiod,publisherswereresponsiblefor
“acquir[ing]themanuscript”tobepublishedandthen“register[ing]hisrighttoitintheStationers’
Register,”acomprehensivelistthatdetailedwhoheldthecopyrighttowhichtexts(Rasmussen18).
Copyrightthusoperatedsomewhatdifferentlythanitdoesnow,anditwasarecurringsourceoftrouble
duringthepreparationandproductionoftheFirstFoliomanuscript—atopictowhichwewillsoon
return.Publisherswerealsoresponsibleforhiringaprinterand,together,theywould“decideonthe
format,typesizeanddesign,paperqualityandnumberofcopies”(Rasmussen18).Publishersnotonly
provideprinterswiththemanuscripttobeprinted,butalsowiththepapernecessarytocompletethe
job.Informationaboutanearlymodernbook’spublisher(s)andprinter(s)isusuallylocatedonthetitle
page,aswellasabout“thebookshop(usuallythepublisher’sown)wherecopiesofthebookcouldbe
purchased”(Rasmussen18).TheFirstFolio’stitlepagelistsIsaacJaggardandEd.Blountasprinters.We
nowknowthatEdwardBlountwasinfactthepublisheroftheFirstFolioandthat“theprintingofthe
FoliowasdoneentirelyintheworkshopofWilliamJaggardandhisson,Isaac”(Rasmussen19).
Blountwasanimportantplayer,sotospeak,intheearlymodernprintlandscape,publishingmajor
worksincludingJohnFlorio’stranslationofMontaigne’sEssays(1603,1613),ThomasShelton’s
translationofMigueldeCervantes’sDonQuixote(1612,1620)andapoetryanthologythatincludedone
poembyShakespeare(Rasmussen24).HealsoheldthecopyrightstoPericlesandAntonyandCleopatra
though,“oddly…hedidnotpublisheithertitle”(Rasmussen21).They,likeTheTempest,wouldbe
publishedforthefirsttimeintheFolio.TheJaggards,ontheotherhand,“hadlong-standing
connectionswithLondontheatreprofessionals”(Rasmussen23).TheFolio’sepistletothereaders
claimsthatHemingeandCondell—“Shakespeare’sfriendsandfellowactorsintheKing’sMen”—
initiatedthepublishingendeavorthatwouldbecometheFirstFolio,butsomescholarsbelieveitwas
theelderJaggard“whoapproachedtheKing’sMentoobtainaccesstoShakespeare’stexts”(Rasmussen
23).TheKing’sMen’sconsentwaslegallyrequiredperroyaldecree,astheJaggardsknewonlytoowell:
theyhadattemptedin1619to“publishacollectededitionofShakespeare’splayinquarto,”butfailed
toobtaintheconsentofShakespeare’sactingcompany,whichwasrequiredbyorderoftheLord
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Chamberlain(Rasmussen20).Asitturnedout,theactorswouldproveinstrumentaltoanypublishing
project—whethersmall-orlarge-scale—involvingShakespeare’sworks.Theirinvolvement(orlack
thereof)woulddecideanygivenproject’sfate.Ultimately,whetheritwastheactingcompanyorthe
Jaggardswhoproposedtheprojectisincidental.Whatisclearisthat“atsomepoint”—withtheconsent
oftheKing’sMen—“asyndicateofpublisherswasformed,”withBlount“likelyjoin[ing]theprojectlater,
ashisnameismissingfroma1622advertisement”(Rasmussen23).
Ithasbeensaidthat“[n]otwocopiesoftheFolioareknowntobeexactlyidentical”(Higgins39).The
differencesbetweencopiesareinparttheresultofproblemsthatemergedduringthepublishing
syndicate’sattempttosecurecopyrightforeachoftheplaysprinted(orreprinted)intheFolio,aswell
aseditorialpracticeandprinter’serrors.“Ofthethirty-sixplaysintheFolio,”GabrielEgannotes,
“twentyhadnotpreviouslybeenpublished”(69)andforsixteenoftheseplays(includingTheTempest)
“theFolioisouronlyearlyedition…andanymoderneditionmustbebasedonitandsupplementedonly
bytheeditor’sabilitytospotandcorrecterrorsinthescript”(70).Inthecaseofsomeoftheplaysthat
hadbeenpublishedpreviously,BlountandtheJaggardshadtosecurecopyrightfromanotherpublisher.
TheycametoagreementswithJohnSmethwickandWilliamAspley,“whoownedcopyrightsoffiveplays
publishedinquarto”—andwhojoinedtheprojectasshareholders(Rasmussen24).Otherpublishers
werenotsowillingtonegotiate.TheJaggardsandBlountstruggledtosecurerightstoRichardIIand1
HenryIVfromMatthewLaw,forcingtheprinters“toskipovertheseplays”anddisruptthechronological
orderoftheportionoftheFoliocontainingShakespeare’shistoricalworks(Rasmussen24).Accordingto
Rasmussen,“theprospectsforsecuringrightstoTroilusandCressidafromHenryWalleywere
apparentlysouncertainthattheplaywasremovedfromitspositionfollowingRomeoandJulietandleft
offthetableofcontents”—and“somecopiesoftheFirstFolioweresoldwithoutit”(24-5).After
securingthecopyrightlateintheprocess,theprinterswereableto“inser[t]”it“atthelast
minute…betweenthe‘Histories’andthe‘Tragedies’”(Rasmussen25).Difficultiessecuringcopyrightin
thiswayaffectedtheorganizationallogicofthefirstFolioindetrimentalways.
ThemanuscriptsuponwhichtheFirstFoliowasbasedwerealsositesoftrouble.Scribeswerehiredto
compileamastermanuscriptthattheprinterswouldsettotype.Howevermuchthepublishersmay
haveaimedforconsistency,thesescribeseachhadtheirowneditorialpreferencesandquirks—and
thesemadetheirwayintothetextoftheFirstFolio.RalphCrane,whotranscribedahandfulofplays—
TheTempest,TheTwoGentlemenofVerona,MeasureforMeasure,TheWinter’sTale,Cymbelineand
TheMerryWivesofWindsor—usedastylesoidentifiablethatscholars“cantellfromthespellings,
punctuationandlayoutofthesesixplaysthattheFolioprinters’copywasaCranetranscript”(Egan70
and71).Theyexhibitasetof“highlydistinctivehabitsofwriting,”including:massedentrancesof
characters,regularactandscenedivisions,extensiveandliterarystagedirections,theexpansionof
abbreviations(evenwhenitdisruptsthemetricalintegrityofalineofiambicpentameter),distinctive
spellings,thefrequentuseofcertainpunctuationmarks,andthewritingofprosethatdoesnotfillthe
lineandsolookstobeverse(Egan71).“Therewritingofstagedirections,”accordingtoEgan,“is
particularlyintrusive”(71).Whileitissomewhatreassuringtoknowthatscholarspossessathorough
enoughunderstandingofCrane’sstylethattheycansometimesdifferentiatebetween“Crane’s
involvement”andShakespeare’s,therestilllurkstheunsettlingpossibilitythatwecannotalwaysknow
whatwasoftheauthor’screation—whatreflectshisintentions—andwhatwasnot.Studentsfamiliar
withtheinformationsurveyedinUnit5,forinstance,willknowthatmanyofCrane’sstylistic
preferencesappearfrequentlyinTheTempest.Forinstance,theplayisknownforitsamplifiedand
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descriptivestagedirections,aswellasitsuseofabbreviatedwordsandirregularmeter.Howmuch
thesestylistictraitsareShakespeare’sdoingisnotentirelyclear.
Odditiesanderrorswerealsoproducedduringtheprintingprocess,whichconsistedofthefollowing
steps:“First,theteamassembledthe‘copy-texts,’whichwerethesourcedocumentsfromwhichthe
Foliowasprinted”—theseincluded,ofcourse,Crane’stranscriptsofTheTempest(Higgins31).Afterthe
transcriptsweregivenonelastroundofediting,theprintersbegantheprocessof“casting-off,”wherein
they“markedonthecopy-textwhereaprintedFoliopagewouldbeginandend…andwhenanew
sectionofpaperwasneeded”(Higgins32).Casting-offproducedaroughestimateofwhatthebook
wouldlikeandhowmuchpaperwouldberequired.Itwasaninevitablyinexactprocessanditcould
interferewiththeintendedformatorlayoutofagiventext.AsHigginsobserves,“Theworkmenwho
cast-offtheFoliotextsfrequentlymadebadestimatesofhowmanypagesaplaywouldrequire,leading
tooneofthemajorwaystheFoliotextswerealteredduringprinting:badestimatesforcedcompositors
toexpandorcompressthetexttomatchtheestimate”(32).Next,theprintersconvertedthecopy-text
“intometaltypetobeinkedandprinted”(Higgins33).Typesettingwasintricateandalsotediouswork,
requiringtheprinterstosetindividualpiecesoftypeforeachletterandspaceonapage:“Tosetapage
oftext,”asB.D.R.Higginstellsus,“acompositorplacedthecopy-textinfrontofhim”andthen
“manuallypickedout,letterbyletterandspacebyspace,thecorrespondingindividualpiecesof
metatype(knownas‘sorts’)fromlargewoodencasesinfrontofhim”(36).Typesetterswerealso
responsibleforproviding“signatures”thatwereprintedoneachpage.Thesesignatures—whichconsist
ofsomecombinationoflettersfollowedbynumbers—helpedthebookbinderputtheprintedsheetsin
order.Theytendtobe“morereliablethanthepagenumbers”oftheFoliowhichare,asitturnsout
“wronginseveralplaces”(34).Typesettersalsocommittedother,unknowingerrors.Sometimesthey
inadvertently“eye-skipped”overwordsorentirelinesofthetext—muchaswesometimesdowhen
readingabookorrevisingapieceofwriting—or“repeatedwordsorlines”(Higgins37).They
occasionally“transposedsectionsoftexttothewrongplace,mistranscribedandcontaminatedtheir
sourcematerial,”orbyaccidenttookletters“fromthewrongcompartment”which,uponbeinginserted
intothetext,produced“aformofearlytypo”(Higgins37).Thisoverviewofthepublishingandprinting
processdemonstrateswhatHigginsargues:“theindustrialcontextofpublishing,formattingandfinding
anaudiencehasdramaticconsequencesforthematerialthatisproduced”(36).Differencesinscribal
stylesanderrorscommittedduringtheprintingprocess“changedtheoriginaltextinwaysthatcreate
importantmodernquestionsofinterpretation”(Higgins37).TheFirstFolio’spromisesofexclusiveand
unmediatedaccesstoShakespeare’splaysintheir“originall"form—andtotheplaywrighthimself—
weredoomedtofail.
Thesequestionssurroundingeditorialpracticeandprintererrorareimportantbecausetheycontinueto
influencehowweexperienceandinterpretShakespeare’splaystoday.Wearenomoreequippedto
discernwhatShakespeareintendedthanwerehisearlymoderncontemporaries.AsAnstonBosman
pointsoutinhisaccountofShakespeareintranslation,“editingisakindoftranslation”—onetowhich
theplayshavealwaysbeensubject,whetherprintedinEnglishorinanotherlanguage(292).Weassume
thatiftranslationinevitablynecessitatesaloss,readingaworkinitsoriginallanguagedoesnot—thatit
offersdirectaccesstotextathand.ButasthepublicationhistoryoftheFirstFoliodemonstrates,thisis
mostcertainlynotthecase.Editorialinterventionpossessesjustasmuchimpactontheintegrityofa
textasdothechoicesatranslatorisforcedtomakewhenconvertingaworkofliteratureintoanew
language.Themediuminwhichatextisrenderedisalsoconsequential.ThisisespeciallyrelevanttoThe
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Tempestwhich,alongsidetheemergenceandriseofdigitalmedia,hastransformedasactingcompanies
incorporateintotheirperformancestechnologiesthatdidnotexistinShakespeare’stime.TheRoyal
ShakespeareCompanywillsoonputonaproductionofTheTempestthatdeployswhattheplay’s
directorscall“twenty-first-centurymagic.”PartneringwithIntel,theyareusingdigitalmediaand
motioncapturetechnologytobringtheworldoftheislandtolife.Whetherornotthisinsertionofnew
mediaintotheplayistruetoitsspirit—orinsteadamountstoanotherstylisticinterference—is
somethingstudentsmightdebateinclass.
CLOSEREADING
HavestudentscompareTheTempestasprintedintheFirstFoliotoamoderneditionoftheplay.
Alternatively,theymightcompareamodernanthologyofShakespeare’sdramaticworkstotheFirst
Folio,focusingonaspecificpartofthetext,suchasthetitlepageoraparticularplay.Astheydoso,
theyshouldconsiderthefollowingquestions:
DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS
• Whatisaneditor?Whatisapublisher?Aprinter?Inwhatwaysdotheirrolesoverlap?Howare
theydifferent?Inwhatwaysdoeseachshapeatextasitappearsinitsfinalprintedform?What
kindsofchoicesaretheyrequiredtomakeintheprocessofpreparingatextforpublicationand
thenseeingitspublicationthrough?Howmightthesechoicesbehelpfultoreaders?Andhow
mightthey,ontheotherhand,interferewiththeintegrityofatext?
• Howisthejobofaneditorsimilartothatofatranslator?Inwhatwayiseditinganactof
translation?Doweseethesesimilarities—ortranslations—atworkwhenwecomparetheFirst
FoliotoamoderneditionofShakespeare’splays?Inwhatways?Whatremainsthesameand
whatisdifferent?Whatdowemakeofthesedifferences?Toconsiderthesequestionsindepth,
studentsmightfocusonaspecificpassageofTheTempestasprintedintheFirstFolioversusa
neweredition.
MAKINGSHAKESPEARE
TheFirstFoliobothbuildsonandmakesacaseforthereputationofanauthorwhosecanonicityisnow
unquestioned.TheJaggardshad,infact,beguntodosodecadesearlier.“In1599,inwhatmayhave
beentheearliestattempttocapitalizeonShakespeare’sthengrowingreputation,[William]Jaggard
broughtoutananthologyofpoemsentitledThePassionatePilgrim”(Rasmussen19).Onlyahandfulof
poemsinthecollectionwereauthoredbyShakespeareandyetthevolume’scontentswereadvertised
astheworkof“W.Shakespeare”(Rasmussen19).Asecondeditionfollowedandit,too,creditedpoems
writtenbyotherpoetstothebard.RasmussendescribesThePassionatePilgrimasan“opportunistic
appropriationofShakespeare’sname”forcommercialgain—onethatindicateshemightalreadyhave
hadamassfollowingasearlyasthelatesixteenthcentury(19).Thoughtheprefatorymaterialofthe
FirstFoliomostcertainlytakesgreatpainsto“construc[t]theplaywrightwhoseworksitpreserves,”we
shouldalsorecognizehowitmighthaveexploitedaknowledgeofandreverenceforShakespearethat
alreadyexistedamongEngland’splaygoersandreaders.
Atthesametime,theFirstFolio’spublicationhistoryandcontextscomplicateourunderstandingofand
assumptionsaboutthecanonicalShakespeareweknowtoday.Thishistory—andShakespeare’s
involvementintheKing’sMen,forthatmatter—remindusthatwhileonemanmayhaveauthoredthe
plays,ateamofpeopleshapedandreadiedthemforperformanceandforpublication.EvenastheFirst
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FoliocanonizesShakespeare,italsobringstotheforethemultitudeof“personalities…whocolludedin,
collaboratedtowardsandco-fundedthecreationof‘Shakespeare’assuccessivegenerationswould
cometoknowhim”(Laoutaris49).Laoutariscallsthiscollectiveauthor“Shakespeare,Inc.”(49).He
arguesthat“[t]heemphasis”intheFirstFolio“isontheteamwhohelpedbringShakespeare’splaysto
life”—onhowthegeniusthatis“Shakespeare”isasmuchcollaborativeasitissingular(57).
Shakespeare,inotherwords,isnotonlyamanandanauthor,butalsoaninstitution—onewhowasa
longtimeinthemakingandemergedonlythroughcareful,painstakingbutalsosometimesfortuitous
execution.Throughoutthisguide,wehaveconsideredwhetherShakespeareisanEnglishorglobal
author;whetherhebelongstoaparticularnationofreadersoraworldofthem;whetherheis
historicallysituatedortimeless;whetherheisaninstrumentofcolonialpoweroroneofanticolonial
rebellion.TheprinthistoryoftheFirstFoliothrowsanotherwrenchintothemix.WhoisShakespeareif
heisnotanindividual,butacollective?ThisisinmanywaysthesamequestionthatTheTempest’s
Prosperoforcesustoask.IsProsperoanautonomous,powerfulandexceptionalindividual?Ora
collectivecomprisedofcharactersasdifferentasMiranda,ArielandCaliban?Howdoesourreadingof
Prosperochangewhenweunderstandhimnotasanindividualbutasamultitude?Andwhatdoes
ProsperointhiswaytellusaboutShakespeare?Aboutourimpulsetocelebratehismythicindividuality
attheexpenseofthosemanyhumanactorswhoworkedacrossspaceandtimetoproducethatmythof
individualityinthefirstplace?Aboutourinclinationtoclaimhimforourown—todispossessthemany
others(andOthers)whoparticipatedinhiscreationorinheritedhim?Thesearedifficultandunsettling
questionsthatTheTempestmighthelpstudentstoanswer.
ACTIVITIES,ASSIGNMENTS&PROJECTIDEAS
• Foracreativeandatthesametimeanalyticalassignment,askstudentstotranslateTheTempest
(orevenjustonescenefromtheplay)intoadifferentmedium(suchasthatofthegraphicnovel
orfilm).Studentsmightthenpresenttheirtranslationstotheirpeers—orwritean
accompanyingreflectiveessay—thatconsidershowthisactoftranslationenhanced,modified
orimpoverishedtheplay.Whatpartsoftheplayremainedintact?Wereanyenhancedor
amplified?Wasthereanythinglostintranslation?
• UsingthetextoftheFirstFolio,studentsshouldeditascenefromTheTempestforpublication.
Priortobeginningworkontheir“editions,”theyshouldconsiderthefollowingquestions:whois
theirintendedreadingaudienceandhowmightthisinformtheireditorialpractice?Forinstance,
aretheyeditinganeditionforkindergartnersorhighschoolstudents,andhowdothese
audiencesdifferintheirneeds?Whatinformationwouldaneditionneedtoincludeforittobe
usefultotheintendedaudience?Howwillstudentshandlestylisticaspectsofthetextthat
mightbedifficultformodernreaderstounderstand?Willthemodernizespelling,forinstance,
orstandardizepunctuation?Willthey“translate”seeminglyarchaiccompoundwordsand
figuresofspeechintomodernEnglishfortheeaseofthereader?Andwhataboutformat?Will
thetextpreservethedistinctionbetweenmeterandprose?Andhowwillitbelaidoutand
printedonthepage,andwhy?Studentsmightwritereflectiveessaysthatoutlinetheirchoices
andconsidertheimpactoftheireditorialpractice.Todoso,theymightcomparetheirfinished
“editions”tothetextoftheFirstFolioandclosereadaparticularpassageasprintedineach.
• AskstudentstowriteabiographyofShakespearethatputsasidethelifestoryofthemanand
focusesinsteadontheteam—“Shakespeare,Inc.”—thathelpedcreatetheauthorwenow
celebrate.Astheyresearchandwritetheirbiographies,studentsmightconsiderthefollowing
questions:Whoshouldbeincludedandwhy?Fromwhichplacesandtimes?Doesthebiography
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ofShakespeare-as-collectivestopwiththeFirstFolio?Doesitextendthroughsubsequent
editionsoftheFolioandbeyondEurope?Shoulditincludethosewhohaveadapted
Shakespeare’sworks?Shoulditincludetheliterarycriticswhohaveinterpretedandreinterpretedhisplaysoverthecourseofcenturies?Howdothesebiographiesrecast
Shakespeare?WhatdotheytellusabouttheEnglishcanon,oraboutliteraryhistory?Aboutthe
verynotionofanauthororaliterarytext?
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UNIT7•THEANNUALSTUDENTCONFERENCE
OBJECTIVE:TopreparestudentstomakethemostoftheAnnualStudentConferencethroughactive
engagement;andtoprovidestrategiesforbuildingstudentconfidence,addressingconcerns,andsetting
expectationsforconferenceparticipation. ABOUTTHECONFERENCEKEYNOTESPEAKER:MARGARETATWOOD
Thisyear,theGreatWorldTextsprogramwillwelcomeMargaretAtwoodtotheAnnualStudent
Conference.Studentsfromacrossthestatewillhavetherareopportunitytoengageherina
conversationaboutHag-Seed,herrecentnovelisticadaptationofShakespeare’sTheTempest.This
interactionisthecorecomponentoftheAnnualStudentConference.
MargaretAtwoodisaCanadianandaward-winningauthorwhogrewupinnorthernOntarioand
Quebec,andinToronto.ShereceivedherundergraduatedegreefromVictoriaCollegeattheUniversity
ofTorontoandhermaster’sdegreefromRadcliffeCollege.Sheistheauthorofmorethanfortybooksof
fiction,poetry,andcriticalessays.HerMaddAddamtrilogy–theGillerandBookerprize-nominatedOryx
andCrake(2003),TheYearoftheFlood(2009),andMaddAddam(2013)–iscurrentlybeingadaptedfor
HBO.HernovelsincludeTheBlindAssassin,winneroftheBookerPrize;AliasGrace,whichwonthe
GillerPrizeinCanadaandthePremioMondelloinItaly;andTheHandmaid’sTale–comingsoonasaTV
serieswithMGMandHulu.
WhenAtwoodisaskedtonameherfavoriteauthor,sheanswers:Shakespeare.Herreasonsareboth
humorousandtelling:“First,”shewrites,“somuchofwhatweknowaboutplots,characters,thestage,
fairiesandinventiveswearwordscomesfromShakespeare.Second,ifyounamealivingauthorthe
otherlivingauthorswillbemadeatyoubecauseitisn’tthem,butShakespeareisconvenientlydead.”
Butitisherthirdrationalethatisthemostinteresting:“Shakespearerefusestobeboxedin.”She
continues:
Notonlydoweknowverylittleaboutwhathereallythought,feltandbelieved,buttheplaysthemselves
areelusive.Justwhenyouthinkyou’vegotameaningnaileddown,yourinterpretationmeltslikejellyand
you’releftscratchingyourhead.Maybehe’sdeep,verydeep.Ormaybehedidn’thaveacontinuity
editor.AndShakespearewillneverturnuponatalkshowandbeaskedtoexplainhimself,theluckydevil.
“Shakespeare,”Atwoodconcludes,“isinfinitelyinterpretable.”AfterreadingTheTempest,studentswill
knowexactlywhatAtwoodmeans.IfitisShakespeare’smostmagicalplay,itmayalsobehismost
elusive.Atwoodtellusweshouldembracethiselusivity.Itwasthisqualitythatmotivatedhertowritea
chapteraboutTheTempestinhernonfictionbook,OnWritersandWriting,andtowriteanadaptation
ofTheTempest—calledHag-Seed—forShakespeare’s400thanniversary.“Itwas,”asshewrites,“myfirst
choice,bymiles.Itcontainsagreatmanyunansweredquestionsaswellasseveralverycomplex
characters,andthechallengeoftryingtoanswerthequestionsandteaseoutthecomplexitieswaspart
oftheattraction.”TheTempestisachallenge—oneAtwoodarguesweshouldembraceinallofits
slipperymess.
Hag-Seed’smaincharacter,Felix,isamodernrenderingofProspero.Havingbeenunceremoniously
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oustedfromhisroleasArtisticDirectoroftheMakeshiwegFestival,helandsajobteachingtheatreina
prisonandbeginstodeviseaplanforrevenge.Theprisonsettingmightseemoddatfirst,butAtwood
explainsthatuponre-readingthetextstruckherinanewway—ittookherbysurprise.Shebegan
“countinguptheprisonsandimprisonmentsinthebook”andrealized“[t]herearealotofthem”—
they’reeverywhere,onceyoustartlooking.Eachcharacter,asitturnsout,“isconstrainedatsomepoint
intheplay.”Readershavefocusedontheplay’smagicalcharacter—indeed,thisteachingguidedoes
extensively—butAtwoodwasintriguedbytheoverarchingquestionofconstraint,whichruns
throughoutthetextandhasbeenlargelyoverlooked.“So,”shewrites,“Idecidedtosetmynovelina
prison”(“Aperfectstorm”).Atwood’skeynoteaddresswillofferstudentsanopportunitytothink
throughthemanyquestionsraisedinTheTempest—themajorityofwhichpossessnoeasyanswers.Her
experiencewritingHag-Seed,too,willhelpstudentstothinkthroughquestionsrangingfromthe
possibilitiesandchallengesofadaptation,andwhywecontinuetoreadShakespeareatpresent.
ONMEETINGANAUTHOR
Meetinganauthorisathrillingexperience,butitmightitalsoproveanerve-wrackingoneforstudents.
Topreparestudentsforthisevent,considerthefollowinginadvanceoftheconference:Whatarethe
expectationsforstudents’behavior?Whatkindsofquestionsshouldtheyaskandhowwilltheypresent
theirworktothekeynotespeaker?Howcantheybestprepareforthismeeting?Whatshouldteachers
doifstudentsarenervous,disruptiveorunprepared? Thepreparatorymaterialslistedbelowwillhelp
youandyourstudentstodevelopadeepersenseofAtwood’swork,aswellaswhattoexpectatthe
AnnualStudentConferenceandhowtoprepareforit.
PREPARATORYMATERIALS&HANDOUTS
AuthorWebsite
http://margaretatwood.ca
MargaretAtwood,“Aperfectstorm:MargaretAtwoodonrewritingShakespeare’sTempest”
https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/sep/24/margaret-atwood-rewriting-shakespearetempest-hagseed
AlexandraAlter,“NovelistsReimagineandUpdateShakespeare’sPlays”
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/books/novelists-reimagine-and-update-shakespearesplays.html?_r=0
AmyCarlton,“Celebratedauthorlookstothepastandfutureforinspiration”
https://americanlibrariesmagazine.org/2016/05/31/newsmaker-margaret-atwood/
LynnNeary,“Nowisnotthetimeforrealisticfiction,saysMargaretAtwood”
http://www.npr.org/2015/09/30/444775853/now-is-not-the-time-for-realistic-fiction-saysmargaret-atwood
ADDITIONALREADINGS&RESOURCES
CooperativeChildren’sBookCenter(UW-Madison),“TipsonHostinganAuthor/IllustratorVisit” http://ccbc.education.wisc.edu/authors/tips.asp
DaneGutman,“ThePerfectAuthorVisit”–tipsforpreparingstudentstomeetthekeynotespeaker
http://dangutman.com/school-visitsskypes/the-perfect-author-visit/
SuzanneRoberts,“HowtoTalktoaWriter” http://the-how-to.tumblr.com/post/32877145596/how-to-talk-to-a-writer
JoWalton,“HowtoTalktoWriters”
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http://www.tor.com/2008/12/21/how-to-talk-to-writers/
POINTSFORLECTURE:
• PrepareyourstudentsformeetingMargaretAtwood.Emphasizethat,likeallpeople,our
keynotespeakercouldbenervous,excited,happy,sad,shy,inagoodorbadmood,etc.Show
clipsofherdoinginterviews,andshowtheclassherphotographsotheycanthinkofherasan
individualfromthestart.
• Emphasizebeingcourteousandrespectful.Thosestudentsdesignatedtoaskquestionsduring
thekeynoteshouldalwaysgreetandthankAtwood,introducehim-orherselfbynameand
schoolaffiliation,andthenaskaquestion.Encouragestudentstomakeeyecontact,andtobe
politeandconfident!
• Helpstudentsavoidfeelingsofanxiety.Focusontheexperience,notthe“performance”oract
oftalkingtoAtwood.Emphasizethatsheiscomingtotheconferencepreciselybecausesheis
interestedinandexcitedabouttheideasstudentshavedevelopedasthey’vereadTheTempest.
ShecameallthewaytoWisconsinjusttotalktous—knowthatshethinksstudentshave
somethingtosaythatisworthhearing.Emphasizethatthisisadialogue,meaningthatstudent
voicesmatter.Atwoodwantstohearfromstudentsasmuchastheywanttohearfromher.
• Encouragethemtobespecific.Don’tjustsay:“Ilovethisbook!”Studentsshouldbepreparedto
articulatewhattheylovedmostaboutit.Inpreparation,askstudentstoconsiderwhatwas
mostinspiring,thought-provokingorchallengingaboutthetext.Theyshouldalsoconsiderwhat
theyhopetolearnaboutTheTempestanditslifeinadaptationfromAtwood.
o Tipsforaskingquestions.Avoidyesornoquestions.Instead,askquestionsthatallow
roomforthoughtandinterpretation.Consider,too,the“leadin”tothequestion.
Studentsshouldgivealittlecontexttolettheauthorknowwherethey’recomingfrom.
Forexample:“WhydidShakespearechoose[X]?”wouldbeamuchmoreinteresting
questionifthestudentfirstexplainedwhatabout[X]isinterestingorconfusingtohim
orher.Forinstance:“Ilovedthischaracter,butwasconfusedbysomeofhischoices,
suchas[EXAMPLE].WhydoyouthinkShakespearechosetohavehimdo[thisorthat]?
HowdidyoureinterpretornegotiatethisaspectofthetextinHag-Seed?”
• Beprepared.AskstudentstothinkabouthowAtwoodmightreacttoagivenquestion.Once
you’vechosenwhichquestionstoaskthekeynotespeaker,role-playpossibleanswersasaclass.
Preparealistoffollow-upquestions,too.
• Ondecorum.Thisconferenceisaseriousacademicaffairandalotofplanninghasgoneintothis
eventbyteachers,students,UWfacultyandstaff,etc.Thepeopleinattendancehavetraveled
farandspentmonthspreparingforthisevent.Disruptive,discourteousordisrespectfulbehavior
isunacceptable.Teacherswhosestudentsdonotfollowthedecorumguidelinesareexpectedto
removestudentsimmediatelyfromtheroom. DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS:
• Howwouldyouliketobetreated(ornot)ifyouwerethekeynotespeaker?Ifyouwerea
studentfromanotherschool?
• Whatquestionsdoyoumostwantanswered?WhatdoyouwanttoknowaboutTheTempest
anditsmanyadaptations,includingHag-Seed?
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ASSIGNMENTS,ACTIVITIES&PROJECTIDEAS:
• Holdaconferencedressrehearsal.Ifyourgroupofparticipatingstudentsissmall,thismight
consistofeachstudentgivingabriefbutformalpresentationofherproject,followedbya
questionandanswersession.Ifyourgroupofparticipatingstudentsislarge,splitthemintotwo
groups.Haveonegrouppresenttheirprojectsfirstandtheothersecond.Studentswillalternate
betweenpresentingandviewing,justastheywillonthedayoftheofficialconference.
• ReadHag-Seedand/orresearchAtwood’sworkonTheTempest.Studentscanalsogetexcited
abouthervisitbystudyingherbackgroundandoeuvre.
• Role-playmeetingAtwood.Havestudentspreparedwithquestions,andpracticeaskingand
answeringthem.Whatquestionsgotthebest(orworst)answers?Why?
• Brainstormproductivequestions.Insmallgroups,studentsshouldwritedownasmany
questionsastheycanthinkoftoaskAtwood.Thenswitchquestionswithothergroupsand
selectthosewhichseembestandthosewhichseemleasteffective.Usethisasthebasisfora
discussionabouthowwedecideifaquestionsis“good”or“bad”?(Hint:theleasteffective
questionsarethosethataretooeasytoanswer,produceobviousanswers,orcouldeasilybe
answeredbyanyonereadingthebook.)Youmighthavestudentsrevisewiththisdiscussionin
mind,practicinghowtoconstructaclear,directandinterestingquestion. TeachingTheTempestinWisconsin
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THETEMPEST:APRELIMINARYLISTOFADAPTATIONS
FILM&TELEVISION
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“YellowSky”(1948).DirectedbyWiliamA.Wellman(USA).English.Western.
“ForbiddenPlanet”(1956).DirectedbyFredM.Wilcox(USA).English.ScienceFiction.
“ResantillMelonia”/“TheJourneytoMelonia”(1989).DirectedbyPerÅhlin(Sweden).
Swedish.
“Prospero’sBooks”(1991).DirectedbyPeterGreenway(UK).English.
“TheTempest”(2010).DirectedbyJulieTaymor(USA).English.
FINEART
• WilliamHogarth.“ScenefromShakespeare’sTheTempest”(ca.1735):
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hogarth_017.jpg
https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/nov/14/arts.education
• J.W.Waterhouse.“Miranda–TheTempest”(1916):
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Miranda_-_The_Tempest_JWW.jpg
LITERATURE
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W.H.Auden.“TheSeaandtheMirror”(1944).
AugustBoal.ATempestade/TheTempest(1979).
RobertBrowning.“CalibanuponSetebos”(1864).
AiméCésaire.UneTempête(1969).
RobertoFernándezRetamar.“Caliban:NotesTowardaDiscussionofCultureinOurAmerica”
(1971).
GeorgeLamming.ThePleasuresofExile(1960).
JohnMcDonald.TheTempest:TheGraphicNovel(2009).
NkemNwankwo.“CalibantoMiranda”(1969).
ErnestRenan.Caliban:APhilosophicalDramaContinuingtheTempestofWilliamShakespeare
(1877).
AdrienneRich.“AfterDark”(1966).
JoséEnriqueRodó.“Ariel”(1900).
PercyByssheShelley.“WithaGuitar–ToJane”(1822).
KyōShirodaira.BlastofTempest(2009-2013).
NgugiwaThiong’o.“TowardsaNationalCulture”(1972).
MUSIC
• MarianneFaithfull.“FullFathomFive”(1965):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Xne9T_qPzU
• PeteSeeger.“FullFathomFive”(1966):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=grhjUGzA9jA
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JeanSibelius.“TheTempest(Stormen),Op.19”(1925-6):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VPrDP0e3edU
http://www.sibelius.fi/english/musiikki/nayttamo_myrsky.htm
ArthurSullivan.“TheTempestincidentalmusic,Op.1”(1861):
http://www.gilbertandsullivanarchive.org/sullivan/tempest/
http://www.gilbertandsullivanarchive.org/sullivan/tempest/times1862.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QtDymTHeJ9Q
PyotrIlyichTchaikovsky.“TheTempest,SymphonicFantasiaafterShakespeare,Op.18”(1873):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KyID7dxY4qohttp://en.tchaikovskyresearch.net/pages/The_Tempest
THEATRE
• “TheTempest.”DirectedbyDeclanDonnellan(Moscow:2011-14).
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre-reviews/8442454/The-Tempest-Barbicanreview.html
• “TheTempest.”DirectedbyLeardeBessonet(NewYork:2013).
http://www.nytimes.com/video/nyregion/100000002414641/tempest-in-the-city.html
• “TheTempest.”DirectedbyGeoffElliott&JuliaRodriguez-Elliott(Pasadena,CA:2014).
http://www.latimes.com/tn-gnp-20141021-story.html
• “TheTempest.”AdaptedanddirectedbyTae-SukOh.(Seoul,2014).
http://lamama.org/the-tempest/
https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2011/aug/15/the-tempest-review
http://globalshakespeares.mit.edu/tempest-oh-tae-suk-2011/
• “TheTempest.”DirectedbyJohnBell(Sydney,2015).
http://www.theaustralian.com.au/arts/stage/john-bells-the-tempest-proves-a-magicaljourney/news-story/d111af29b82a98e092b074c752af0a1d
• “TheTempest.”DirectedbyTheRedDoorTheaterCompany(Pasadena,TX:2016).
http://www.houstonpress.com/event/the-tempest-8561113
• “TheTempest.”DirectedbyGregoryDoran.(Stratford-Upon-Avon,2016-7).
https://www.rsc.org.uk/the-tempest/about-the-play
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/such-stuff-as-dreams-are-made-on-ariel-toappear-as-3d-digital-a/
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WHATISACLOSEREADING?
Closereadingisaspecificmethodofliteraryanalysisthatusestheinterpretationofasmallpieceoftext
asawaytothinkaboutthewhole.Thiskindofanalysisinvitesreaderstopaycloseattentiontothe
effectsofthespecificwordsonthepage.Weaskourselveswhyeachwordwaschosen,how,it
contributestothebroaderthemesandideasofthetext,andhowitinteractswithotherwords/images
inthetext.Whilethereisno“right’waytoanalyzeatext,therearemoreorlesscompellingwaysof
interpretingdifferentpassages.Thestepsbelowareintendedtohelpyoupersuasivelyclosereada
passageinaliterarytext(thoughtheskillsyoudevelopareapplicabletotheclosereadingandanalysis
ofanytextanywhere):
1. Summary.Readthepassageoncewithoutmakinganyannotations.Startbyaskingyourself:
Whatisgoingonhere?Whoisspeaking?Whatisthespeaker/character/narratorsaying?In
whatcontext?Ifyouareunabletowritea1-2sentencesummaryofthepassage,readthroughit
againuntilyouhaveacleareridea.Don’tpanicifyou’reunsure.Manytextsaredeliberately
ambiguousorconfusing–itisnotalwayspossibletoarticulateindefinitetermswhatis
happening.
2. Mood&Tone.Thesecondtimeyoureadthroughthepassage,considertheoverallmood
createdbythewriting.Isitcomic,tragic,sinister,serious?Howwouldyoudescribeitstoneand
itsattitude?Formal,playful,ironic?Doesthewriteruseunderstatementorexaggeration?
3. LiteraryDevices.Circle/underlinethespecificwords,imagesandliterarydeviceswhich
contributetothemoodandtoneyouhaveidentified.Thesemightincludeanyofthefollowing:
a. Unusualvocabularyordiction(archaicwords,neologisms,foreignimports,slang,
colloquialisms).Useadictionaryifyouneedtolookupwordsyoudon’trecognize.(Try
www.askoxford.com)
b. Symbols:doesthewriteruseimageswhichwouldseemtorepresentsomethingelse?
c. Metaphorsandsimiles
d. Strikingcomparisonsorcontrasts
e. Personification
f. Alliterationand/oronomatopoeia
g. Repetition
4. Biggerpicture.Havingconsideredthesedetails,youcanstarttodevelopanoverall
interpretationofthepassage.Considerthewaysthatyourpassagefitsintothetextasawhole.
Whatdoyouthinkisthetext’smainmessage?Howdoesitcontributetothebroaderthemesof
thework?Howdotheparticularliterarydevicesyouhaveidentifiedhelptoemphasize,intensify
ortroublethequestionsandissueswithwhichthetextisconcerned?
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