University of New Orleans ScholarWorks@UNO University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations Dissertations and Theses Summer 8-13-2014 New Orleans Producers: Directing the Regional Food System One Informal Contract at a Time Emily Nichols University of New Orleans, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td Recommended Citation Nichols, Emily, "New Orleans Producers: Directing the Regional Food System One Informal Contract at a Time" (2014). University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations. Paper 1883. This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Dissertations and Theses at ScholarWorks@UNO. It has been accepted for inclusion in University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UNO. The author is solely responsible for ensuring compliance with copyright. For more information, please contact [email protected]. NewOrleansProducers:DirectingtheRegionalFoodSystemOne InformalContractataTime AThesis SubmittedtotheGraduateFacultyofthe UniversityofNewOrleans inpartialfulfillmentofthe requirementsforthedegreeof MasterofScience in UrbanStudies By EmilyNichols B.A.UniversityofIowa,2008 August2014 Acknowledgments Iwouldnotconsidermyselfafoodie,justsomeonewhoenjoysandappreciatesfood. IhavechildhoodmemoriesofvisitingbothGrandparents’orchardandfarminOregon. GrandpaCratongrewcherriesandapricotsandsoldtheminfarmersmarketsandatlocal grocerystores.GrandpaNicholsgrewwheatandalfalfainEasternOregonandsoldhiscrop toalocaldistributor.Igrewupappreciatingafarmer’shardworkanddedicationtotheir fieldsthroughmyfather’sstoriesaboutharvestandresponsibilitiesaroundthefarm.Iwas introducedtofoodsystemsthroughpopularliteratureoffoodconsumptionpracticesin Americancities,energyproduction,andglobalization.Furtherinvestigationuncoveredthe problemsandconcernsoftheglobalizedfoodsystemandfoodindustry.Inaskingmy familyabouttheirdistributionpracticesIinstantlybecameinterestedinsmallfarm distributionpractices.NewOrleansisthebestplacetostudyfoodsystemsfromafarmer’s perspectivebecausethecommunityvaluesfoodandNewOrleansfarmersacceptedmy intrusion. Thisthesiswouldnothavebeencompletedwithoutthehelpofthesmallproducers thatcontributedtothisstudy.Theytooktimeoutoftheirbusydaystoanswerallofmy questions.Ihopethispaperhighlightstheirloveoffarminganddedicationtoproviding qualityfoodtoNewOrleans.Ialsohopethispaperencouragesotherstostudythefood systemfromtheproducersperspective.Idedicatethisthesistoallthesmallproducersthat aredoingwhattheylove.MayyoukeepproducingforAmerica. ii Thisthesiswasaccomplishedafterayearandahalfofhardworkandcommitment. IowealottoDr.ReniaEhrenfeucht.IwenttoherwhenIfirststartedtocontemplatemy proposalandDr.EhrenfeuchtguidedmeintodevelopingathesisthatIhaveenjoyedand thatIamproudof.IhaveenjoyedworkingcloselywithDr.Ehrenfeuchtandappreciatethe wayshechallengedmeasastudent.Thankyou. IalsowouldliketoacknowledgeDr.DavidBerissforhelpingmedevelopthe methodsandquestionsforthisstudy.Dr.Beriss’sextensiveknowledgeoffoodandculture hasaddedgreatdetailtothemethodsandresearchquestionsinthisstudy.Dr.Ana Croegaertsharedherknowledgeaboutconsumptionpatternsandhowthelanguageused andabsentinthediscourseanalysiswasvaluable.Thankyouallforyourhelpin completingthisresearch.Icouldnothavesurvivedtheprocessofcompletingathesis withoutyourguidanceandencouragement. iii Table of Contents ListofTables.................................................................................................................................................v Chapter1Introduction............................................................................................................................1 ResearchFocus.......................................................................................................................................2 ThesisStructure.....................................................................................................................................4 Chapter2TheTransformationoftheUrbanFoodSystem......................................................6 GlobalizationofAgriculture.............................................................................................................6 ImpactofGlobalizationonFoodProduction............................................................................8 LocalistMovementinaGlobalizedFoodSystem.................................................................10 NewOrleansHistoryofFoodSystems......................................................................................18 Chapter3Methodology........................................................................................................................20 ResearchDesign.................................................................................................................................20 Methods..................................................................................................................................................21 SemistructuredInterviews.......................................................................................................21 ClassifyingtheFarms................................................................................................................21 Coding..............................................................................................................................................22 DiscourseAnalysis.......................................................................................................................23 MeritsofQualitativeAnalysis.......................................................................................................24 Chapter4LocalDiscourseandHowitisUsed...........................................................................26 Restaurants...........................................................................................................................................26 ChefsBiographies,FoodMovement,andtheHighestQuality..................................26 SpecificDescriptionsandGeneralLabels..........................................................................28 Farmers’Websites.............................................................................................................................29 HumaneandSustainableFarmingMethods.....................................................................29 FarmersSharingLocalFoodOrganizations’Values...........................................................32 WhatFarmersSayDuringTransactions............................................................................34 CrescentCityFarmersMarket......................................................................................................36 TheNicheMarketintheFarmersMarket..........................................................................36 Chapter5SpeakingtoNewOrleansFarmers.............................................................................41 DirectMarketing.................................................................................................................................41 Customization..............................................................................................................................44 DiversifictionofProduction...................................................................................................47 SellingtoDistributors.....................................................................................................................49 RegulationthatImpactStructureofDistribution...............................................................50 EquipmentBansInfluencingProduction..........................................................................51 EquipmentBansInfluencingDistribution........................................................................53 NewOrleansFarmers................................................................................................................54 AreYouaLocalProducer?............................................................................................................56 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................................58 References..................................................................................................................................................61 Vita.................................................................................................................................................................64 iv List of Tables Table1:ClassifyingtheFarms..........................................................................................................22 Table2:DiscourseAnalysis...............................................................................................................40 Table3:DirectMarketing....................................................................................................................42 v Abstract Largecorporationslargelycontrolfoodproductionanddistributionintheglobal foodsystemandhavegeneratedadesireforlocallyproducedfood.Althoughsmall independentproducersstillcontributetoregionalfoodsystems,thereislittle understandingabouthowtheydistributeandmarkettheirproducts.Thisthesisusesboth semistructuredinterviewstoinvestigatethedistributionpracticesofurban,family,and regionalproducersintheNewOrleansregionanddiscourseanalysistodisclosehow localistdiscourseshapesproducersmarketingpractices.Thediscourseanalysisdiscovered thatthewebpresenceoflocalNewOrleansrestaurants,farmers,andCrescentCity FarmersMarkettargetedconceptsthatreflectlocalistbeliefsandvalues.Itwasalso establishedthatsmallproducersrespondtoconsumerdemands,butstillhavethepowerto shapetheregionalfoodsystemthroughnegotiatinginformalcontractsandstrivingtoenter intothenichemarket. Keywords: Small Independent Producers, Farmers Markets, Localism, Consumption, Global Economy, Regional Food System, New Orleans vi Chapter 1 Introduction Smallindependentfarmershaverecognizedtheycannotcompetewithfood conglomeratesmassproductionofcropssotheystrivetoenterthenichemarketforlocally producedfood.Smallproducer’spracticeofdirectmarketing,customization,and diversificationofproductionappealstothenichemarketandalsocreatedaroleforsmall producerswithinNewOrleansregionalfoodsystem.Thisstudywillbringtolightthe farmingpracticesofsmallindependentfarmersinNewOrleansandtheobstaclesand decisionsthatimpacttheorganizationofdistributingtheirfood. Foodconglomerateslargelycontrolfoodproductionanddistributionintheglobal foodsystemandglobaleconomy.Foodconglomeratesowntheentireproductionprocess ofpoultry,vegetation,andlivestock.Themulti‐industrialcontrolthatfoodconglomerates havewithinthefoodindustryiscalledverticalmonopolies.Bycontrollingmultiple industriesthatmakeupthefoodsystem,foodconglomeratescontroltheentireproduction processofthefoodmarket.Smallindependentfarmerscannotcompetewiththepowerand reachtheseconglomeratespossessintheglobaleconomy(O’HaraandStagl,2001;Hess, 2009). O’HaraandStaglarguethestructureandpracticesoftheglobalfoodindustryand systemisunsustainable(O’HaraandStagl,2001).ManyobservershavearguedtheUnited Statesparticipationinthisunsustainablefoodsystemisdirectlylinkedtothehandfulof foodconglomeratesthatcontroltheflowoffoodintoAmericancities(O’HaraandStagl, 2001;Friedman1993).ThecontrolfoodconglomerateshavegainedintheUnitedStates 1 hasallowedcorporationstodictatethevarietyoffoodofferedandhavegeneratedan unsustainablefoodsystem(HinrichsandLyson,2007,p.22).Verticalmonopoliesarenot theonlymethodcorporationshaveforcontrollingagribusiness.Large‐scalefarmersare integratedintofoodconglomeratecontrolthroughcontractsthatspecifyanddetermine whatthecontractedfarmersproduce(HinrichsandLyson,2007,p.22).Thecontractsaid foodconglomeratesinhavingcontroloffoodproductionatalocallevelandabetsthemto engulfmoreproducersundertheircontrol(HinrichsandLyson,2007,p.22). Research Focus ThereislittleresearchaboutdistributionpracticesofsmallfarmersintheUnited States.Currentstudieshavefocusedonconsumerismwithinfarmersmarkets,butthereare notanystudiesthatfocusontheproducersthemarkets.Thisresearchexaminessmallfarm distributionpracticesandhowthosedistributionpracticescontributetotheregionalfood system.IhypothesizedthedistributionpracticesoftheindependentfarmersintheNew Orleansregionshapetheregionalfoodsystembecausethecirculationoftheirproduction intheregionalandlocaleconomydrivesthedemandsforlocallyproducedfood.The productionanddistributionpracticesofsmallindependentproducersinfluencelocal businessesbuyingpractices.Restaurantswanttoconnecttoproducersbecausethe prestigelocallyproducedfoodgivesrestaurantsandthedemandtosupportlocal producers. Myresearchquestionsareasfollows: 1.Howdothefarmersorganizetheirfooddistribution? 2.Howdothefarmersview“local”andhowdoesitimpactthedistributionof products? 2 3.Howistheregionalfoodsystemshapedinlocalismdiscourse? ToanswerthesequestionsIconductedsemistructuredinterviewsthatfocusedonseven smallproducer’sroutinefromproductiontoprocessingandthendistribution.Thedetailed accountofproducer’sdistributionpracticesallowedthisstudytounderstandhowfarmers distributeproducts.ForthediscourseanalysisIexaminedrestaurantwebsitesandmenus, CrescentCityFarmersMarketwebsite,andfarmers’websites.Thisanalysiswasaimedto understandhowtheseinstitutionsusedlanguageandconceptsthatareassociatedto localistdiscoursetoattractconsumers. Thisresearchfoundthatsmallindependentproducersorganizetheirdistribution methodsbasedonconsumerdemands.Itwashypothesizedthatsmallproducersdirectthe regionalfoodsystemandtheydodirecttheregionalfoodsystem.Throughnegotiations withconsumers,forminginformalcontracts,andcustomizinganddiversifyingtheirfood productionanddistributionwithlocalshops,restaurants,andindividualconsumers. Negotiationsaretheinformalcontractsthatareformedbetweenproducerandconsumer. Throughthesenegotiations,localproducersinNewOrleanscreatethedemandsof restaurants,grocerystores,butchershops,andindividualconsumers.Theseactsof negotiationsarestructuredaroundthecapabilitiesofsmallproducerscustomizingorders forconsumersanddiversifyingproduction.Eventhoughfarmersarereactingtothe demandsofconsumers,theyhavecontrolofwhattheyproduce,howtheyproduceit,and weretodistributethefood.Smallindependentproducershavetheabilitytoimpact consumptionmethodsofbusinessesthatcontributetotheregionalfoodsystem.These productionanddistributionpracticescreatethedemandforlocallyproducedfoodand thesedemandscreatetheregionalfoodsystem. 3 Thesis Structure Chapter2exploresthecurrentliteratureandresearchoftheglobaleconomyandfood system.Thisreviewexplainstheglobalizationofagricultureandhowfoodconglomerates controlthecurrentfoodsystem.Thischapteralsofollowsthenegativeexternalitiesof massproductionpracticesintheglobalizedfoodindustryandthereactionsoflocalfood organizationstothesemethods.Theendofthechapterspecificallyfocusesonthehistory ofNewOrleansfoodsystem. Chapter3outlinestheresearchdesignthroughexplainingtheassemblyofthe semistructuredinterviewsanddiscourseanalysis.Theproducersthatparticipatedinthis studyareintroduced.Thestrengthandweaknessesandmeritofthestudywillbe examinedattheendofthechapter.Chapter4disclosesthethemesthatwerediscoveredin thediscourseanalysisofCrescentCityFarmersMarketwebsite,restaurants’menusand websites,andthewebsites’ofNewOrleansfarms.Restaurantswebsitesclaimtocelebrate andpreservesouthernLouisianacuisinetoattractcustomers.Restaurantmenususe specificdescriptionsandgenerallabelstoidentifythefarmthatprovidedtheingredients forthedish.CrescentCityFarmersMarketandfarmers’websitesuseethicaland sustainablefarmingmethodstoattractcustomers.Thischapterexplainsthatlocalist discoursereflectsconsumerdemands,whichinfluencesfarmersmarketingmethods. Chapter5outlineshowsmallindependentproducersstructuredistributionanddescribes thefactorsthatinfluencedecisionsofproductionpractices.Farmersexplaintheirviewsof “local”andconcludedthatfarmersdefine“local”basedonavarietyoffactorsandremains subjective. 4 TheConclusionshowsthatmyhypothesiswascorrectandtheresearchallowedthisstudy toexpandonthehypothesis.Smallindependentproducersshapetheregionalfoodsystem throughnegotiationswithlocalshops,grocerystores,andresidentsthatvaluelocally producedfood. 5 Chapter 2 The Transformation of the Urban Food System Thissectionofthethesisbuildsonthemainpointthatsmallindependentproducers arefunctioningwithinaglobalizedfoodsystemthatisheavilycontrolledbyfood conglomerates.IwillsettheframeworkoftheglobaleconomywithDanielMiller’sexample ofgrocerystoresandhowtheglobaleconomyaffectslocalnationaleconomies.Iwill outlineDavidHess’sarguethatderegulationofthefoodindustryallowscorporationsto buyintomultipleindustriesthatfocusonasingleagriculturalproduction(Hess,2009).I willthenexplainthatverticalmonopoliesarenottheonlysourceofcontrol,butlink ThomasLyson’sargumentthatcontractualpracticesbetweenproducersanddistributors havealsoconcentratedthefoodindustry(Lyson,2007).Thiscentralizationofcontrol causesverticalmonopolieswithinthefoodsystem(Hess,2009).IwillthenlinkO’Haraand Stagl’sargumentthatthecurrentstructureofthefoodsystemhasprovokedarecent interestandreactionfromlocalistmovementsbecauseoftheperceivednegative externalitiesthatglobalizationhasonfoodproductionandtheenvironment(O’Haraand Stagl,2001).IwillthenwrapupwithabriefhistoryofNewOrleansfoodsystempreand postKatrinatosetamorelocalsetting. Globalization of Agriculture Theglobalizationofmarketshastiedlocaleconomiestoeachotherresultingin mergersandclosuresofglobalbusinessesaffectinglocalcommunities.DanielMiller demonstratesthepoweroftheglobaleconomybyusinggrocerystoreclosuresinNorthern Englandasanexampleoftheconnectionsoftheglobaleconomy.Theclosureoflocally ownedandsuccessfulgrocerystoresinNorthernEnglandsparkedMiller’sinterestwhile 6 researchingconsumerism(Miller,2001).Millerexplainedthatgrocerystoreswereclosing becauseofthechangeinownershipandmergersthatwereexecutedintheglobaleconomy (Miller,2001,p.157).MilleralsodiscoveredtheOpiumWarinthelatenineteenthcentury wasalsopartofthereasonsuccessfulgrocerystoresinNorthernEnglandwereclosing theirdoors(Miller,2001).Afterfurtherinvestigation,MillerfoundthatChinabought ownershipofthebusinessesthattookpartinstartingthecolonialruleofHongKongand closedthemdownbecauseofthetreatmentoftheircountryduringtheOpiumWarand colonialrule(Miller,2001).MillerarguesthefinancialactionsofaChinesefirminthe globaleconomyinfluencescommunitiesinNorthernEngland.ThroughthisexampleMiller demonstratestwoaspects.Oneisthattheglobaleconomyisnotanewlydeveloped organismbecauselocaleconomiesofcountrieshavebeenconnectedsincetraderoutes. Thesecondaspectisthattheglobaleconomyhaslinkedcountriestogetherandfinancial decisionswithintheglobaleconomyimpactmorethanoneeconomy. Globalizationlinkslocaleconomiestogethermakingthemobsoletebecausethe actionsintheglobaleconomyhaveasignificantinfluenceinthelocaleconomy.Saskia Sassenarguesthisconnectionintheglobaleconomyallowsthecentralizationofindustries (Sassen,2012).Sassenexpandsthatstatementbyarguingspatialdispersalofindustries andeconomiesintensifiedglobalization(Sassen,2012,p.7).Sassenlinksherargumentto thewiderangeofspecializationwithintheglobaleconomyandis“causingcentralizationof economicscontrolinindustrysectors”(Sassen,2012,p.2).Sassen’sexplanationthat globalizationiscentralizingsectorsofindustriesframestheconceptofverticalmonopolies controllingthecurrentfoodsystem.Sassen’sargumentexplainsthefeaturesthatcreate 7 verticalmonopoliesareconglomeratediversificationinspecializationsandproduction concentrationofmultipleindustries(Sassen,2012,p.2). Impact of Globalization on Food Production Acompellingstatisticthatshowsthedegreeofcentralizationinthefoodindustry arethefiveconglomerates,whichincludeChiquitaandDelMonte,thatowneightypercent ofglobaltradebetweenthem(Steel,2008,p.101).Thesestatisticspointtoaconcentrated foodindustrythatiscontrolledbyjustafewcorporations.O’HaraandStagldefineglobal marketsas“spatialconfigurationsofmultinationalswhomonopolizeentiresectorsofthe globaleconomy”(O’HaraandStagl,2001,p.535).Theinternationalbusinesspracticesof foodconglomeratesthroughproductionofcropsinSouthandCentralAmericaandthen importationintodomesticmarketsbuildsinternationalnetworks.Giddenscharacterizes globalizationas“theintensificationofworldwidesocialrelationswhichlinkdistant localitiesinsuchawaythatlocalhappeningsareshapedbyeventsoccurringmanymiles awayandviceversa”(Giddens,1990,p.64).Globalizationhasconnectedthefoodindustry tightlysothatadroughtinAsiaorSouthAmericawillaffectthetypeoffruitthatis availableinAmericangrocerystores. Thewiderangeofindustryspecializationsallowsconglomeratestocreepinto multipleindustries.Averticalmonopolywithinthefoodindustryisacorporationthat ownsthelandwherefoodisproduced,theshipsthattransporttheproducts,andthe distributioncompanythatpackageandsellstheproductintothefoodsystem.Vertical monopoliesownthelinksthatcreatetheentireindustrychain.SteveStrifflerfoundthat thepoultryindustryiscontrolledbyahandfulofcorporationsandthatchickenfarmers lostcontrolovertheirindependentoperationsbecauseoftheconcentrationofpower 8 (Striffler,2005,p.16).Whatmakesthepoultryindustryconcentratedistheintense ownershipandspecializationoftheentireproductionprocessbyonecorporation.The differentlinksinthechaincometogetheraftermergersofsmallerproductionfirmsinto largerdistributors. O’HaraandStaglalsoarguethatthesecontracts“linkmultiplesmallerproducersto agiantprocessor”(O’HaraandStagl,2001,p.535).O’HaraandStagladdthatcontractual practicesareconsidereda“simpleintegration”withtheconglomerateandtheoutsourcing ofproductionaddstotheirchainofproductionwithoutownership,whilestillmaintaining control(O’HaraandStagl,2001,p.535).Thecontractsbetweenfoodconglomeratesand largefarmersgivecorporationscontroloflargevastoflandandproduction(Lyson,2007, 21).Lysonarguesthecontractualpracticesthatintegratefarmersandcorporationshave beenusedsincethe1960’sandare“reconfiguringproductionatthelocallevelbecauseit’s theprocessorandnotthefarmerwhodetermineswhatcommodityisproducedandwhere” (Lyson,2007,p.21‐22).Lysonalsoarguesthesebindingcontractsallowcorporationsto dictatefarmer’sroleasacontrolledproducerwithinthefoodsystem(Lyson,2007). Anotherexampleoftheconcentrationofthepoultryindustryisthecontractualpractice betweencorporatelyownedfooddistributorsandchickenfarmers.Thedistributers dictatehowmanychickensthefarmneedstoproduceandthedistributersalsosetthe pricetheywillpayforeachchicken(Striffler,2005,58).Ifafarmercannotfulfillthe contractthedistributercancelstheagreementandleavesthefarmvulnerableto bankruptcy.Foodconglomeratescontrolextendstoindependentfarmsthatarenot specificallyownedbythecorporation,butarerestrainedbythecorporation.Thefarmers aresubjectedtoagriculturalservitudebecausetheyarechainedtocorporatelyowned 9 distributorsthroughthecontractsandtheconcentrationofcorporateownershipinthe poultryindustry.FoodconglomeratescontrolthemajorityoffoodthatenterstheUnited Statesfoodsystem. Localist Movement in a Globalized Food System Themassproductionwithintheglobalizedfoodindustryhassparkedasocial movementthatvaluesandpromotessustainableeconomicandenvironmentalproduction methods.Inresponsetothecurrentproductionpracticeswithintheglobalfoodsystem, localfoodmovementsfocusonthenegativeexternalitiesofhomogenousproduction, unsustainableeconomies,andregaininglocalauthority(Hess,2009).Theattentionlocal foodmovementshavegivenfoodproductionhasstruckanewinterestinlocalismfor farmers,consumers,andrestaurants.Thelocalfoodmovementssupportlocalfoodsystems andaccumulateawarenessofthecurrentindustrialfoodsystem.Organizationsarguethe movementisbasedonthefollowingprinciples.Buyinglocalfoodwillreduceenergyusage duringtransportationofimportedfoodsintosupermarketsandalsocreatelesswaste througheliminatingpackingtoprotectfoodduringtravel(ThompsonandHodges,2011,p. 1117).Thelocalfoodmovementsmissionistobringawarenessandincreaseconsideration forwherefoodoriginatesandtoincreasesupportforlocalproducers(Martinezetal,2010). Theincreasingpublicawarenessofprocessedfood,howthecurrentfoodsystemis impactingtheenvironment,andcausingfoodinsecuritiesallowedthelocalfood movementstogainpopularity(Hess,2009,p.53).Theorganizationsaremaintainedby individualactionsthatreflectthebeliefalocalfoodsystemismorebeneficialtothecity andresidentsthanthecurrentcentralizedglobalfoodsystem(Hess,2009). 10 Localfoodactivistscommunicatetocommunitiesthebenefitsofresponsible economicandenvironmentalconsumerpractices.DavidHessarguesthelocalistmovement isin“supportofgovernmentpoliciesandeconomicpracticesorientedtowardenhancing localdemocracyandlocalownershipoftheeconomyinahistoriccontextofcorporateled globalization”(Hess,2009,p.7).Currently,independentfarmersproduceanddistribute foodonasmallerscaleintheregionalandlocalfoodsystem.Independentfarmershavea nichemarketthroughprovidinglocalfoodbecauseoftheinterestinlocalfood consumption(Hess,2009).Hessstateslocalistmovementswanttoimprovethecurrent rolethatsmallindependentproducershaveintheregionalandlocaleconomy(Hess,2009). Hessdoesnotbelievethatlocalistmovementswilldeflatetheglobalizedfoodindustry,but arguessupportinglocalproducerswillsustaintheirroleintheregionalfoodsystem(Hess, 2009,p.101).Advocatesargueiflocalproducersgainasupportiveroleinthelocal economyitwillpromotesustainableproductionmethods. Criticsofcentralizedfoodproductionfearthatunethicalfarmingpracticesoffood conglomeratesaredestroyingtheenvironmentandfuturefoodsupply.O’HaraandStagl arguethespecializationthatoccursintheglobalizedfoodindustryweakensproduction becauseoftheincreaseof“homogeneousproductionmethods,consumptionpatterns,built environment,patternsofsocialorganization,aswellasconcomitantlossofdiversesocial andbiologicaldiversity”(O’HaraandStagl,2001,p.534).AsO’HaraandStaglpointout, homogeneousproductionpatternsofplantsandlivestockweakenspeciesbecauselong‐ termsustainabilitydependsonspeciesabilitytoadapttoenvironmentalchangesand demandpatterns(O’HaraandStagl,2001,p.534).Thepracticesofmassproductionof cropsandlivestockarenotsustainablepracticesandareimpactingthecapabilityofthe 11 long‐termfoodmarkets(O’HaraandStagle,2001,p.535).Othernegativeexternalitiesof homogeneousandmassproductionofspeciesaretheusesoffungicidesthatcontaminate groundwater,causeshealthsideeffects,andcreatesadependenceoninsecticidetograntee aprofitableproduction(O’HaraandStagl,2001,p.534). Foodconglomerateshavechangedbananaproductionfromnaturemadetoman‐ madewithinthelastfewdecades.Forexample,theproductionofbananashaschanged drasticallyoverthelasthalfcenturyduetogeneticmutation.DanKoeppelexplainsinhis bookBanana,thatCavendishbananasaregeneticallyalteredtosurvivefungaldiseasethat oncedestroyedmostofthebananacropworldwide(Koeppel,2008,p.82).Thegenetic mutationisresponsibleforcreatingabananathatproducesreliableprofitforfood conglomerates.Asaresult,bananasarethemostpopularfruitintheUnitedStatesandthe Cavendishbananaisthemostcommonbananatobeplacedinsupermarkets.CarolynSteel statesthatfoodconglomeratesarecontrollingthevarietyofbananassoldinsupermarkets andthelarge‐scaleproductionofCavendishbananasarethreateningtheexistenceofthe “remaininggene‐poolofbananas”(Steel,2009,p.101).Thisrapidproductiondoesnot allowforfoodtoadapttothechangesofthe“homogenousproductionpatterns”andresults inalossofbiologicaldiversity(O’HaraandStagl,2001,p.534).AnotherexamplefromSteel thatdemonstratesthedangersofhomogenousproductionmethodsisthethirtypercentof theforty‐fivehundredlivestockspeciesthatareclosetoextinctionbecausemostmilkand beefproductioncomesfromonebreedofcattle(Steel,2008,p.101).O’HaraandStagl declaretheunethicalproductionoffoodisdestroyingthelong‐termsustainabilityand robustnessofthefoodsystem. 12 Localistmovementsconfronttheissueofthelossofeconomicandpoliticalpower withintheglobaleconomy.Theemphasisoflocalistmovementsissummarizedinthis statement. Localismemphasizestheproblemsofthecorporatizationofthe economyandthelossoflocalsovereignty,anditdrawsattentiontothe projectofbuildinganeconomybasedoneconomicunitsotherthanlarge corporations,ratherthanfindingsolutionthatadjusttheroleofthe governmentintheeconomyandthataddressthepervasivegrowthof within‐nationinequality(Hess,2009,p.55). Independentfarmersarefightingtosustainapresencewithinthelocalandregionalfood systemswithoutbeingswallowedintothecontroloffoodconglomerate.Thisisevidentin thegrowingnumberofCommunitySupportedAgriculture(CSA),farmersmarkets,and communitygardensintheUnitedStates(Brown,2001,p.667).Theincreasingpresenceof marketsthatselllocallygrownandethicallyproducedfoodindicatestherearesmall independentfarmersthataresurvivingoutsideofthescopeoffoodconglomerates.This phenomenonhasattractedsocialscientistattentiontostudyfarmersmarketsand consumers.Pastresearchhasfocusedonthemarketplaceandconsumers,butdonot concentrateonthevendorsthatmakeupthesemarkets. AllisonBrownoutlinesahistoricalreviewofhowfarmersmarketswereanecessary andvitalcomponenttourbanfoodsystems.AfterWorldWarII,theinterstatehighway systemandgovernmentencouragementdevelopedsuburbsthateliminatedthedemandfor farmersmarkets(Brown,2001,p.655).Theexpansionofsuburbsmovedcommercial retailingoffoodoutsidethecitycenteranddepopulateddowntownareascausingadecline ofthenumberoffarmersmarkets(Brown,2001).Withinthelastfourdecadesfarmers marketpresencehasbeenrestoredwithinurbanareaswiththepassingofFarmer‐to‐ 13 ConsumerDirectMarketingActof1976(Brown,2001,p.657).Thislawallowedfarmers accesstopublicurbanareastoimproveddirectcontactwithurbancustomers.Directly afterthelawpassedthenumberoffarmersmarketsgrewrapidly(Brown,2001).Brown linkedthegrowthofthenumberoffarmersmarketstotheincreasingurbanpopulation andtheirdemandforfreshfood.Brownstatesthestudyandsupportoffarmersmarketsis importantbecausethemarketsareanessentialsupportsystemandsourceofincomefor mostfarmers. Thearticles,“GoingLocal:ExploringConsumerBehaviorandMotivationsforDirect FoodPurchases”(2008)and“UnderstandingConsumerInterestinProductandProcess‐ BasedAttributesforFreshProduce”(2008),examineswhyconsumersshopinfarmers marketsandhowmuchtheyarewillingtopayforqualityfreshlocalfood.Theyfoundthe mainreasonforconsumerstobuylocalfoodistoobtaininformationabouttheproduce theyarebuyingandtohavetheabilitytotracethefoodtothegrower.Theyspecifythe majorityoffarmersmarketconsumersare“locavores”,whotrytoconsumelocalproduce andmeatthataregrownorraisedwithina200‐milesradiusofwherethefoodisbeingsold (Thilmanyetal,2008,p.1303).“Locavores”arecontributorstothelocalfoodmovement andhavestrongtieswithmarketsthatselllocallyproducedfood. Placeisaveryimportantaspectofthefoodprocessbecauseitallowsindividualsto connectandvaluethefoodtheyconsume.Placeisanessentialpartofthedefinitionof “local”becausethesenseofplacethatisconnectedtolocallygrownandproducedfood givesconsumersawarenessoftheconsumptionpractices.Theimportanceofastandard definitionof“local”istheimpactlocalfoodhasonthelocalfoodsystemandtheactionsof theindustrialfoodsystemhasonshapingcities.LydiaZepedaandLiJinghanarguethe 14 term“local”isliberallyusedbecause“therearenostandardsintheUnitedStatestodefine it”(ZepedaandJinghan,2006,p.9).ZepedaandJinghanalsoarguethatplaceneedstobe “partofthefoodsystemhelpingtodefinewhatfoodsareconsumedandhowpeoplevalue andengagewiththosefoods”(Blakeetal.,2010,p.412).Theterm“local”willbeexplored morelaterinthethesisandthemethodschapterwillexplainthesignificanceofincluding theconceptintotheanalysis. ThesestudiesofconsumerismandconsumersinfarmersmarketsaroundtheUnited Statesareanexampleofhowlocalistfooddiscourseisusedtoattractconsumers.Miller arguesthatcommoditiesareapowerfulsymbolofsocialclassandidentity(Miller,2001,p. 114).MillerreferencesPierreBourdieu’sworkofhowconsumerismoffoodisadistinction ofclassstatus(Miller,2001,p.118).Bourdieuarguesthatconsumptionpracticesassert individualsintosocialclassesinsocietybasedontheirdistincttaste(Bourdieu,1977,p.57). Bourdieu’sargumentconnectsdirectlytoWolfetaldemographicfindingsoffarmers marketshoppers(2005).Thedemographicsoffarmersmarketshopperstendstobea personwhoisolderandemployed,whoismostlikelymarried,andhave“middletohigh incomedistribution”(Wolfetal,2005,p.199).Thedemographicoffarmersmarket consumerdemonstratesthesocialclassthatfarmersmarketsattractandhowshoppingat farmersmarketswilldesignateanindividualasmiddleclass.ThorsteinVeblenarguesthat theneedtodistinguishandidentifywithasocialclassisfromconspicuousconsumption (Veblen,2008).Veblen’sargumentcanbeconnectedtoshoppingatfarmersmarkets, whichisopentothepublic.Bothstudiesoffarmersmarketsacknowledgethatdirect marketingofproducearemoreexpensive,butstillreasonableandworththeextramoney. Whenfarmersmarketconsumersacknowledgetheybuydirectlyfromthefarmertheyare 15 visiblyconsumingamoreexpensiveandwhatisidentifiedasahigherqualityoffood. Consumersareexhibitingtheyhavetheopportunitytobuyfoodatafarmersmarket. TheconspicuousconsumptioncanalsobeconnectedtoAlisonHearn’sargumentof commodityactivismandMiller’sargumentof“green”consumption(Hearn,2013;Miller, 2001).Hearnarguesthatcommodityactivismallowsconsumerstoidentifywiththecause orissueconnectedtothebrandthroughpurchasinganitemthatsupportsmedicalresearch orlocalproducers.Hearnarguesthatbrandingallowsconsumerstofeelpartofthelarger causeandgivesconsumerstheopportunitytoself‐brandasanactivist(Hearn,2013,p.23). Hearndoesraisethequestionwhethercommodityactivismandself‐brandingwillchange socialbehaviorandconsumptionpatterns(Hearn,2013,p.35).MilleraddressesHearn’s questionbyarguingthat“greenandsimilarissueshavefadedawaytobecomelargely inconsequentialforthevastmajorityofshoppersandinsteadbecomeanicheofspecialist shoppingforasubgenreofdedicatedactivistsentirelywithinthemiddleclass”(Miler, 2001,p.125).TheshoppersinMiller’sethnographyprovedtheyarelessconcernedabout commodityactivismandmoreconcernedaboutprice(Miller,2001,p.121).Miller’s argumentalsoconnectstoBourdieuandVeblen’sargumentaboutconsumerism,class,and taste.Miller’spointisalsovalidatedintheWolfetalsurveyaskingfarmersmarket consumersthereasonstheyshopatthemarketinsteadofthegrocerystore.The participantsofthesurveyarefarmersmarketshoppersandnonfarmersmarketshoppers (non‐shoppers).Thisstudyshowsathoroughexaminationofthedemographicsoffarmers marketconsumersandwhytheyprefertoshopthere(Wolfetal,2005).Theyconcluded consumersoffarmersmarketshighlyvaluequalityfreshlookingproducethatare reasonablypriced,theyvalueknowingwherethefoodwasproduced,andtheabilityto 16 tracethefoodbacktothegrower(Wolfetal,2005).Thestudyalsoconcludedthatfarmers marketshoppersplacemoreimportanceonfoodthannon‐shoppersbecausethey indicatedthey“enjoycooking”and“mealsarethemostimportanttimesoftheday”(Wolf etal,2005,p.200).HearnandMillerbotharguethatcommodityactivismispracticed,but theissuesthatareconnectedtotheitemisnotasimportantasself‐brandingorbeing identifiedwithinasocialclass. Tobuildontheargumentofnichemarketing,thesubjectofmassproductionand capitalismcannotbeavoided.SamBinkleycomparesmasscommodificationtoconsumer lifestyleandarguesconsumersareoverwhelmedbychoicesbecauseofmassproductionof items(Binkley,2009).Nichemarketingputsfeelingsintotheproductandcreatesa solutionforindividuals(Binkley,2009).Massproductionexpandsthemarketbecause therearemultipleselectionsofonecommoditythataresimilartoeachother,whichcreates holesinthemarketforproductsthatfocusonasolutiontoaproblem.Massproductionand nichemarketingplayverynicelyintoacapitalisteconomybecausetheconsistentgrowing ofthemarketisaself‐generatingcycleofcommodityproduction. KarlMarxtheorizesinacapitalisticeconomyclasspositioninsocietyisbasedon economicpowerandisdistinctbutoftentiedtosocialstatus,whichisgainedthrough prestige(Liechty,2003,p.13).MaxWebertheorizesthatwithinacapitalisticeconomy classpositioninsocietyisdeterminedbytheproductionandtheconsumptionofgoodsof anindividualorgroupwithintheeconomy(Liechty,2003,p.13).Weberalsotheorizesthat socialstatusinacapitalistmarketisdeterminedbyeducation,lifestyle,andsocialization (Liechty,2003,p.13).Hearguesthereisaninterclasscompetitionwithinthecapitalist marketforsocialcapitalandstatus(Liechty,2003,p.15).MarxandWeberare 17 complementarytheorists.Marxarguesthattherelationsindividualsorgroupshavewith materialsdeterminesthepositionofsocialclasstheyarecategorized(Liechty,2003,p.13). Weberarguesthesocioculturalcomplexityofthecapitalisticmarketcreatesand consumptionofcommoditiesalonecannotbedeterminedsocialclass(Liechty,2003,p.13). New Orleans History of Food Systems BeforetheFirstWorldWar,NewOrleanshadawell‐establishedanddiversemarket systembecausetheMississippiRiverallowedaccesstodiversetradeandcommerce. BeforetheFirstWorldWar,32marketswereestablishedinthemarketsystemthroughout theNewOrleansarea,placingonemarketineveryneighborhood(CrescentCityFarmers Market,n.d.).AfterWorldWarII,NewOrleanssawadeclineofmarketsbecauseofthe continuingdevelopmentofgrocerystores(CrescentCityFarmersMarket,n.d.).After HurricaneKatrina,NewOrleanshasmadeagreateffortintorebuildingmarketsystems andmakingfarmersmarketslikeHollyGroveandCrescentCityFarmersMarketastaplein communities. ThefoodsysteminNewOrleanswasreestablishedafterHurricaneKatrina.The rebuildingofthefoodsystemwasaslowprocessandurbanagricultureadvocatessawthis asanopportunitytorejuvenatealocalfoodsystem.NewOrleansFoodandFarmNetwork (NOFFN)isasmallnon‐profitorganizationthatwasformedafterHurricaneKatrinatohelp “hard‐hitneighborhoods”gainaccesstofood(Bailey,2009,p.17).Urbanagriculturalist andNOFFNsawthelackoffoodaccessasanopportunitytobuildasustainablefoodsystem inthecommunityofHollygrove.TheyfocusedtheireffortstoestablishHollyGroveMarket andFarmasafoodoutletfortheHollygroveneighborhoodandsurroundingcommunities (Bailey,2009).HollyGroveisacentralizedresourcefortheagriculturalcommunity.The 18 marketbuyscropsfromtheurbanfarmersthatgrowinHollyGroveandfromlocalfarmers inthesurroundingcommunities. HollyGroveMarketandFarmwasestablishedafterHurricaneKatrinain2008to givethelocalcommunityofHollygrovewalkableaccesstofreshfood.HollyGroveisnota traditionalCommunitySupportedAgricultureorganization.HollyGroveorganizers understoodthesurroundingcommunitycouldnotaffordtoinvestinthefarmandmarket, likearegularCommunitySupportedAgricultureorganizationissetup(CrescentCity FarmersMarket,n.d.).CustomersdonotneedtoinvestinHollyGrovetohaveaccesstothe foodthatissoldinthemarket.Customerscanpurchaseboxesoffoodortheycanpurchase singleitemsandHollyGroveresidentsreceive25percentoffgroceries(CrescentCity FarmersMarket,n.d.).HollyGroveisamarketplaceforlocallyproducedgroceries,itisan urbanfarm,itprovidesspaceforcommunitygardeners,andprovideseducationalcourses onhowtocultivatehomegardens.Theirmissionistoprovideaccessibilitytofreshand localfoodstoHollygroveneighborhoodandthesurroundingareasofNewOrleans.They wanttodemonstrateandpromotepracticesofeconomicandenvironmentalsustainability. Thefarmprovidestrainingprogramstoteachthecommunityaboutagricultureandhowto cultivatefoodtopromotesustainablepractices.Thetrainingprogramsconsistof composting,recycling,andhowtostartandmaintainchickencoops(CrescentCityFarmers Market,n.d.).Backyardgrowers,communitygardens,small‐scaleurbanfarms,andrural farmsinthesurroundingNewOrleansareaproducethegroceriesthataresoldat HollyGroveMarketandFarm. 19 Chapter 3 Methodology Research Design Thisresearchfocusedonhowsmallindependentproducersorganizetheir distributionpracticesandhowthosedistributionmethodscontributetothefoodsystem. ThisresearchincludedinterviewswithsmallindependentproducersintheNewOrleans regionandanalysisoflocalistdiscourseinthewebpresenceofrestaurants,farmers,and CrescentCityFarmersMarket.Iconductedamulti‐methodqualitativeanalysisof distributionexercisesofsmallindependentfarmersintheNewOrleansregiontoanswer thefollowingresearchquestions: 1.Howdothefarmersorganizetheirfooddistribution? 2.Howdothedifferentclassificationsoffarmersview“local”andhowdoesit impactthedistributionofproducts? 3.Howistheregionalfoodsystemshapedinlocalismdiscourse? TheresearchusedsemistructuredinterviewswithsevenfarmersintheNew Orleansregion.Iinterviewedfourfamilyfarmers,twourbanfarmers,andoneregional producer.Everyfarmerthatwasinterviewedwasanownerandheadofoperationsofthe farm.Becausemanyindependentfarmersdonothaveformalizedfarmingpracticesthat wouldreflectabusinessplan,semistructuredinterviewswerethemosteffectivewayto understandtheirdistributionpractices.Thefarmerswerecontactedthroughemail,phone calls,andtextmessaging.Ireceivedthefarmer’scontactinformationthroughCrescentCity FarmersMarketwebsiteandfarmers’websites.Farmerswerealsocontactedwhenvisiting CrescentCityFarmersMarketwhilefarmersweresellingtheircrops.Theinterviewswere 20 conductingatthefarms,CrescentCityFarmersMarket,andtheUniversityofNewOrleans. Irecordedtheinformationoftheinterviewsbyaudiotapingeachinterviewandtranscribed andcodedeachinterview. Methods SemistructuredInterviews Iconductedsevensemistructuredinterviewsforthisresearchandaskedopen‐ endedquestionsthatpromptedproducersintoexplainingtheirdistribution,production, andmarketingpractices.Thethemesoftheinterviewswerestructuredaroundquestions ofhowfarmersbecameinvolvedinfarming,theirfarmingpracticesofproductionand distribution,andhowfarminghaschangedinthepastdecade.Thefarmersexplainedtheir productionprocessofraisinglivestock,catchingseafood,andcultivatingvegetation.The farmersthenwalkedmethroughthestepsofprocessingtheirproduct,whichincluded pasteurizingmilk,theslaughteringoflivestock,andharvestingoffruitsandvegetables.The farmersalsotoldexperiencestheyhaddistributingtoconsumersinNewOrleans.The experiencesrangefromindividualcustomerstolargeinstitutions. Classifying the Farms ThisthesisfocusesonthreetypesoffarmersintheNewOrleansarea:urban farmers,smallfamilyfarmers,andmediumindependentfarmers.Thethreeclassifications offarmersrepresentdifferenttypesofproducersintheNewOrleansregion.Thefarmers includedinthisstudyarenotundercontracttoproduceforfoodconglomerates.Thethree classificationsoffarmersaredefinedasthefollowing.Anurbanfarmerisdefinedas growingcropswithinNewOrleanscitylimitsandonpreviouslydevelopedland.Asmall 21 familyfarmisdefinedasafarmmanagedandownedbythesamefamilyformorethana generation.Regionalfarmsareindependentlyownedandsupplyfoodonalargerscalethan familyfarms.Thecombinationofvegetation,poultry,livestock,andseafoodproduction allowedmyresearchtoentertaintheperspectiveofdifferentclassificationsoffarms organizationofdistributingfoodintheNewOrleansregion.Distributionpracticesare definedastheprocessofhowfarmerscontactconsumers,thenegotiationsbetweenfarmer andbuyer,thestepsofprocessingthefood,andthemethodofdeliveringtheirproduct. Table1:ClassifyingtheFarms Alias Family Farm Oak Farm Willow Farm Evergreen Farm Maple Farm Urban Farm Cedar Farm Pine Farm Regional Farm Cyprus Farm Coding IusedtopiccodingforanalysisbecauseIwaslookingforthemesthathighlighted howsmallproducersorganizethedistributionoffood,howtheyview“local”,andhow “local”impactsdistribution(RichardsandMorse,134,2007).Tokeepmyfindings organizedIhadseparatedocumentswithsectionsforeachquestionandplacedthethemes thatcorrespondedwitheachquestion.Iwasspecificallylookingforhowfarmerssoldtheir 22 products,contactedthedistributors,howlocalistdiscourseinfluenceddistribution decisions,andwhattypesofregulationsimpactedtheirproductionanddistribution practices. Discourse Analysis Thisstudyalsoconductedadiscourseanalysisofrestaurantwebsitesandmenus, farmers’websites,andCrescentCityFarmersMarketwebsite.Thediscourseanalysis examinedthedifferentnarrativesthatarepresentonfarmers’websitesandCrescentCity FarmersMarketwebsite.Withinthosenarratives,Iexaminedhowproducerspresented themselvestoattractcustomersthroughhumaneanimaltreatmentandsustainableand environmentallyfriendlyfarmingmethods.Thediscourseanalysisexaminestenmenus andwebsitesofrestaurantsinNewOrleans.Thefarmersthatwereinterviewedforthis studywereincludedinthediscourseanalysis,aswellasthefarmersthatarerepresented inrestaurantmenus.CrescentCityFarmersMarketwebsiteistheintersectionfor connectingrestaurantsandfarmersandfocusesonlocalfoodbeliefs.Theinclusionofthe market’swebsiteisimportantinidentifyinganddefining“local”.Therestaurantswere pickedfromtheCrescentCityFarmersMarketwebsitepage,“ourchefs”(CrescentCity FarmersMarket,n.d.)Thepageliststhechefsthatconsistentlypurchasevegetables,meat, andcheesefromlocalproducersintheNewOrleansregion.Thewebpresenceof restaurants,farms,andfarmersmarketsgavemeaccesstohowtheseinstitutionswere attractingthepublics’interestthroughtheuseoflocalistdiscourse.Thediscourseanalysis showedhowfarmers,restaurants,andCrescentCityFarmersMarketuselocalistdiscourse ontheirwebsitestoengageinanichemarket. 23 Merit of Qualitative Analysis Thisstudywasdesignedandpursuedwithimportantconceptstomaintainthe researchqualitativeintegrity.Theseconceptsincludetrustworthiness,credibility,and standardqualitativemethodology(Hesse‐BiberandLeavy,2011,p.46).Theinitial contactingoftheproducerswasbasedonthethreeclassificationsthatwouldbeincluded inthestudy.Thesampleofproducersinthisstudywasaconveniencesamplebecausethe farmerswerepickedbasedontheirwillingnesstotakethetimetobeinterviewed(Hesse‐ BiberandLeavy,2011,p.46).ThelackofcontrolIhadonwhichproducersparticipated introducedbiasofwhowasincludedinthisstudy.Thesmallsampleofthisstudyfollows standardqualitativeresearchmethods(Hesse‐BiberandLeavy,2011,p.45).Thesmall sampleallowedthisstudytogetanin‐depthunderstandingofsmallproducersdistribution andproductionpracticesandthefactorsthatinfluencethosepractices.Thecombinationof asmallsamplesetandsemistructuredinterviewsallowedthisstudytoretrieveadetailed accountofhowsmallproducersorganizethedistributionandproductionoftheirfood. Therearelimitationsofthisstudy.Thelimitationistherepresentationofeachfarm classificationincludedinthisstudy.Ihadalimitedscheduletoconducttheinterviewsand thetimeconstraintseliminatedtheopportunitytohaveconductedasecondroundof interviews.Thefollow‐upinterviewswouldbeusedtoclarifywhatdistributionchanges, whetherregulationoropportunities,producersthinkneedtobeimplemented.Iwould havealsohavelikedtovisitallthefarmsandwatchtheproductionprocessfirsthand.This wouldhavegivenmyresearchmoreofanunderstandingofhowfarmsareorganizedand structured. 24 Thisstudycontributestofieldsofresearchonconsumerism,agriculturalstudies, localfoodorganizations,andspecificallytohowproducersintheNewOrleansregion produceanddistributetheirproductandrelatetoconsumers.Asstatedbefore,thereis littleunderstandingofhowsmallproducersorganizetheirdistributionoffoodandwhat factorsinfluencetheirproductionanddistributionprocess.Thispaperbringstolighthow smallproducersfunctionwithintheregionalfoodsystemandhowtheynegotiatetheirway intothenichemarket. 25 Chapter 4 Local Discourse and How it is Used Ihypothesizedthedistributionpracticesofsmallindependentproducersshapethe regionalfoodsystem.Theuseoflocalistdiscoursetodistributeproductisapartofhow theyshapetheregionalfoodsystem.Smallindependentproducersinvokelocalismthrough theirhumaneactsoftreatmenttoanimals,crops,andtheenvironment.Restaurantsusethe samelanguageintheformofspecificdescriptionsandgenerallabelstoconnectto consumersthatvaluelocalistideals.TherestaurantsareconnectingtoCrescentCity FarmersMarketanalyticalreasonstoshoplocallyandwanttoconnectwiththefoodbeliefs thatarereflectedonthemarket’swebsite.Thewebpageof“ourchefs”makesthe connectionmoreobvioustocustomersandsupportersofCrescentCityFarmersMarket. Thetitleofthewebpagegivescustomerstheideathattheytoosharecommonfoodbeliefs withthecommunityandCrescentCityFarmersMarket.Therestaurantswanttoprovidea mealthattastesgood,butalsomakescustomersfeelgoodaboutwhattheyeatintheir establishment. Restaurants Chefs Biographies, Food Movements, and the Highest Quality Thissectionwilldiscussthefindingsofthediscourseanalysisofrestaurantwebsites andrestaurantmenus.Thediscourseanalysisfoundrestaurants’websiteshavethree themesintheirnarratives.Restaurantslinktothelargerlocalistframeworkbypromoting thechef’ssouthernheritage,authenticatingchef’smotivationsbehindtheselectionof dishesonthemenu,andthedirectconnectionthechefshavetoparticularfoodmovements andbeliefs. 26 TherestaurantsthatJohnBeshownsusehissouthernorientationtopromotethe authenticityoftherestaurant’ssoutherndishesandendorseshimasapreserverof southerncuisinebecauseheisdedicatedtosouthernLouisianafoodculture(Restaurant August,n.d.).ThebiographydescribesBesh’schildhoodasthebeginningstagesofhis understandingandappreciationforsoutherncuisinebecauseofhischildhoodexperience offishinginLakeBorgne,whichisdescribedasthe“epicenterofcoastalcuisinein Louisiana”(RestaurantAugust,n.d.).RestaurantAugustuseschefJohnBesh’ssouthern heritagetoattractcustomers.Localistdiscoursefavorslocalcuisinebecausegeography mostlydictateslocalproduction.SusanSpicerpromoteshermotivationsforservinglocal produceatherrestaurant,Bayona,byreferringtohersupportfortheslowfoodmovement. SusanSpicerandherteamdonotpromoteaparticularcuisineorstyle,butinsteadSpicer isdescribedasa“pioneeroftheslowfoodmovement”(RestaurantBayona,n.d.).Spicer’s websiteattractspeoplethroughtheirfoodbeliefsandpronouncingprideintherestaurants participationintheslowfoodmovement.SusanSpicersupportstheslowfoodmovement, butdoesnotpromotethemovementontherestaurantswebsite.Thereisanabsenceof directlinkstoslowfoodmovementinformationwebpage.Thereisalsonoexplanationof herreasonstosupportandorganizeherbusinessaroundthefoodmovement. Thelinguisticsusedtodescribelocalproduceonrestaurants’websitesasthe “highestquality”attractsresidentswithhighfoodvalues.ThemenuofAncoraPizzeria describestheingredientsoftheirpizzasasthebestproduceformakingpizzasbecausethe ingredientscomefromfarmersmarketsinNewOrleans(CrescentCityFarmersMarket, n.d.).BourbonHouseisanotherrestaurantthatserveslocalproduceandmeatfrom CrescentCityFarmersMarket.BourbonHouse’smissionistoservethe“highestqualityof 27 foodwhilesupportingfamilyfarmsandfishermen”(CrescentCityFarmersMarket,n.d.). Restaurantsusechef’smotivationsandfoodbeliefstomirrorlocalistfoodmovement’s language.TherearealotofrestaurantsinNewOrleansandwiththetoughcompetition, restaurantswanttorideonthecoattailsoflocalproducersreachintothenichemarket. Specific Descriptions and General Labels Restaurantsusemenustoconnecttothelocalistframeworkbylabelingingredients thatareproducedlocally.Restaurantsusetwodifferentconceptsontheirmenustolink dishestolocalistdiscourse,specificdescriptionsandgenerallabels.Bothconceptsconnect restaurantstolocalproducersandtolocalfoodorganizationsvalues. AnexampleofagenerallabelisrestaurantAugust’smenuthatuses“Gulfgrouper” and“atastingoffarmersmarketvegetables”toindicatetheingredientsarelocallygrown andcaught(RestaurantAugust,n.d.).Thegenerallabelof“atastingoffarmersmarket vegetables”allowsAugusttoacknowledgetheingredientswereboughtdirectlyfroma localproducerinafarmersmarket(RestaurantAugust,n.d.).Restaurantswanttoconnect tolocalproducerseveniftheydonotknowwhichproducerprovidedtheingredientsto standouttoconsumersandfromotherrestaurants. Specificdescriptionscommunicatetothepatronwhoprovidedthemeator vegetablesthatareincludedinthemeal.Forexample,Dante’sKitchenpatronsreadthe beefprovidedinthedishcomesfromTwoRunsFarmorChappapeelaFarms(Restaurant Dante’sKitchen,n.d.).Theconsumercanidentifythefarmandwheretheingredientsare comingfromconnectingtherestauranttothefarms.Thebroadcastingofwherefood originatesshowstheimportanceconsumersputintothequalityoffood.Restaurantsaspire toobtainandcookwithfreshlocalfoodtoprovidepremiumdishesthatreflectpatronfood 28 values.Thediscourseshowsthatconsumersvaluelocalfoodprovidedbylocalgrowers. Themenusandwebsitesofrestaurantsshowthatcustomerspayattentiontothe ingredientsonthemenuandmakeanefforttosupportlocalproducers.Restaurantsare tappingintothelocallyproducedfoodnichemarketthroughconnectingtofarmersandthe useoflanguagethatreflectslocalistvalues. Farmers’ Websites Humane and Sustainable Farming Methods Thehumanemethodsoftreatinganimalsandsustainablefarmingpracticeswere twomainthemesforNewOrleansfarmers’websites.Farmersdocumentanddisplayhow theytreattheiranimalsthroughtheirwebsitesbydocumentinghowanimalsareraised andwhattheyarefed.Farmersalsodocumenttheethicalcultivationmethodstheypractice ontheirwebsite.Localistdiscoursepromotestheimportanceofprotectingandinsuringa healthyfoodsystemforfuturegenerationsthroughethicalandsustainablefarming practices.Farmersareconnectingtothelocalistframeworkbyexplainingtheirsustainable andethicalpractices. Farmer’swebpresenceemphasizestheethicalproductionofcropsorgrowthstages oflivestock.Thevocabularyusedonfarmers’websitesoutlinesthemethodsusedduring production.Itpublicizeswhattheanimalsarefed,howtheyareraised,andwherethe animalsarepastured.Thefarmerswritetheanimal’snarrativefromthegrowers’ perspective.Animalnarrativesarewrittenindifferentforums,suchasblogs,production updatesofwhatisavailable,andFacebookposts.Throughtheseforums,thefarmer providesinformation,suchas,theanimal’srelationshipswiththemotherandhowthe animalsareadaptingtofarmlife.Thefarmersarealmosthumanizingtheanimalsthrough 29 namingtheanimals,postingpicturesonwebsites,blogs,andupdatingstatusreportsof recoveringanimals.Anotherexampleoffarmershumanizingtheiranimalsisaduckand pigfarmthatguaranteestheiranimalsfreedomstoimprovetheirlife. ChappapeelaFarmsinsurestheiranimals’freedomswhilelivingontheirfarm.The fivefreedomsarethefollowing. Freedomfromhungerandthirst. Freedomfromdiscomfort. Freedomfrompain,injury,anddisease. Freedomtoexpressnormalbehavior. Freedomfromfearanddistress.(ChappapeelaFarms,n.d.) Thefreedomsreflectlocalistdiscoursetoensureandmaintainthewelfareofthemeat production.ThefreedomsthattheanimalshavereflecttheBillofRightsthatensures freedomstoAmericancitizens.ThefreedomofexpressionintheBillofRightsandfreedom fromtyrannyintheDeclarationofIndependencearereflectedinthefreedomsthat ChappapeelaFarmsguaranteestheirstock.ThefreedomsanimalsgetonChappapeela Farmsconnecttothelargerlocalistframeworkbecausethelivingconditionsandthe humanetreatmentcreatethehighestqualityofmeat. ChappapeelaFarmsalsohasaslideshowoftheiranimalsinteractingwitheachother andwiththefarmers.Theslideshowincludespicturesofthelivingquartersoftheanimals, howmuchroomtheyhavetoroamandplay,andtheunhinderedaccesstheyhavetowater andfood.Thecaptionsabovethepicturesexplainwhatisseenandhowthefarmis structuredtoensuretheanimals’fivefreedoms.Picturesshowtheanimalshaveunlimited accesstocleanwaterandfoodthroughfilteredcontainersinthemiddleoflargegated fields.Theducksareshownfreelyroamingaroundandthepicturesalsoshowtheyhave accesstoshelterwhentheydesiretobeindoors.Thepigsareshownrunning,grazing,and 30 enjoyingleisuretimeinthecoolmudthatisprovidedtothem.Also,themotherpigsare shownnursingtheirpigletstoshowthattheyarenurturingmothersandtakecareoftheir piglets.Thefarmersarepettingthepigsduringtheirleisuretimeandalsoshowthefarmer andfamilyinteractingwiththeanimals.Thecaptionsofthepicturesusepositive descriptionstoshowthedetailsoftheanimals’livesandhowtheyenjoylivingonthefarm. Aninterestingfindingwithinthediscourseanalysisoffarmers’websiteswasthe inconsistencyofdisclosingmethodsofmeatprocessing.ChappapeelaFarmsdisclosesthe distanceeachanimaltravelstotheplantforprocessing,butnoteveryfarmwebsite disclosestheirprocessingmethodtothepublic.EvergreenFarmdoesnotdisclose informationabouttheprocessingmethodsontheirwebsite.Animalprocessingispartof thehumanetreatmentofanimalsthatfarmersclaimtoprotectontheirwebsites.The processofanimalprocessingisagruesometopicforawebsite,butprocessingmethodsare animportantpartofhumanetreatmentofanimals. Farmersarealsopromotingtheircommitmenttosustainablefarmingpractices. Farmer’swebpresencedeclarestheywanttopreserveandcontributetomethodsthatwill ensureaviablefoodsourceforthecommunityandfuturefoodproduction.CedarFarm websitehighlightstheuseofnaturalandconventionalfarmingmethodsforpestcontrol andsustainableandresilientcropmaintenance.CedarFarm“focusesondevelopingasense ofresponsibility,community,environmentalstewardship”toteachyoungergenerations theimportanceofahealthyandnaturalecologicalsystem(CedarFarm,n.d.).Thefarm’s missionistopromoteandteachsustainableandresilientfarmingmethodsthatfarmers onceabundantlyusedwhilecultivatingcrops.CedarFarmpracticeofnaturalpestcontrol isintroducedthroughadiscussionabouttheirphilosophyonsustainablegrowingandhow 31 theyimplementthatpractice.CedarFarmdiscussesthebenefitsofcovercropfarming methodandexplainsitisanaturalandtraditionalpracticeofpestcontrolandcreates nitrogengasesthatfertilizethesoilnaturallytoprovideabettercropforthefollowing season.Thelanguageusedtodiscusssustainablegrowingreflectslocalfoodorganization beliefs.Thesustainablemethodscontributetoasustainablefoodsystemthroughresilient farmingpracticesthatwillprotectfuturefoodsupply. Farmers Sharing Local Food Movement Values Thesenexttwosectionswillhighlighthowproducerssharelocalfoodmovement valuesduringproductionandhowtheyuselocalistdiscoursetomarkettheirfood.Allof thefarmersinthisstudyexceptforoneusedlocalistdiscoursetoselldirectlytocustomers. Producersemphasizenaturalproductionmethodsduringcultivation.Thesustainable farmingmethodsofnaturalpestcontrolandthenaturalproductionoffertilizingsoil reflectslocalfoodorganizationvalues. Naturalproductionandfarmingmethodsaremoreprominentforsmallproducers becausenaturalproductiondoesnotrequiregovernmentcertificationandinspection. EvergreenFarmproducespetfoodandusesGuineaHensfornaturalpestcontroltoprotect theiranimalsfromticksandfleas(EvergreenFarm,personalcommunication,March7, 2014).GuineaHenseattheticksandfleaspreventingotheranimalsfrombeinginflicted withthepestsandthediseasestheyspread.EvergreenFarmdoesnotsprayoruse chemicalsthatharmtheanimalsbecausetheyspecializeinnaturalpetfoodforanimals thathaveallergies.Sprayingchemicalsintheanimal’senvironmentraisestheriskof animalsinhalingandingestingtheharshchemicalsthatpreventpests.Theuseofother animalstokeeppestsundercontrolisaneasier,older,andmorenaturalpractice.Justlike 32 EvergreenFarmusesotheranimalsforpestcontrol,CedarFarmusesotherplantsto controlpestintheirfieldofcrops. OakFarmsgrowhydroponictomatoesandwhiletheysellatCrescentCityFarmers Market,theywearashirtwiththeirslogan,“Weknowitcausewegrowit”(OakFarm, personalcommunication,February25,2014).OakFarmknowseverythingthatisgivento thetomatoesandisconfidentthetomatoesarenotimpactedbyrunoffwaterand pesticides.ThehydroponicgreenhouseallowsOakFarmtogrowtheirtomatoesina controlledandsterileenvironment.Localdiscoursevaluesnaturalproductionandthe protectionofsurroundingecologicalsystemsbecausechemicaltreatmentofplantsand animalshavealastingaffectontheenvironmentandcancausehumanhealthissueswhen consumed. Localistdiscourseendorseslocallyproducedfoodbecauselocalproductioncuts downonthetraveltimeoffoodandthenegativeenvironmentalimpact.OakFarmstates thattomatoesingrocerystoresthatarefromCanadaandMexicoareprobablyaweekold becauseoftheshelflifeofatomatocansurvivethetransportationfromfarmtostore. Tomatoeshaveashelflifeoftwoweeks,whichallowsbuyerstopurchasetomatoesfrom growersnationwideandinternationally.Alotofthetomatoesingrocerystorestoday“are pick[ed],process[ed],pack[aged],andthenputonatrucktogetto[thestore]”(OakFarm, personalcommunication,February25,2014).Thefuelandpackagingofthetomatoesis notasustainablepracticethatlocalistdiscoursesupports.OakFarmdoesnotpackagetheir tomatoesandthetomatoesthatOakFarmprovidesarepickedwithin24to48hoursof purchase.Localistvaluesareshapinghowfarmersaretreatingtheiranimals,crops,andthe environmentbecausethelocalistvaluesareimpactingconsumerbeliefsandconsumer 33 practices.Thisisapparentwhencustomersareaskingthesamequestionsthatlocalist discourseareaskinganddemandingsimilarexpectationsoflocalistvalues. What Farmers Say During Transactions Thissectionanswershowthelabelof“local”impactsdistributionpractices.The interviewsfoundthatthe“local”labelandtheuseoflocalistdiscourseallowsfarmsto placethemselvesinanichemarketthatgivesthemanedgeontheircompetitorswhetherit isotherlocalfarmersorcommercialproduction.Smallproducersusethesamelocalist discourseontheirwebsitesduringdirecttransactionstoeducateconsumersaboutbenefits oflocallyproducedfood. EvergreenFarmpushestheirproductaslocalasmuchaspossiblebecausethey thinkitisimportanttobuyandproducelocalproducts.Thelocalistmovement’smission andpublicityoflocalfoodbroughtthisnewestupswingintheinterestinlocalfood production.Thismostrecentshiftintrendshasopenedupanichemarketforsmall independentproducers.Thepublicdiscussionoflocalfoodproductionhascreateda marketforsmalllocalfarmerstosupply.Themarketforlocalproductionhasdrivensmall producerstoprovidethenichemarketoflocallyproducedfood.Theproducersprovide foodthatsupportslocalfoodorganizationsmissionofhumaneanimaltreatmentand sustainablefarmingpractices.Consumers,suchasrestaurants,haveledsmallproducersto strivetoenterthenichemarketwithinthelocalfoodproductionmarket,Themore specializedthefoodandproductionmethodfarmersprovide,theyhavebetteraccessto consumersthatsharelocalistvalues.EvergreenFarmwantstoprovideconsumersthe optionofbuyinglocallyproducedfoodwithoutitbeinga“luxury”itemataluxuryprice (EvergreenFarm,personalcommunication,March7,2014).EvergreenFarmstatesitis 34 importantconsumershaveoptionsofmakingpurchasesthatgivethemprideandmake themfeelgoodabouttheirpurchase.Theywantafreshproductthatishighquality.Inthe interviewsmostofthefarmersstatedthatpeoplearewillingtopaymoreforbetterquality andfresherproduct.“Whenwesitdownandeatsomething,wewanttofeelgoodaboutit. Evenifitsnotgreattasting,wellIgotitfromsomeonenearbyandseetheminagrocery store,Ithinkthatisagoodthing”(EvergreenFarm,personalcommunication,March7, 2014). Otherfarms,suchasWillowFarm,gowiththetrendstogetasmuchoutoftheir products.WillowFarmstartedto“turn[their]ownmilk,fertiliz[ing]withchickenlitter, grazingandbuyingorganicfeed,so[they]areactuallyproducingorganicmilk”,theyjust needtocertifytheirmilkplantasorganic(WillowFarm,personalcommunication, February25,2014).WillowFarmwillgetahigherpricefororganicmilkanditiswhat consumerswant. EvergreenFarmandCedarFarmbelievethatpeoplewanttoknowabouttheirfood andtheproducers.Everyspring,EvergreenFarmgetsvisitorswantingtovisitthefarmto seehowthechickensareraisedbeforetheybuyeggs.EvergreenFarmenjoysand encouragespeopletocomeoutandvisittheanimalsandseetheenvironmenttheanimals areraised.Thefarmalsodesirestoeducateandintroducetheirfarmingpracticesandthe reasontheychosethosemethods.EvergreenFarmfindspeoplearemoreinterestedin knowingabouthowanimalsareraisedandtheanimal’sdiet.Customersalsoliketoknowif theanimalsaregrassfedandiftheproductisorganic.WillowFarmconcludescustomers wanttoknowiftheanimalsarehealthyandwhetherthefarmsareraisingandproducing foodproperly.WillowFarmagreesthatiffarmersproduceagoodproductpeoplewillpay 35 forthequalitythatfarmersproduce.CrescentCityFarmersMarketisagreatwaytoremind peoplethatfoodprovidedinthemarketisofbetterqualityandtoremindthemhow produce,meat,andseafoodusetobe.Theinterviewsalsofoundthatthe“local”labeland theuseoflocalistdiscourseallowsfarmstoplacethemselvesinanichemarketthatgives themanedgeontheircompetitorswhetheritisotherlocalfarmersorcommercial production.Smallproducersusethesamelocalistdiscourseonboththewebsitesand duringdirecttransactions. Crescent City Farmers Market Website The Niche Market in the Farmers Market ThisdiscourseanalysisfoundCrescentCityFarmersMarketusesconsumption practicesofindividualstopromotelocaleatinghabitsandusesthenichemarketinthe formofcommodityactivismtoappealtotheirconsumerbase.CrescentCityFarmers Marketconveysthemessageforsustainablepractices,itclarifiesthedefinitionoflocal throughpoliticalboundaries,drivingmiles,andprovidesdescriptivedefinitionsoflocal thatmatchthelanguageusedonrestaurantwebsites.Thepromotionofsustainableeating habits,thedefinitionoflocal,andhowthefarmersmarketisenvironmentallyfriendly parallelslocalistdiscoursethatencouragessimilarconsumptionpractices. LanguageofcommodityactivismonCrescentCityFarmersMarketwebsiteis presentonthepage“whybuylocal”(CrescentCityFarmersMarket,n.d.).Theuseofkey wordstoattractconsumer’sattentionandconcernstosupportlocalfarmersatthefarmers marketisevident.Thewebsiteexplainsbuyinglocalfoodcutsdownoncarbongas emissionsbecauselocalproducetravelashorterdistancethanimportedproduceorcross continentalgrownproduce.Thewebsitesexplainsthatcovercropisafarmingpracticethat 36 reducescarbonemissionbecause“covercropsalsocapturecarbonemissionsandhelp combatglobalwarming”(CrescentCityFarmersMarket,n.d.).AccordingtoCrescentCity FarmersMarket,covercropisagrowingmethodthatseizes12to14percentofthecarbon‐ emittedgaseswhichvehiclesandindustryreleaseintheair(CrescentCityFarmersMarket, n.d.).AconsumeroflocalproduceatCrescentCityFarmersMarketcanbrandhimselfor herselfasgreenandasanindividualthatisconsciousofhowtheirconsumptionpatterns effecttheenvironment(Hearn,n.d.,p.32).Hearnexplainsconsumersofgreenandlocal producecanlabelthemselvesasanactivistbecausetheyareconsumingproducethatare environmentallyfriendlycausingthemtoparticipatein“activeconsumption”(Hearn,n.d., p.25). AnotherexampleofhowCrescentCityFarmersMarketusescommodityactivismis throughtheirdedicationofshrinkingthemarketsfootprint.Usingthesametoolof commodityactivism,CrescentCityFarmersMarketdedicatesawholepagetomakingthe marketmoreenvironmentallyfriendly.Individualscanagainbrandthemselvesasgreen andanon‐wastefulconsumerbecausethemarketencouragesconsumerstobringreusable bagsandthemarketreduceditscarbonfootprintbyeliminatingwaterbottles.Themarket nowhasreusablecupsthatconsumerscanbuyandbringbackandreceivetapwater.Also, themarketpublicizestherecyclingofoutdatednewspaperstowrapseafoodandtheydo notpackagevegetables,buttiethemtogetherwithtwine(CrescentCityFarmersMarket, n.d.).Thewebpage“makingthemarketgreener”allowsconsumerstotakeownershipof makingCrescentCityFarmersMarketgreenthroughtheiractions.This“active consumption”allowsconsumers’toconsiderthemselvesasagreenconsumerthatisaware oftheenvironmentalimpactsoftheirconsumptionpractices(Hearn,n.d.,p.25). 37 CrescentCityFarmersMarketliststenreasonstoshopatthemarketontheir website.LocalfoodishealthierandfreshisoneofthetenreasonsCrescentCityFarmers Marketjustifiestheconsumptionoflocalproduce.Thetravellengthfromproducerto consumerisonaverage1500miles(CrescentCityFarmersMarket,n.d.).Itisexplainedon thewebsitethatduringthe1500milevoyage,the“delayfromharvesttodinnertable, sugarsturntostarches,plantcellsshrink,andproducelosesitsvitality”(CrescentCity FarmersMarket,n.d.).Theinteractionbetweenconsumerandgrowerthatwaslostduring thetransitionfromfarmersmarkettosupermarketisanotherattractionforconsumers. CrescentCityFarmersMarketusescommunitybuildingandlocalsustainable economiclanguagetoappealtoconsumersthatwanttosupportlocalfarmers.Crescent CityFarmersMarketmissionstatementisclearabouttheirpurposeanddirectionof activism.Thefarmersmarketwants“topromoteecologicallysoundeconomicdevelopment” (CrescentCityFarmers’Market,n.d.).CrescentCityFarmersMarketadvocatesforfamily farmsintheregion,promoteshealthylifestylesforNewOrleanscitizenswhilegenerating sustainablelocaleconomicgrowth.CrescentCityFarmersMarketmissionissimilartothe localfoodmovementorganizationmission.Themovement’smissionistosupportsmall familyfarmswhilereceivingfairpricesfortheirproduceandtoeducatecommunities abouthealthyfoodandbenefitsoflocalfood(TheFoodShift,n.d.).Thefarmersmarket providesaplacefor“locavores”,whoarestrongsupportersofthelocalfoodmovement,a reliablemarkettoconsumelocalfoodthatmirrorstheirfoodbeliefs.A“locavore” consumesfoodthathasbeengrown,produced,andtravelledlessthan100milesfromtheir plates(DawnThilmanyetal,2008,p.1303).“Localfoodsupportslocalfamilyfarms”and “localfoodbuildscommunity”areexamplesofCrescentCityFarmersMarketwebsite 38 discoursethatiscomparablewiththelocalfoodmovementlanguageandfoodbeliefs (CrescentCityFarmersMarket,n.d.).Theoverlappingoflanguageisanexampleof commodityactivismattracting“locavores”throughcommonmissionstatements. ThehumanitariannarrativeCrescentCityFarmersMarketusestoattractcustomers revealstheconsumerbasethemarketwantstoattract.Thelanguageusedonthefarmers marketwebsiteistoattractcustomersthatareawareoftheirconsumptionpractices. Commodityactivismpromotestheconsumptionofproductswiththefaçadeofbeingsocial responsibleandcommittingacharitableactwhilepurchasingitems.TheCrescentCity FarmersMarketusescommodityactivismasamarketingtooltotouchconsumersthatcare aboutsocialresponsibilityandeconomicandenvironmentalsustainability.Thepage“why buylocal”and“ourimpact”explaintheoverflowofbenefitslocalbusinessesgetthatare nearfarmersmarketlocations(CrescentCityFarmersMarket,n.d.).Basedonthisprinciple, CrescentCityFarmersMarketusescommodityactivismthroughthenarrativeoflocalfood isfresh,thebestquality,andeconomicallysustainableforlocalcommunity.CrescentCity FarmersMarketusesthephrases“familyfarmersandotherlocalagriculturalenterprises” andtheconceptthatthemarketisanintersectionwherethereisa“greatersocial interactionbetweencommunitiesandsustainableeconomicdevelopment”(CrescentCity FarmersMarket,n.d.).Thediscourseofthesephrasesspeakstoconsumersthatare consciousoftheirconsumptionpracticesandvaluelocalfood.Appealingtoconsumer’s valuesthroughgoodcitizenactionsallowscommodityactivismtoappealmeaningand identitytoconsumptionpractices. CrescentCityFarmersMarketandfarmers’websitestalkabouthumanetreatment ofanimalsandsustainablefarmingpractices.Thefarmersmarketalsoframestheirwebsite 39 aroundlocalistdiscoursethatexplainsthebenefitsoflocallyproducedfood.Farmers’ websitesgivethepublicaccesstothefarmthroughdocumentingthetreatmentofanimals describingtheproductionprocesstogreatdetail.Restaurantspresenteddifferentlocalist themesonmenusthantheirwebsites.Themenususedbothspecificdescriptionsto identifythefoodaslocallygrown,caught,orraised.Ontheirwebsites,restaurantsusechef biographiesandpersonalmotivationsasatechniquetoattractconsumers. Table2:DiscourseAnalysis 40 Chapter 5 Speaking to New Orleans Farmers Theinterviewswiththesmallproducersgavethisresearchaccesstovaluable informationabouttheirdistributionpractices.Thischapteroutlineshowsmall independentproducersdistributetheirfoodandexplainhowtheydefinealocalproducer. Thisstudyfoundthatsmallindependentproducersdistributefoodthroughdirect marketingordistributors.Farmersdistributetheirfoodthroughdirectmarketingto consumers,restaurants,andatfarmersmarkets.Producersalsoselltodistributorslike grocerystoresandspecialtyshops.Directmarketingwasthemostefficientwayforsmall independentproducerstodistributiontheirproductbecausetherewasnointermediary. Therewasaninterestingdiscoveryduringtheinterviewsabouthowproducerschange productionpracticestosatisfyindividualconsumerdemands.Thecustomizationand diversificationofproductionwasimperativetosmallproducerssuccesstoadjustto regulationchangesandmarketfluctuation. Direct Marketing Directmarketingtoconsumersisthebestavenueforsmallproducerstodistribute food.Directmarketingconsistsoffarmerssellingdirectlytoindividualconsumersat farmersmarketandoutsideoffarmersmarkets,anddirectlytorestaurants,specialtyshops, anddistributors.Thisstudyfounddirectmarketingleadstosmallproducerstocustomize anddiversifyfoodproductiontomeetthedemandsofcustomers.Farmers’distribution techniquesarereactionstoconsumer’sdemands.Directmarketingisthebestopportunity toorganizetheirdistributionoffoodbecausethecustomizationofproductionwouldbe difficulttoachieveandprovidetoconsumerswithoutdirectcontactbetweenconsumers 41 andproducers.Thetablebelowoutlinestheinstitutionsthatsmallindependentproducers sellproductsdirectly. Table3:DirectMarketing FarmersMarket Restaurants DirectMarketing SpecialtyShops Directlyto Consumers Distributors Directmarketingisthemainandmostprofitableresourceforsmallindependentproducer toselltheirproducts. That’swhyIsaidthereisnowaythatIcouldmakeitwithoutdirect marketing(CyprusFarm,personalcommunication,March1,2014). WesellpredominantlyatCrescentCityFarmersMarketandsowearetrying tomeettheneedstocustomersthatwehavethere(CedarFarm,personal communication,March6,2014). 42 Farmersmarketspermitsmallindependentproducerstobeintroducedtootherdirect marketingopportunities.Thesmallindependentproducersexplainedthatrestaurantsare agreatsourceforsellingdirectlyinNewOrleans. IfiguredthatIcouldtakeitandselldirectlytorestaurants.SoIhadlikesix orsevenrestaurantsintheFrenchQuarterthatIsoldto.Ialreadyhad connectionsthroughtheoysterbusiness,soIjustbuiltonthat(CyprusFarm, personalcommunication,March1,2014). Specialtyshopsareanotherpopularsourceofdirectmarketingforsmallproducersinthis study.Sellingdirectlytospecialtyshopsallowssmallproducerstoreachahighervolumeof consumersandpromotestheirfarmslabel.Itisalsoaneasierdistributionprocessfor EvergreenFarmbecauseCleaverandCompanyisresponsibleforsellingthemeat. CleaverandCompany,whichisabutchershop.Whenwearereadyto processthelambwesendittotheplantandthenthewholeanimalissentto CleaverandCompanyandbutcheredthere.Itskindslikethemeatcounterat WinnDixie(EvergreenFarm,personalcommunication,March7,2014). TheInternetisanotherpossibilityforsmallproducerstomarketdirectlytoconsumers outsideofvenuessuchasfarmersmarkets.Alotoffarmersannouncetheavailabilityof foodthroughFacebook,Craigslist,andthefarm’swebsite.TheInternetisagreatassetfor smallproducerstoreachthemassesaboutwhatfoodisavailableforpurchasing.Theuseof theInternethasallowedsmallproducerstoreachthehighestamountofconsumersthatis theleasttimeconsuming. WehaveourFacebookpageandIalsosortofstumbledonthispaleodieters group.TheyhavethisFacebookpagewith50membersandtheydevour everythingthatIhaveforsale.IhaveagroupofregularsthatIcontact throughemail.Thewomanwhorunsthepaleogroupisusuallythefirst personthatIcontactandletknow,likeIhave10chickensorIhave10eggs, letmeknowwhatyouneed(EvergreenFarm,personalcommunication, March7,2014). 43 Andanotheropportunitythatsmallproducersexploreissellingdirectlytodistributors. Thoughnotallsmallproducersselldirectlytodistributorsbecauseoftheriskfarmerstake whenagreeingtoaninformalcontractwithdistributors.Theexperiencesofthesellingto distributorsvaryandpastexperiencesdictatewhetherfarmsselltodistributorsinthe future. SowestartedsupplyRousesinThibodaux,Houma,MorganCity,andLaRose downwhereIlive.Sowehadlikesevenoreightstoresthatwedistributeto whenwehavethequantity.Theywanttodolocalsobadtheyarewillingto sufferthroughtimeswhenwehaveshadeandcan’tdelivertomatoesandyet buywhenwedohavethem(OakFarm,personalcommunication,February 25,2014). Inthisstudy,thesearethefiveavenuesofdirectdistributionthatarepracticedbythe smallindependentproducers.Theproducersdonotexploreeveryavenuebecausetheydo nothavethemanpowertoproduceorselltoallfiveopportunities. Customization Thereweretwotrendsthatsmallproducersfollowedwhiledirectlymarketingtheir product.Customizationanddiversificationofproductionwasaconstantpracticeforthe smallindependentproducersthatcultivatedtheirfood.Theinconsistencyofthemarketfor locallyproducedfooddrivesproducerstodiversifyandcustomizeproductiontoavoid stagnantperiodsofbusiness.Thebusinessofcustomizationinvolvesinformalcontracts betweenproducerandcustomerandoccursatdifferentscalesofmodification. Thisstudydefinescustomizationasanoccurrencewhenaconsumerformsan informalcontractwithaproducertoraiseorgrowaspecifictypeofproduct.Thereisa greatdealofinformalityinthebusinessbetweensmallproducersandconsumers.Willow FarmdidnotraisehogstillaftertheystartedsellingatCrescentCityFarmersMarket 44 becauseitwasthroughthemarkettheymadecontactwithchefsfromlocalrestaurants (WillowFarm,personalcommunication,February25,2014). Weweren’tdoingthewholehogbefore,butrestaurantswantedacertain kindofhogandsowestartedraisingacertaintypeofhog.Thebeginning startedatthefarmersmarketandthengrewfromtherewithDon,Mark,and others.Itjustgotoutthatwehadsomegoodhogs.Iworkrealclosewith thembecauseIamraisingacertaintypeofhogandthatmeansalottothem. It’sadifferenttypeofhogthanthehogthatbigcommodityplacesslaughter. Theyareleananddon’thavealotoftastetothem(WillowFarm,personal communications,February25,2014). WillowFarmdecidedtopursuethiscustomizationsincethenumberswerefavorablefor bothparties,butacontractwasnotsigned.Therewasanunderstandingtherestaurantwas inthemarketforcustomizedhog(WillowFarm,personalcommunication,February25, 2014).Theinterestingaspectofcustomizationistherelationshipbetweentheproducer andcustomer.Theinterviewsfoundthatfarmersthathavecloserelationshipswith restaurantsandlocalspecialtyshopshaveagreatersuccesswithcustomization. CustomizationofhogwasariskforWillowFarm,buttheriskgavethemanedgeinthe market. EvergreenFarmiscustomizingtheirproductionofturkeystofulfillanagreement withCleaverandCompany,alocalbutchershopthatspecializesinhigh‐endmeat. CleaverandCompanyisinthemarketforfreerangeturkeyfortheupcoming holidayseason.Butwestartedtalkingaboutturkeysbecausehe(Cleaverand Company)wasgettingthemfromKentuckyorArkansas.Wehavehadgood luckraisingturkeysandwelikeraisingturkeys.Sowearegoingtoraise50 to100thisyearinsteadofthe15wedidlastyear(EvergreenFarm,personal communication,March7,2014). Againthereisnocontract,butthereisaninformalagreementbetweenCleaverand CompanyandEvergreenFarm.EvergreenFarmwillthensendtheircustomerstoonespot, 45 CleaverandCompany,fortheirholidayturkeys.EvergreenFarmisanotherexampleofa large‐scalecustomizationofproductionpractices. Asdiscussedearlier,experienceswithsellingtodistributorsvarybetween producersandinfluencefutureorganizationofdistribution.Smallproducersaretakinga riskwhenengagingininformalcontracts.OakFarmishesitantaboutcustomizinglarge portionsoftomatoproductionbecauseoftheuncertaintytheagreementwillbebroken. IusetodistributetoJohnBurns,JackandJakes.Beforelastyear,Iplanteda wholerowspecificallyforhim,whichIwillneverdoagain.Totiemyhouse uptoonepersonbecausewhenthenextseasoncamearoundhestarted foldinguphisbusinessandstoppedbuyingalltomatoes.Hewasdistributing toschools,BreauxMart,andotherstores.Iwassellinghimalargenumberof tomatoes.AndwhenIlosthimIwaslike“whatIamgoingtodo”?(OakFarm, personalcommunication,February25,2014). OakFarmishesitantaboutcustomizinglargeportionsoftomatoproduction,buttheydo notshyawayfromsmallcustomizations.OakFarmwillcustomizetomatoproductionto satisfyindividualconsumer’sdesires.Tomatoesarenotavineripenfruitandcanbepicked atseveralstagesdependingonthetypesoftomatoesconsumersareaskingfor. Youcanpickatomatoinseveralstages.Italldependsonwhatyouare lookingfor.Theguyatthetablesaidtheheirloomtomatoesarenotsoftyet. Alotofpeopledon’twantsofttomatoes.Andanotherguywouldsayitistoo soft.Youhavetosatisfythecustomers.SoIpicktheminvaryingstages(Oak Farm,personalcommunication,February25,2014). Smallproducershavedemonstratedsmallcustomizationpracticesliketheindividual custompickedtomatotothelargecustomizationpracticesofcustomizinghogsandturkeys. Consumerrequestsinfluencescustomizationandhowsmallproducersorganizethe distributionoftheirfood.Thefarmersareatriskwhentheycustomizebecausethenature oftheinformalcontractisbasedontheprinciplethatthecustomerisnotobligatedtobuy thecustomizedproduct.Customizationthroughinformalcontractsisthecauseofthe 46 inconsistentmarket,butcustomizationisanotherwaythatsmallindependentproducers shapetheregionalfoodsystem.Thisresearchmadetwodiscoveriesaboutthesupportive agriculturalcommunitythatneedstobenoticed.Thelimitedcirculationthatmakesupthe distributionstructureofsmallindependentfarmersinNewOrleansconsistsoffourkey players.Thefirstkeyplayersarethefarmersthemselvesbecausetheyfeedthelocaland regionalfoodsystemwithlocallyproducedfood.Thesecondkeyplayersarerestaurants, grocerystores,specialtyshops,anddistributorsthatbuylocallyproducedfood.Thethird playerisCrescentCityFarmersMarketandotherdirectmarketsbecausetheorganizations givethefarmersaplacetoselltheirproductsandintroduceproducerstoothermarket opportunities.Thefourthandmostimportantplayersaretheindividualsthatsupport farmersthroughconsistentlypurchasingfood,whetheritisbecausetheindividualisa “locavore”,paleodieter,orthinkslocalfoodtastesbetter,theirconsumptionpracticesgive farmersamarkettosellinto.Theseinformalcontractsbetweenproducerandconsumer influenceconsumptionpatternsofrestaurants,butchershops,andindividualhouseholds. Theseentitiesconstructtheregionalfoodsystemthroughinteractionsandsimplesupply anddemand. Diversification of Production Thedecisionofwhattocultivateandwheretoprocessisbasedonseveralfactors andimpactdistributionpractices.Thediversityofproductionforsmallindependent producersinNewOrleansisessentialtosurvival.Thisstudydefinesdiversificationasthe changeinproductionbasedsolelyontheproducersdecisionanddoesnotincludeoutside influences.Diversificationofproductionforsmallindependentproducersiscrucialfor theirsurvivalbecausethecompetitioninthemarketisintense.Thediversificationvaried 47 fromfarmtofarm,buttheyallagreedthatthingsneedtochangeoritwillstuntbusiness growth.Thediversificationisonascalefromsmalladditionsofproductiontoaproduction overhaulthatrequirednewequipment,livestock,andknowledge. OakFarmisanexampleofasmall‐scalediversificationbecauseofspacerestraints ofthehydroponichouse. Igrowavarietyoftomatoes.Youcanseeonthetabletherearefivedifferent varietiesupthererightnow,withcherries,heirloomtomatoes,thebeefsteak cherries,thebigbeefsteak,andtheyellowLorenzo.Businesscangetstagnant onyouifyoudon’tchange.Peoplewillsay,‘Ohthereisthebeefsteak cherries’.Itistogivethemsomethingdifferent.ThatiswhyIdothepink tablesclothes.ThatiswhyIhadtheshirtsmade.Iamgoingtogetabanner forthetent.Peoplewanttoseesomethingfresh(OakFarm,personal communication,February25,2014). OakFarmrecentlyaddedpepperstothetablebecausecustomersliketoseechangeanda varietyofcomplimentingfoods.TheadditiontothetableatCrescentCityFarmersMarket isanitemthatwillnottakeupalotofspaceandgetinthewayofOakFarmtomatoplants. WillowFarmisafourthgenerationfamilyfarmandhaschangedtheirproduction processthemostdrastically.WillowFarmcantestifytotheimportanceofdiversificationof productiontosurvive. Westartedmilkinggoats.Wetriedtodiversifybecauseitgottowhere milkingcowswasnotenough.Wecouldn’tjuststaywithonethingandthe farmersmarkethasreallyhelpedusandmeetingallthesepeopleand learningthehogsandmilkingthegoats.Sometimesitgetsoverwhelming andIwanttogetwhereitiscomfortable,butthat’sthewaywelive(Willow Farm,personalcommunication,February25,2014). WillowFarmexperiencedalargeroverhaulofdiversificationthatrequirednew equipment,animals,andtraining.WillowFarmrecentlyaddedgoatmilkproductionto makehardandsoftgoatcheese.ThegoatcheeseallowedWillowFarmtoenterintothe nichemarketandproduceaproductthatwasnotwidelyavailableinthesouth.Producing 48 goatcheesemadethemstandoutfromtheothervendorsintheCrescentCityFarmers Market.Consistentlyaddingnewaspectstothefarmisnevereasy,butitisanecessityfor thesefarmstosurvive(WillowFarm,personalcommunication,February25,2014). Selling to Distributors Sellingtodistributorsistheotherwaysmallproducersdistributefoodintothefood system.Distributorsallowsmallfisheriestoenterthenationalmarketandalsosellinthe localmarket.Smallproducersstillcustomizeproductionwhentheyselltodistributors,but haveproventobeariskforfarmers.Thissectiondemonstratesthedifferentexperiences andtheinconsistencyofthemarketthatsmallproducersbattle. Sellingtodistributorsishardonsomesmallproducersbecauseboththefarmerand distributor,suchasagrocerystore,needtomakeaprofitfromtheproduct.WillowFarm hasmovedawayfromsellingtheirproductsingrocerystoresandCo‐Ops. Idon’tgotoalotofgrocerystores.Wesoldtogrocerystoresaroundhome, butIwanttogetbacktosellingtopeoplebecausethey[grocerystores]want 25%offalltheproducts.Youstartoutwantingfivedollarsforagallonof milkandbythetimeyouselltheywantthepriceunderfourdollars.That’s notwhatIwant,thatwasthewholethinggettingawayfromgrocerystores orCo‐Ops.Theygiveyounothingorverylittleforyourmilk,maybeadollara gallonandtheyaretheonesthatmakeallthemoney.Notthepeoplethat providedthemilk.Theonlywayyoucanmakeitworkisifyouwerea conglomeratethatturnsoutmillionsofgallonsaweekandwearejusta smalldiary(WillowFarm,personalcommunication,February25,2014). OakFarmhadadifferentexperiencesellingtogrocerystores.Rousesproducebuyer cameouttotheBayouCentralMarketandtalkedtoOakFarmaboutsupplyinghydroponic tomatoestothelocalstores. RousescameouttothemarketdownthebayouwhenwewereattheCentral Market.Hesaid,‘man,Ididn’tknowtherewasalocalgroweroftomatoes thatwasdoinghydroponics.’SowestartedtosupplyRousesinThibadaux, 49 Houma,MorganCity,andLaRose(OakFarm,personalcommunication, February25,2014). OakFarmcommunicateswithaproducebuyeronthedaysbeforepicking.OakFarmwill estimatehowmuchtheyhave,pickthetomatoes,andthencallRousesproducebuyerto tellhimhowmuchtheyactuallyhave.OakFarmtriestodelivertoRousestwiceaweek dependingonweatherandthegrowthofthetomatoes.Theexperiencesoffarmersinthe marketvarylargely. Customizinganddiversifyingproductionisanimportantaspectindirectmarketing. Thedifferentexperienceofcustomizinganddiversifyingproductioncausesthe inconsistentmarket.Smallindependentproducersareshapingtheregionalfoodsystem throughcustomizationanddiversificationofproductionbecausethesenegotiations influenceconsumptionpatternsofrestaurants,grocerystores,specialshops,and individuals.Theabilityofsmallproducerstoinfluencedemandandbusinessbuying practicesisanindicatorofsmallproducersshapingtheregionalfoodsystem. Regulation Influence on Production and Distribution Overthelasttenyearssmallfisherieshavebeenbattlingregulationchangesthat bantheuseofspecificequipmenttocatchshrimpandfish.Thissectionusestheequipment bansoffishingnetsandtheimplementationofaturtleexcluderdevicetodemonstrate regulationinfluencesdistributionandproductionpracticesofsmallproducers.Regulation impactswhatsmallproducerscanraiseorcatchandwhereproducerscanprocesstheir product.Theserestrictionseffectwhatsmallindependentproducersdistributeintothe market.Regulationeffectsmallandlargeproducersdifferentlyandiscreatinganuneven playingfieldbetweenthetwoscalesofproducers. 50 Equipment Bans Influence Production Theimpactofequipmentbanshindersmallproducersabilitytoeffectivelyenterthe markettodistributeseafood.Thissectionfocusesontworegulationchangesthat influencedhowboatstargetshrimpandfish.Shrimpingboatswererequiredtoinstalla trolleysystemtoprotectKemp’sRidleySeaTurtle.Fishingboatswererestrictedfrom usingfishingnetsandrequiredtoswitchtousinghooks.Theseregulationinfluence productionofsmallfisheriesbecausetheychangewhattheytarget. TurtleexcludersareatrolleysystemmeanttoprotectKemp’sRidleySeaTurtles andallshrimperswererequiredtoinstallthedeviceontheirboats.Theturtleexcluderwas afactorininfluencingproductionpractices. TheystartedIguessitwillbeaboutthemid1980’stheystartedwithturtle excluders.Whentheyfirstintroducedthemtous,itwasatrolleyefficiency device.It’sabigpieceofmedalthatletsturtlesgothatgethungupinthenets. Whatitdidwasmakeitarealburdentous,especiallythesmallboats becauseweloselike25percentofyourshrimpwhenyouarepickingupwith thetrollbecausetheshrimpgoouttheholethattheturtlesaretendedtogo out(CyprusFarm,personalcommunication,March1,2014). CyprusFarmdoesnotagreewiththeimplementationoftheturtleexcluder.Kemp’sRidley SeaTurtlesmostlystayfurtheroffshoreandonlywhentheymigratecertaintimesofthe yeardotheycomeclosetoshore(CyprusFarm,personalcommunication,March1,2014). Smallboats,likeCyprusFarm,donotgooutfarenoughforKemp’sRidleySeaTurtlestobe aconcern.Largerboatsgofurtheroffshoreandhavemorecontactwiththeturtlethan smallerboatsthatstayclosertotheshore(CyprusFarm,personalcommunication,March1, 2014).Anotherinfluencingfactorishowsmallshrimpershavetoworkwithagear specialistinMississippitomaketheturtleexcluderslighterfortheirboatsbecausethe devicewasgearedtowardlargerboats(CyprusFarm,personalcommunication,March1, 51 2014).Alotoffishermenwentfromshrimptonettingfishbecauseofthedevice(Cyprus Farm,personalcommunication,March1,2014).Theimpacttheturtleexcluderhason smallboatsputstheminanunevenplayingfieldwithlargerproducers.AfterCyprusFarm changedtonettingfishanotherregulationinvolvingfishnetbanwasimplemented,which againinfluencedsmallfisheriesproductiondecisionsanddistributionpractices. Therearedifferentsizefishingnetsthatallowfishermentotargetthesizeoffish theywanttocatchandthemigrationpatternsoffishalsocontrolwhatfishermentarget (CyprusFarm,personalcommunication,March1,2014).Fishingnetsaremadeofmesh andconsistofdiamondshapes.Thesizeofdiamondsisconsistentonasinglenet,but fishermenhavemultiplenetswithdifferencegagesofdiamondsize.Fishingnetsare indiscriminatebecausedependingonthesizeofthediamondthenetsletsmaller undesirablefishtogothroughandthelargerfishthataretargetedarecaught(Cyprus Farm,personalcommunication,March1,2014).Thefishingnetbanwasbasedonthe argumentthatthenetsarediscriminate,meaningthenetsarenotselectiveinwhatis caught.Thefishingnetbanwasanotherinfluencingfactorforsmallboatstodecidewhatto target. Yougoouttoanareaandtheredfisharesooutofcontrolthathalfyourbait willhaveredfishhangingonitthatyouhavetoshakelooseandletthem swim.Andtheotherhalfofthebaitisgoingtohavetheotherstuffthatyou don’twantlikestingrays,youknowstuffthatisnotedible,letscallit.Soyour percentageoffishthatyoukeepmaybeathirdofwhatyoucatchonthe hooks.Itisnotaselectivewayoffishingandit’sahorriblewayofputting [fisheries]intothemarket.Itissomethingthattomeiftheywantedtogo withefficiency,it’stheworstefficientwaytheycouldhavemadeusfish (CyprusFarm,personalcommunication,March1,2014). Smallfisheriesareenteringthefoodsystematagreaterdisadvantagethenbeforethe trolleysystemandthefishingnetban.Havingsmallindependentproducersworkharderto 52 catchlessfishisanexampleofaninfluentialfactorimpactingproductionmethodsand distributionpractices. Equipment Bans Influencing Distribution Theequipmentbanregulationalsoinfluencesdistributionpractices.Thebanof catchingreddrumfishhascausedanunbalancedecosystemandcreatedanother influencingfactorimpactingproductionanddistributionpracticesofsmallfisheries.Red drumfishareoverpopulatingLouisianawatersandcontributingtotheshortageofcrabs, oysters,andshrimp(CyprusFarm,personalcommunication,March1,2014).Fishermen relyonsellingcrabasafinancialsafetynetbecausefisheriesgetagoodpriceforcrabyear round.Theincreaseofcrabtrapshasdiminishedthequalityofcrabavailabletofisheries. CyprusFarmwilltrapcrabandsellthemfreshorfrozentorestaurantsthathave signaturecrabdishesyearround.CyprusFarmwillcontactstoresandrestaurantswhen crabsareinhighdemand.WiththehurricanesinthelastdecadeandtheDeepHorizonoil spillin2005,thereisanincreaseincrabtraps. Thelastfewyearswehavebeenhavingproblemswiththecrabbingindustry basicallybecausewearenotgettingtherightamountofrecruitment.People areputtingmoreeffortintothepoundsthatlookthesamebuttomeifyou needtoput2000trapsouttodowhatwedidwith100,somethingiswrong. Someoftheseguyshave2500trapsinthewater,sotheycando1250one dayand1250thenextday.Andyourpieisonlysobigandwhenyoustart slicinguptheselittlepieces,theprofitmarginsaregone(CyprusFarm, personalcommunication,March1,2014). TheincreaseofcrabtrapsinLouisianawatersandtheregulationreformoverthe lastfewdecadesarechanginghowseafoodisdistributedinthelocalmarketshavechanged. CyprusFarmandMapleFarmshipthelargestcrabsandothercatchesoutofstatetomore prominentmarkets.WhentalkingwithMapleFarm,theystatedthattheytarget“boutique 53 stylerestaurants”inMaine,NewYork,California,andBostonbecausetheypayagoodprice forLouisianaseafood(MapleFarm,personalcommunication,March11,2014).Cyprus Farmarguesthisdistributionpracticeofseafoodisthereasonthattwogenerationsago NewOrleansresidentshadabetterselectionofseafood(CyprusFarm,personal communication,March1,2014). New Orleans Farmers Smallfarmersalsohaveregulationsonproductionthatimpacttheirdistribution practicesandwhattheyareabletosellinthemarket.Meatprocessingregulationimpacts wheresmallindependentproducersprocessmeatandthetypesofanimalstheyraise.The restrictionsofmeatprocessinglimitswhatlivestocksmallproducerscanraiseand regulationhindershowsmallproducersenterthemarkettodistribute. EvergreenFarmknowsthereisamarketforrabbitinLouisianabecauseMississippi statefarmerssellrabbitinLouisiana. It’saregulationissue.AllofthemeatinLouisianaisregulatedbyDepartment ofAgricultureandForestry.Expectforgamebirdandsmallanimals,thatis quale,guinea,pheasant,andrabbit.Whatweweredoingwhenwehada processingexemption,Icoulddochickens,Icoulddoturkeys,ducks,andI coulddoupto10,000ofthemayear,withoutthestateinspectorwatching me.ButifIwantedtodoonerabbit,Iwouldneedtopayaninspectorfrom HealthandHospitalsinanapprovedfacility.Ipricedoutanapprovedfacility at$50,000(EvergreenFarm,personalcommunication,March7,2014). Thisrestrictionhurtssmallfarmersinthefoodindustry.Louisianastatelegislation restrictssmallfarmersfromenteringintomarkets. WillowFarmdeliverstheirmeattobebutcheredinPlaqueminesParish,where thereisaslaughterhouse.Theslaughterhousebutchersthemeat,processesit,packagesit, 54 andlabelsthemeatforresale.TheslaughterhousehastobeLouisianastateapprovedand WillowFarmneedstoslaughtertheirlivestockinthesamestatetheyaresellingthemeat. IhaveaslaughterhousefivemilesfrommyhouseinMississippi,butIcannot slaughterthemthereandsellinLouisiana.Crossingstatelinesisano‐no.Itis notafederalplantit’sastateplantandit’stheclosestonetousin Plaquemines.Ifwekilldownhere,wesellitdownhere.Mississippiisthe sameway.Ican’tkillithereandresellinMississippi.Andmostofmystuff comesfromsouthNewOrleansandBatonRouge.WeusetogotoJackson becauseofalltheguidelines.Ourdealwasthiswastheonlyplacethatwas slaughteringpigs,cows,andgoatsinourarea(WillowFarm,personal communications,February25,2014). ThedrivetoPlaqueminesParishisfourhourseachway,whichtakesupawholedayto dropofflivestockforslaughterandthenagaintopickupthepackagedmeat.WillowFarm suggeststhereneedstobemorelocationsavailabletofarmerssinceregulationrequires livestocksoldinLouisiananeedstobeslaughteredinLouisiana.Abetterregulationfor examplewouldcoordinatethestateinspectionsystemsandhavethecapabilityof processingmultipletypesofmeattomaketheprocesseasieronthefarmer,animals,and theprocesser.Therearestateandfederalinspectionplantswherefarmerscanprocess meat.Louisianastatemeatandpoultryinspectionregulationstatesthatfarmersthat slaughterandprocessmeatinstateinspectedplantscanonlybesoldwithinthatstate (LouisianaDepartmentofAgricultureandForestry,n.d.).Meatthatisprocessedina federalinspectedplantcanbesoldnationallyandeveninternationally(Louisiana DepartmentofAgricultureandForestry,n.d.).Theregulationstatesthereasonforboth inspectionsistopreventconsumersfromobtainingtaintedmeat(LouisianaDepartmentof AgricultureandForestry,n.d.).WillowFarmstatesthatthereneedstobemoreprocessing plantsbecauseinLouisianathereareonlyfourstateinspectionplantsandoneUSDA federalinspectionplant(LouisianaDepartmentofAgricultureandForestry,n.d.).The 55 limitedamountofprocessingplantsrestrictssmallfarmersfromenteringmultiplemarkets becausetheUSDAfederalinspectionplantisnoteasilyaccessibletoallsmallfarmers. Are You a Local Producer? Smallproducersdefine“local”andclassifythemselvesasalocalproducerina varietyofways.Thissectionoutlineshowandwhysmallproducersconsideredtheirfarma localproduceroffood.Inorderfortheproducerstoanswerthisquestion,theyalsohadto providetheirdefinitionofa“local”product.Producersdefine“local”basedonwhetherthey thinktheirfarmislocal.Producersdidnotreferencetheiranswerstothelocalistlanguage ofthe200‐milecirclethatencompassesNewOrleansandcrossesstatelines.Ratherfive outofsevenproducersjustifiedtheiranswerswithhowwelltheyknowtheconsumersand thehowlongproducershavebeensellinginthecommunity.Thisthesisfoundsmall producersdefined“local”basedoniftheyarealocalproducerandtheydefinea“local” productrelativetotheavailabilityofproductsinthelocalmarket.Thisstudyconcludes that“local”issubjectiveandrelational,basedonahostoffactors. Iknowthesepeople,Iamonthefirstnamebasiswithalotofthemandwe havebeendoingitforfiveyears,Iconsideruslocal.IfIamnotheretheycall wonderingwhereIam.Wehavelocalfoodandit’scomingfromourfarm. Peoplecaneasilycometoourplace(WillowFarm,personalcommunication, February25,2014). OakFarmislocated35milesoutsideofNewOrleansanddoesnotconsiderthefarmlocal toNewOrleans. TomealocalguywhohasahydroponicgreenhouseinNewOrleansismore localthenme,inLaRosa(OakFarm,personalcommunication,February25, 2014). EvergreenFarmconsidersthemselveslocalproducersbecausethefarmislocatedin Louisiana. 56 It’sasubjectivekindofterm.Ifeellikeitiswhateveryoufeel.Tomelocalis inthestate.EvenifwelivedontheedgeofMississippiandIcouldspitin Louisiana,itstillwouldnotbelocal.Ilookatwithinthestate,butIthinkyour versionwillbedifferentanditalldepends(EvergreenFarm,personal communication,March7,2014). Theproducersincludedinthisresearchhadawidevarietyofanswersthatclassify theirfarmsasalocalproducer.Withintheirdefinition,thefarmersalsoexpressedhow theydefinea“local”product.Howfarmers’viewlocalreflectswheretheyarefrom,what theysell,andtherestrictionsofstateregulationsthatcontrolwhatissoldandconsumed dictateswhatisconsideredlocal.Thedegreesoflocalarerelativetothemarketofthe specificproduct. 57 Conclusion IntheintroductionandChaptertwoIdiscussedandoutlinedtheplatformofthe foodsystemthatsmallindependentfarmersproduceanddistributefood.Corporations controllargequantitiesoffoodproductionthroughverticalmonopoliesandagricultural industrialservitude.WithintheseparameterssmallproducersinNewOrleansarefinding waystonavigatewithinacorporatecontrolledfoodsystembystrivingtoreachtheniche marketoflocallyproducedfood. Thelocalistdiscoursediscussedinchapterthreehighlightedhowrestaurants, farmers,andCrescentCityFarmersMarketuselocalistvaluesandlanguagetoconnectto eachotherandtapintothenichemarket.Farmersinthisthesisagreethatpeoplewantto knowmoreaboutwhattheyconsume.Theproducersinthisstudyreasonthatconsumers wanttoknowmoreaboutthetreatmentofanimals,whatanimalsarefed,andwherethe meatandvegetablesareproduced.Throughfocusingonhowdifferentinstitutionsuse localistlanguage,IconcludedthatCrescentCityFarmersMarketandfarmers’websites promoteethicalandsustainablefarmingmethods.Inthediscourseanalysis,itwasalso concludedthatrestaurantstapintothenichemarketbyusinglocalistlanguagetolink dishesonthemenutolocalproducers.Thedescriptivetermsusedtodefinelocalplacesthe farmer’sfoodatthetopofafoodhierarchy.ThelocalfoodboughtinCrescentCityFarmers Marketisdescribedasthehighestquality,healthier,flavorful,andmakethebest ingredientsformeals(CrescentCityFarmersMarket,n.d.).Thesedescriptorsdefinewhatis localintermsofwhatisbelievedtoconceptuallydefine“local”.Thesedescriptorsgivethe foodinthemarketssuperiorityfromotherfoodthatisprovidedinNewOrleans.Crescent 58 CityFarmersMarketisequatinglocalasthesedescriptorsandtherefordeclaringthatlocal isdefinedbylocationofproductionandashealthier,seasonal,andthehighestquality. AsIdiscussedinChapterfour,pinpointingadefinitionfor“local”ishardbecause likethecontentanalysishasshown,definitionsfor“local”varywitheachindividual producer.Therewasamutualunderstandingbetweenthethreesourcesthat“local”canbe classifiedandidentifiedbylocationofpurchaseandthesourceofthefood.Tocomplywith being“local”,thepurchaseneedstobewithinafarmersmarket,CSA,orfoodhub.The restrictiontothesethreelocationsisimportantbecausetheorganizationsthatrunthe locationskeeptoastrictoperationtosupportsmalllocalfarmswithintheirarea. Consumersareattractedtofarmersmarketsbecausetheproduceandmeatarefresh, sustainable,andhealthier.Localrestaurantwebsitesandchefsclaimlocalfarmersprovide thebestingredientstocreaterichandflavorfuldishes.AndCrescentCityFarmersMarket hasasetmissiontoprovidefamilyfarmsalocationthatallowsthemtoreceivefairpayfor theirseasonalproduce. ChapterfiveoutlinesthatsmallindependentfarmersinNewOrleansdistribute mainlythroughdirectmarketing.Theyrelyonhavingaccesstodirectmarketsandmainly sellinCrescentCityFarmersMarket,directlytorestaurantsandspecialtyshops,and directlytocustomersfromonlineorphoneorders.Myhypothesisthatfarmersshapethe regionalfoodsystemwascorrect.Smallindependentfarmersareshapingtheregionalfood systemthroughtheirdirectnegotiationswithdistributors,restaurants,specialtystores, andgrocerystoresintheNewOrleansregion.Thefactorsthatinfluencedistributionand productionarecustomizationanddiversificationofproduction.Smallproducerstakealot ofriskandtimecustomizingtheirproductionprocess.Smallindependentproducers 59 customizeanddiversifyproductionanddistributionoffoodinordertoreacttothechanges ofconsumerdemands.Throughthesenegotiations,smallindependentproducershavethe powertoshapetheregionalfoodsystem.Theseinformalcontractsbetweenproducerand consumerinfluenceconsumptionpatternsofrestaurants,butchershops,andindividual households,whichconstructtheregionalfoodsystem. Beforeconcludingthispaper,Iwanttobringattentiontosomequestionsthe interviewsraisedthatareoutsidethescopeofthisstudythatwouldmakeforinteresting futureresearch.Aninterestingstudywouldexpandandexplainintomoredetailwhat smallproducerswouldchangeinregardtorestrictiveregulationsthatinfluence production,processing,anddistribution.Andwhatotherdirectmarketingopportunities smallproducerswouldliketoseeimplementedinNewOrleans.Anotherinteresting conceptthisresearchraisedthatneedsmoreexploringishowsmallproducers’ distributionpracticesinfluencetheregionalfoodsysteminothercities.Icannothelpbut wonderifthisconclusionisspecifictoNewOrleansregionandwhatconclusionswouldbe foundinotherregionsoftheUnitedStates? Iwillnotarguethatconsumersneedtosupportlocalproducers.Ithinkthe interviewsandquotesfromthefarmersdoallthetalking.ButIamgoingtoarguethatthis paperisasmallpartofalargerquestion.Whatdowewantthestructureofourfoodsystem tobeinfiftyyears?Smallproducersareagreatresourcetothisquestionandtothe hundredfollowupquestions.Ifsocietydoesnotaskquestionsnothingwillchange.AndI urgeindividualstobethechange. 60 References Bailey,Martin. 2009AnUpdatefromNewOrleans.UrbanAgricultureMagazineJune:22. Bestor,Theodore. 2004Tsukiji:TheFishMarketattheCenteroftheWorld.Berkeley:Universityof CaliforniaPress. Binkley,Sam. 2009TheCivilizingBrand:ShiftingShameThresholdsandtheDisseminationof Consumer.LifestyleEuropeanJournalofCulturalStudies12(1):21‐39. Blake,MeganK.,JodyMellor,andLucyCrane. 2010Buyinglocalfood:shoppingpractices,place,andconsumptionnetworksindefining foodas“local”.AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers100(2):409‐426. 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Richards,LynandJaniceMorse. 2007User’sGuidetoQualitativeMethods.California:SagePublication. Thompson,PhilipandHartHodges. 2011SellLocal!TheNextLogicalStep.EconomicInquiry49(4):1117. Starr,Armony. 2010LocalFood:ASocialMovement?.CulturalStudies10(6):479‐490. Steel,Carolyn. 2008HungryCity:HowFoodShapesOurLives.London:TheRandomHouseGroup. Striffer,Steven. 2005Chicken:TheDangerousTransformationofAmerica’sFavoriteFood.NewHaven: YaleUniversityPress. Veblen,Thorstein. 2008TheTheoryoftheLeisureClass. Walker,Judy. 2013HollyGroveMarketisahubofactivity.TheTimes‐Picayune,February27:A15. Wirth,Ferinand,JohnL.Stanton,andJamesB.Wiley. 2011TheRelativeImportanceofSearchVersusCredenceProductAttributes:Organic and LocallyGrown.AgriculturalandResourceEconomicsReview40(1):48‐62. Wolf,MarianneMcGarry,ArianneSpittler,andJamesAhern. 2005AprofileofFarmers’MarketsConsumersandthePerceivedAdvantagesof ProduceSoldatFarmers’Markets.JournalofFoodDistributionResearch36(1):192‐ 201. 63 Vita Theauthor,EmilyNichols,isanativeofPortland,Oregon.Shereceiveda bachelor’sofartsinHistoryatUniversityofIowa.Aftergraduationshecontinuedher searchforthenextstepsinhereducation.EmilygotinvolvedwithHabitatforHumanity andSpecialOlympics.Herexperiencesshegainedworkingwiththesecharitiesandthe friendshipsshemadeopenedhermindtothesocialandeconomicchallengesindividuals face.Withhermindmadeuptohelpimprovepeople’slives,shestartedtoseekan educationprogramthatwouldgiveherthemostopportunitiesandknowledgeofsocial issues.EmilyattendedgraduatelevelUrbanStudiesclassesatPortlandStateUniversity andknewtheplanningofcitiesandcommunitiesisamajorinfluenceinindividual’s opportunitiesandstandardsoflife. EmilydecidedtoattendUniversityofNewOrleansbecauseofthechallengesthe cityhasfacedinthepastandarestillfacingwithrebuildingandrecoveringafterHurricane Katrina.EmilywasprovidedwithanopportunitytoworkwithLuisaDantas,aTulane professorandafilmmaker,onaninteractivewebsitethatbringsattentiontourbanequity. WorkingonthiswebsitegaveEmilymoreknowledgeabouttheinterworkingsofdisaster reliefandexposedhertograssrootsorganizations.EmilyiscurrentlySeniorContent Curatorfortheplatformandmanagesthecontentthatisaddedtothewebsite.Eventhough EmilyismovingbacktoPortlandaftergraduation,shewillcherishherexperiencesinNew Orleans. 64
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