Grade 11
Unit 2
LANGUAGE ARTS 1102
WRITING EFFECTIVE SENTENCES
CONTENTS
I.
II.
III.
CLAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Main Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Subordinate Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
SUBORDINATING DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Relative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
Subordinating Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
VERBALS AND APPOSITIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
Verbals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
Appositives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
Author:
Arvilla E. Copeland
Editor:
Alan Christopherson, M.S.
Illustrator:
Alpha Omega Graphics
804 N. 2nd Ave. E., Rock Rapids, IA 51246-1759
© MM by Alpha Omega Publications, Inc. All rights reserved.
LIFEPAC is a registered trademark of Alpha Omega Publications, Inc.
All trademarks and/or service marks referenced in this material are the property of their respective owners. Alpha Omega Publications, Inc.
makes no claim of ownership to any trademarks and/or service marks other than their own and their affiliates’, and makes no claim of affiliation to any companies whose trademarks may be listed in this material, other than their own.
WRITING EFFECTIVE SENTENCES
The abilities both to speak and to write effectively are among the most important skills you can learn
in school. Your ability to communicate with others contributes largely to your effectiveness in social, economic, and spiritual activities. Your ideas, however good, are of little importance unless you can express
them clearly. Understanding the way language works and the ways it can be used is indispensable to
developing language skills. Studying the organization and structure of the English language will help you
both to speak and to write more effectively.
Proverbs 18:4 says, “The words of a man’s mouth are as deep waters, and the wellspring of wisdom as
a flowing brook.” Although this verse refers primarily to the spiritual attitude underlying a person’s
speech, it may also apply to the “deep waters” of his knowledge of the nature and effective use of language.
In 2 Timothy 2:15, Paul gives Timothy advice which is also applicable to us. “Study to shew thyself
approved unto God, a workman that needeth not to be ashamed, rightly dividing the word of truth.” This
LIFEPAC® will help you to learn to use words in such a manner that your speech and writing are commendable and easily understood. You should also be able both to understand and to communicate God’s
Word better.
Everyone realizes that athletic skill can bring pleasure both to those who possess and use it and to those
who watch it exercised. In a similar way, skill in the use of words can bring pleasure and satisfaction both
to those who possess the skill and to those who observe it exercised. Learning how language is structured
will help you to develop your own language skills and to appreciate the language skills of others.
In this LIFEPAC you will study main clauses and subordinate clauses. You will learn how clauses are
used correctly in writing. You will also study such subordinating devices as relative pronouns and subordinating conjunctions in order to use them correctly and effectively. Another class of words you will study
is verbals. You will learn how both to form and to use correctly participles, gerunds, and infinitives. You
will also study the use of words and phrases as appositives.
God’s Word says in Proverbs 1:5, “A wise man will hear and will increase learning; and a man of understanding shall attain unto wise counsels.” In Proverbs 4:13 we read, “Take fast hold of instruction; let her
not go; keep her; for she is thy life.” While these verses speak primarily of spiritual truths, they may be
applied to all learning, for all truth is of God.
OBJECTIVES
Read these objectives. The objectives tell you what you will be able to do when you have successfully
completed this LIFEPAC.
When you have completed this LIFEPAC, you should be able to:
1. Identify main and subordinate clauses.
2. Determine whether a noun clause is used as the subject of a verb, a subject complement,
the direct object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
3. Identify adjective clauses and tell which noun they modify.
4. Recognize adverb clauses and tell how they are used.
5. Use elliptical clauses correctly.
6. Use subordinating words correctly to introduce subordinate clauses.
7. Choose the correct form of the relative pronoun according to its use in the clause.
8. Use subordinating conjunctions in introducing adverb clauses.
9. Form present and past participles, gerunds, and infinitives from verbs.
10. Distinguish between present participles and gerunds.
11. Use participial, gerund, and infinitive phrases.
12. List the distinctive uses of each of the three verbals.
13. Use appositives correctly.
1
Survey the LIFEPAC. Ask yourself some questions about this study. Write your questions here.
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I. CLAUSES
As we grow older, our skill in the use of words becomes more mature. One characteristic of mature
writing is the frequent and correct use of the subordinate clause. Studying the different kinds of clauses
will help us to write sentences that are expressive and smooth, and will help to make our writing more
varied and precise.
In this section you will be studying about two major groups of clauses: main clauses, which are
independent, and subordinate clauses, which are dependent. Three types of subordinate clauses you
will be working with include noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverb clauses.
SECTION OBJECTIVES
Review these objectives. When you have completed this section, you should be able to:
1. Identify main and subordinate clauses.
2. Determine whether a noun clause is used as the subject of a verb, a subject complement,
the direct object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
3. Identify adjective clauses and tell which noun they modify.
4. Recognize adverb clauses and tell how they are used.
5. Use elliptical clauses correctly.
VOCABULARY
Study these words to enhance your learning success in this section.
clause
subject complement
elliptical clause
subordinate clause
phrase
Note: All vocabulary words in this LIFEPAC appear in boldface print the first time they are used. If you are unsure of the
meaning when you are reading, study the definitions given.
2
A clause is a group of grammatically related words, which has a subject and predicate
and is used as part of a sentence. A clause is easily distinguished from a phrase, which has
neither subject nor predicate.
MAIN CLAUSES
A main clause is one whose meaning is complete. A main clause is sometimes called an
independent clause because it can stand alone as a sentence. He ran is a main clause; so is
our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation.
Main clauses are the basis of all types of sentences, whether simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. A main clause used alone or with any number of phrases is a
simple sentence. Two main clauses joined by a conjunction or punctuation form a compound
sentence. The subject or the predicate of a main clause, or both, may be compound.
➛
Underline the main clause or clauses in each sentence.
1.1
My brother attends Notre Dame University.
1.2
Have you seen my pet turtle, Mother?
1.3
Most of the juniors and all of the seniors will be going on the field trip to the capital.
1.4
Cats make good house pets, but I like dogs better.
1.5
Cathy went to the store because we were out of milk.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
The word subordinate means of lesser rank. In the army a sergeant is subordinate to a
lieutenant. In grammar a subordinate clause is one that is less than a sentence–one that
does not make sense by itself. It is sometimes referred to as a dependent clause. The subordinate clause depends upon the main clause to complete its meaning.
In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are italicized.
Since Christ came into my heart, my life has changed completely.
The first clause is subordinate, since it depends upon the second clause for its complete
meaning. The second clause, which can stand alone and which expresses a complete
thought, is the main clause.
Born Again is a book which I can recommend.
The first clause is the main clause; it expresses a complete thought. The second clause
is not set off by commas, but it is nevertheless a subordinate clause. It has a subject and a
verb, but it cannot stand alone. A subordinate clause can function as a noun, an adjective,
or an adverb.
➛
Underline the subordinate clause in each sentence.
1.6
Although the assignment was given early, Joe’s term paper was late.
1.7
The hazards of oil drilling were demonstrated when an oil rig in the North Sea exploded.
3
1.8
While industrial pollution continues to be a problem, a survey revealed that more than 80 percent of industrial polluters are currently meeting federal regulations.
1.9
Congress finally passed a bill that establishes federal control over strip-mined land.
1.10
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration, when it was conducting a study of work
environments, discovered that one out of every four workers is exposed to hazardous materials or
conditions.
1.11
The president offered a plan to revise the nation’s welfare system, although the proposal met
with some opposition.
1.12
Early in the year a national problem took center stage as the president formulated his position
on labor unions and strikes.
1.13
He recommended fines for employers who hired illegal aliens.
1.14
A huge quantity of toxic materials which had been dumped into the city water system contaminated a major waste treatment plant.
1.15
Amateur sports must become better organized if the United States wishes to perform more successfully in international competition.
Noun clauses. A subordinate clause functioning as a noun can be used in a variety of
ways. Like a common or proper noun, a noun clause can serve as the subject of a sentence.
Example: What I have always wanted to do is to learn to play the piano.
Noun clauses can also function as objects of either verbs or prepositions.
Example: I knew that the lightning had struck a tree.
In the preceding example, the noun clause is the object of the verb knew. What the speaker knew was that the lightning had struck a tree.
Indirect quotations also use noun clauses as direct objects.
Example: He said that John had gone home.
In the sentence, Give the prize to whoever submits the best original short story, the
noun clause is the object of the preposition to. Note that the whole clause, not the pronoun alone, is the object of the preposition. Whoever is the subject of the clause and is
therefore in the nominative rather than the objective case. This sentence can be reworded to read: Give whoever submits the best original short story the prize. The noun clause
in this version serves as an indirect object. The length of this noun clause makes its use
as an indirect object a bit cumbersome. Such awkwardness is a common problem, best
avoided by using a prepositional phrase beginning with to rather than having the clause
serve as an indirect object.
Besides serving as a subject or an object of a verb or preposition, a noun clause can be
used as a subject complement or a predicate nominative. A subject complement renames
the subject and completes the meaning of the verb.
Example: Your loving care is what I need most.
Most positions which can be filled by nouns can be filled by noun clauses.
4
➛
Using the following abbreviations, tell how each italicized noun clause is used.
S — subject
DO — direct object
SC — subject complement
OP — object of preposition
1.16
_____________
What I wanted to do was to finish my work.
1.17
_____________
The valedictory prize will be awarded to whoever has the highest
academic rating.
1.18
_____________
The chairman heard what was said about the program.
1.19
_____________
A good night’s sleep is what I need most.
1.20
_____________
What I had been hoping for was a scholarship.
1.21
_____________
Our charitable contributions should go to whatever groups seem most worthy.
1.22
_____________
The company rules demanded that the monthly bills be paid before the end
of the month.
1.23
_____________
A lecture on cleanliness was not what the children wanted to hear.
1.24
_____________
That you overslept is a serious matter.
1.25
_____________
Have you discovered where you left your books?
1.26
_____________
The first thing to consider was how to find a paying job.
1.27
_____________
I am optimistic enough to believe that young people will respond to a
challenge.
Adjective clauses. An adjective clause is a subordinate clause which modifies a noun
or pronoun. Like a noun clause, it is frequently introduced by a relative pronoun. In the
sentence, This is the house that was selected for its architectural design, the adjective clause
begins with that and modifies house.
Sometimes the word that introduces an adjective clause is left out, or understood.
Baseball is a sport that many people enjoy becomes Baseball is a sport many people enjoy.
The omitted word is considered part of the clause. Whether or not the introductory word is
omitted, an adjective clause must always follow the word it modifies.
➛
Underline the adjective clauses in these sentences and write in the blank the noun or
pronoun each clause modifies.
1.28
The suggestions that she made were very helpful.
______________________________________
1.29
Charles Colson, who is a Christian, wrote the
book Born Again.
______________________________________
Some of my cousins whom I had not seen for
several years came to the reunion.
______________________________________
The old brick house that sits on top of the hill
was built during the Civil War.
______________________________________
Ben had a dog which was to him the most beautiful
dog in the world.
______________________________________
1.33
This is the novel that I told you about.
______________________________________
1.34
Joan’s favorite recipes are those which her mother
has given her.
______________________________________
1.30
1.31
1.32
5
1.35
The gentleman who was sitting close to them
was the senator from their home state.
______________________________________
1.36
The man whose horse we borrowed is our neighbor.
______________________________________
1.37
Did you buy the product that I recommended?
______________________________________
Adverb clauses. An adverb clause is a subordinate clause which is used to modify a verb,
an adjective, or another adverb. It modifies a verb when it tells how, when, where, why, to what
extent, or under what condition. Each adverb clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction, as in the sentences that follow.
He practices as though he were a professional. (Tells how.)
He practices when the weather is suitable. (Tells when.)
He practices wherever he can find a tennis court. (Tells where.)
He practices because he wishes to improve his skill. (Tells why.)
He practices as often as he can. (Tells to what extent.)
He practices if he is in good health. (Tells under what conditions.)
In the sentence He is as handsome as his father was, the clause as his father was modifies the adjective handsome. In My neighbor feels better than he did last week, the clause
than he did last week modifies better, an adjective. An adverb clause at the beginning of a
sentence is followed by a comma. When the main clause comes first, as in these examples,
a comma is not necessary.
➛
Underline the adverb clause in each sentence, draw two lines under the subordinating
conjunction, and in the space at the right tell what word the adverb clause modifies.
1.38
When you obey your parents, you please the Lord.
______________________________________
1.39
Although he spends much time playing tennis, he
manages to get his studying done.
______________________________________
Please get to bed early since you have a test
tomorrow.
______________________________________
The picnic was postponed because the rain ruined
the grounds.
______________________________________
1.42
He is ready whenever he is called.
______________________________________
1.43
Since the advertisements are sometimes misleading,
it is important to read the labels.
______________________________________
1.44
You may go as soon as you have finished the test.
______________________________________
1.45
Tim will not eat the food unless you taste it first.
______________________________________
1.46
The girls greeted each other as though nothing had
happened.
______________________________________
The guide tied the canoe to a tree so that it could
not float away.
______________________________________
1.40
1.41
1.47
6
In speaking and writing, adverb clauses are sometimes left grammatically incomplete.
Examples include Greg is taller than Jerry (is tall) and While (he was) crossing the street,
he found a dollar bill. The words in parentheses have been omitted but the meaning of the
clause is easily understood without them. The reader or hearer supplies, or infers, the missing words. Incomplete adverb clauses of this type are called elliptical clauses.
➛
1.48
Identify each italicized subordinate clause as a noun clause, an adjective clause, or an
adverb clause.
Washington played by the river when he was
young.
______________________________________
1.49
While talking, he waved his arms.
______________________________________
1.50
What the speaker said was not clear.
______________________________________
7
1.51
I shall not repeat the story, since it is not true.
______________________________________
1.52
Bryan, who played the part of the lion, was the
star of the play “Androcles and the Lion.”
______________________________________
The exhibition could not begin until Phineas
Barnum appeared.
______________________________________
1.54
What will happen is anyone’s guess.
______________________________________
1.55
The gardener put in a pinch of grass seed wherever
he pulled out a weed.
______________________________________
1.56
This is the house that Jack built.
______________________________________
1.57
As the sun sank and darkness fell, hordes of gnats
were attracted by the fire.
______________________________________
1.58
Red was the color she chose for the drapes.
______________________________________
1.59
The settlers could see the red skies in the north,
where the Indians were burning farms and towns.
______________________________________
1.60
While visiting his parents he attended our church.
______________________________________
1.61
The house would be completely destroyed unless the
fire department responded quickly.
______________________________________
1.62
I remember what you told me about poison ivy.
______________________________________
➛
Complete each group of words with a suitable clause. The kind of subordinate clause each
sentence needs is listed after the sentence.
1.63
Your promise is ______________________________________________________________ .
noun
1.64
The man ________________________________________ was taken to be fingerprinted.
adjective
1.65
The game ________________________________________________________ was exciting.
adjective
1.66
________________________________________________________ is no one else’s concern.
noun
1.67
Scott practiced his piano lesson _______________________________________________ .
adverb
1.68
It is my duty to report to the police ___________________________________________ .
noun
1.69
The typewriter _____________________________________________ needs a new ribbon.
adjective
1.70
Working is _____________________________________________________________________ .
noun
1.71
The car ______________________________________________________________ stopped at
the crosswalk.
adjective
1.72
The minister performed the wedding ceremony _________________________________
adverb
1.53
___________________________________________________________________________________ .
➛
1.73
Write your own sentences. Write four sentences with noun clauses (try to use each in a different function), four with adjective clauses, and four with adverb clauses.
(Noun clause) _____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.74
(Noun clause) _____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
8
1.75
(Noun clause) _____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.76
(Noun clause) _____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.77
(Adjective clause) _________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.78
(Adjective clause) _________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.79
(Adjective clause) _________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.80
(Adjective clause) _________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.81
(Adverb clause) ___________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.82
(Adverb clause) ___________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.83
(Adverb clause) ___________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.84
(Adverb clause) ___________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Adult Check
___________________
Initial
Date
Review the material in this section in preparation for the Self Test. The Self Test will check
your mastery of this particular section. The items missed on this Self Test will indicate specific
areas where restudy is needed for mastery.
SELF TEST 1
Fill the blanks with the correct words. The same term may be used more than once (each answer, 3
points).
1.01
A (an) _________________________________ clause tells how, when, where, or to what extent something was done.
1.02
A (an) _________________________________ clause is one which can stand alone because its meaning
is complete.
1.03
A (an) _________________________________ clause modifies a noun.
1.04
A (an) _________________________________ clause may be used as the object of a preposition.
1.05
A (an) _________________________________ clause may be used as a subject complement.
1.06
A dependent clause is also called a (an) _________________________________ clause.
9
1.07
A (an) _________________________________ clause may modify a verb.
1.08
Three kinds of subordinate clauses are a. __________________________ , b. _________________________ ,
and c. __________________________ .
Draw one line under each main clause and two lines under each subordinate clause. Identify
each subordinate clause as noun, adjective, or adverb (each sentence, 3 points).
1.09
Most of the teachers are Americans, though a few
come from England and France.
______________________________________
1.010 When school opens in the fall, students are happy
to rejoin their friends.
______________________________________
1.011 We believe that Christianity is the key to a better world.
______________________________________
1.012 The prince’s chief interest was tennis, which he was
just learning to play.
______________________________________
1.013 After we have read the story, we will talk about it.
______________________________________
1.014 If people are going to respect authority when they grow
up, they must learn how when they are young.
______________________________________
1.015 When I joined them in the waiting room for a cup of tea,
they seemed pleased.
______________________________________
1.016 The orphan did not wish to be adopted by the American
family that had asked for him.
______________________________________
1.017 Andris was an orphan who had barely survived in
a war camp.
______________________________________
1.018 America needs young people who are loyal and
industrious.
______________________________________
Underline each noun clause and tell how it is used (each sentence, 2 points).
1.019 What Scripture tells us should be the basis for our
behavior.
______________________________________
1.020 The game will be won by whoever plays best.
______________________________________
1.021 I found what I was looking for in my purse.
______________________________________
1.022 The reason I am late is that I had failed to set the alarm.
______________________________________
1.023 That I was in a hurry was no excuse for my rudeness.
______________________________________
Underline each adjective clause and tell what word it modifies (each sentence, 2 points).
1.024 She has already read the book which she
borrowed yesterday.
______________________________________
1.025 The boy who found the money was rewarded
for his honesty.
______________________________________
1.026 Behind the sofa I found the toy which had disappeared.
______________________________________
1.027 My grandmother is the woman whose portrait
hangs on the wall.
______________________________________
1.028 The birds which come to the feeder stay all winter.
______________________________________
10
Underline each adverb clause and tell what word it modifies (each sentence, 2 points).
1.029 The bus will pick up the children when school is out.
______________________________________
1.030 I drove as rapidly as road conditions would permit.
______________________________________
1.031 She is as talented as any person I know.
______________________________________
1.032 John finished his work more quickly than I did.
______________________________________
1.033 The child burned his hand, although he had been
warned not to touch the hot stove.
______________________________________
72
Score
90
Adult Check
_______________
___________________
Initial
Date
II. SUBORDINATING DEVICES
To subordinate one idea to another in a sentence, a writer or speaker must be familiar with subordinating devices. Relative pronouns, which relate or refer to a word or idea previously mentioned, are frequently used for this purpose.
In this section you will learn to use relative pronouns to subordinate ideas. You will also become familiar with and learn to use subordinating conjunctions. You will learn that these conjunctions are used to
express time, show reason or cause, show purpose or result, or indicate condition. By using subordination
in your writing, you will be able to express ideas without restricting yourself to short, choppy sentences.
Your writing style will become more readable and more mature.
SECTION OBJECTIVES
Review these objectives. When you have completed this section, you should be able to:
6. Use subordinating words correctly introduce subordinate clauses.
7. Choose the correct form of the relative pronoun according to its use in the clause.
8. Use the subordinating conjunctions in introducing adverb clauses.
VOCABULARY
Study these words to enhance your learning success in this section.
antecedent
relative pronoun
condition
11
subordinating conjunction