AP LANGUAGE SUMMER ASSIGNMENT 2016
SUMMER “TO DO” LIST:
1. Complete 10 Dialectical Journal entries from the FOUR books listed
below:
• The Post-American World: Release 2.0 by Fareed Zakaria
• Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything
by Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner
• You are Not So Smart by David McRaney
• How to Lie with Statistics by Darrell Huff
Specific Instructions are included in this packet. Please
read carefully. This should be completed in a marble
composition notebook. These will count for 15% of your
first quarter grade.
2. Create notecards for each of the terms listed in this packet (Yes, ALL of
them)
FAILURE TO TURN IN THE DIALECTICAL JOURNAL AND NOTECARDS ON
THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS WILL RESULT IN IMMEDIATE REMOVAL FROM
ADVANCE PLACEMENT ENGLISH.
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DIALECTICAL JOURNAL
The purpose of a dialectical journal is to identify significant pieces of text and explain the significance. It is
another form of highlighting/annotating text and should be used to think about, digest, summarize, question,
clarify, critique, and remember what is read. It is a way to take notes on what is read, using the actual text, so
that when you are asked to write an essay about or utilize the information from the text you do not have to reread the entire piece. Instead, you can search your notes for direct quotes to use as supporting evidence for your
opinions. A dialectical journal is also an effective way to assess your comprehension. It can be used with any
form of writing: textbook, short story, novel, essay, poem, newspaper article, scientific journal, or any piece of
writing students choose.
To set up a dialectical journal, you may simply fold a piece of paper in half. On the left hand side of the page,
title the column, Note Taking. On the right hand side of the page, title the column, Note Making. The left hand
column is where you will write the sentence/s or phrase/s from the text that you believe illustrates a significant
idea. You should put quotation marks around the sentence/s to show that they are someone else’s words. If the
passage you use is more than one or two sentences, you may abbreviate it in the following manner, using
ellipses (three dots in place of the words that are missing at the end):
“Like the keeper of the lighthouse, she regarded it as a mooring, a checkpoint, some stable visual object that
assured her that the world was still there; that this was life and not a dream…” Song of Solomon, p. 11
THE ABOVE INFORMATION WAS TAKEN DIRECTLY FROM THE FOLLOWING SOURCE:
http://www.esubjects.com/curric/general/supplements/DialecticalJournal.pdf
Feel free to play with the topics for your dialectical journals; you may pull out passages you have questions
about, passages on specific characters, passages on specific symbols, passages which build themes, or passages
that demonstrate the style of the specific author. Feel free to comment on diction, tone, style, voice, etc. The
important thing is that you have something to say about the passage. Your comments should be developed and
demonstrate higher level thinking which goes well beyond plot summary. Please AVOID plot summaries. We
are looking for evidence that you are thinking as you are reading. The AP literature course is focused on close
reading of works. This summer, we want you to practice close reading. The dialectic journals will provide an
organized way for you to record your thoughts; ten entries per book is not a lot to ask. We challenge you TO
THINK. There are no wrong answers. (Avoid using Sparknotes during your reading). Instead, use YOUR
BRAIN! We have attached some sample “journals” to guide you.
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Dialectic Journals in a Nutshell!
1. You need a minimum of ten entries per book.
2. Please use the format we have attached
For the TEXT (“note taking”) column, your entries may include the following:
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Meaningful or striking quotations or paraphrasing of important passages
Confusing or difficult quotations or passages
Evidence of theme, tone, mood, character development, plot complication, setting significance, etc.
Vocabulary work in context
Figurative language such as metaphors, similes, personification, etc.
effective &/or creative use of stylistic or literary devices
Passages that remind you of your own life or something you’ve seen before
Structural shifts or turns in the plot
A passage that makes you realize something you hadn’t seen before
Examples of patterns: recurring images, ideas, colors, symbols or motifs.
Passages with confusing language or unfamiliar vocabulary
Events you find surprising or confusing
Passages that illustrate a particular character or setting
For the RESPONSE (“note making”) column, you have several ways to respond to a text:
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Sample from
Raise questions about the beliefs and values implied in the text
Give your personal reactions to the passage
Discuss the diction (vocabulary) used
Discuss what makes the quote or passage meaningful, striking, or important
Discuss how theme is shown
Discuss the meaning and/or effect of figurative language
Discuss the character’s role and/or the values of the character
Discuss the importance of setting
Tell what it reminds you of from your own experiences
Write about what it makes you think or feel
Argue with or speak to the characters or author
Comment on the relevance of a passage to its historical context or to the present
Identify recurring symbols or images
The Things They Carried (O’brien)
Note-taking
Note-making
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“-they carried like freight trains;
they carried it on their backs and
shoulders-and for all the
ambiguities of Vietnam, all the
mysteries and unknowns, there
was at least the single abiding
certainty that they would never
be at a loss for things to carry”.
p. 48.
(R) O’brien chooses to end the first section of the novel with this
sentence. He provides excellent visual details of what each solider in
Vietnam would carry for day-to-day fighting. He makes you feel the
physical weight of what soldiers have to carry for simple survival. When you combine the emotional weight of loved ones at home, the fear
of death, and the responsibility for the men you fight with, with this
physical weight, you start to understand what soldiers in Vietnam dealt
with every day. This quote sums up the confusion that the men felt
about the reasons they were fighting the war, and how they clung to
the only certainty - things they had to carry - in a confusing world
where normal rules were suspended.
Sample from Song of Solomon (Toni Morrison)
Note-taking
Note-making
“Like the keeper of the lighthouse, she regarded it as a
mooring, a checkpoint, some stable visual object that
assured her that the world was still there; that this was
life and not a dream…” p. 11.
The watermark confirms the relationship Ruth has with
her husband, Macon; one of contempt and distance, one
in which she has been repeatedly denied her existence as
a powerful human being, but instead is treated with scorn
or as somehow only worthy to have sex, bear children,
care for the house. The watermark began as an
expression of how she sees beauty in the world and ends
as a reminder of her vision denied. At once, it gives her
strength to go on AND makes her feel trapped. It is the
truth of her life.
“Fluky about her own name at twelve, how much more
fluky she’d become since then Macon could…” p. 19
The reader is made to love Pilate. Love her because
Macon can’t stand her. Love her because even at birth
she breaks free of what conventional society expects of
her. Her father does it for her. He gives her a man’s name
and to boot it is the epitome of what most good
Christians would consider evil or traitorous…Pilot, the
man who callously condemned Christ to death. She is
everything Macon is not. She sings. He is stoical. She
loves. He only feels contempt and disgust. She is
colorful. He is drab. She makes and sells alcohol (which
was illegal). He is the legitimate businessman. She has
compassion. He cares nothing for his fellowman; he only
cares about money. She is strength in her feminity,
strength in a wholly female kind of way that has nothing
to do with the docile stereotypes of women or the man
hating stereotypes of women, nothing conventional. She
is the epitome of life. She simply is, and is not ashamed.
Note-taking
Note-making
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“…as I read the alphabet a faint line appeared between
her eyebrows, and after making me read most of My First
Reader and the stock market quotations from the Mobile
Register, she discovered that I was literate and looked at
me with more than faint distaste. Miss Caroline told me
to tell my father not to teach me any more, it would
interfere with my reading.” (page 21)
The novel takes place during the Depression, a time
when kids like Scout had almost nothing to look forward
to and no prospects for a better future. Scout speaks often
of how dirty the kids are, how poor everyone is (so poor
that no one notices that anyone else is in any better or
worse shape than they are). Miss Caroline does not seem
to understand that she is probably one of the few things
standing between the kids of that era and total disaster.
Her job is so important because she can give them all the
key to a better life. Instead, she singles kids out for
mistreatment, demeans the children in front of each
other, and does not try to inspire the kids in her class.
Adults during the Depression had to have been afraid,
afraid of starvation, afraid of losing their jobs. Perhaps
Miss Caroline is so harsh partly because she is
inexperienced, but maybe she is afraid that if she does
not run her classroom like factory (everyone doing the
same thing at the same time) that she will lose her job.
Maybe she thinks the kids genuinely need her to be so
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Terms – AP English Language and Composition
Advanced Placement Terms
rhetoric - From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of
writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.
subject - Other than the general topic identify the central thesis of the work in one clear
declarative thesis statement.
writer or speaker - Persona of the work; address historical and/or cultural contexts and their
effect or influence.
occasion - Formal, informal, etc. and any details that would affect the purpose
audience - Direct and indirect or primary and secondary (analyze both because they are
usually there!)
purpose or intention - To persuade, entertain, inform, etc. or usually a combination
persuasive appeals
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ethos - Refers to a character, speaker, writer, or persona and their credibility
(authority) on the topic or a common belief statement that cannot be refuted but
accepted as true: “Life is a precious gift;” the use of pronouns such as “we,” “ours,” or
“us” strengthens the ties between the persona and the audience/reader creating a
connection between the speaker and the audience. The speaker is seen as “one of us.”
Pronouns such as “they” or “he/she” distances the speaker/writer from the audience.
Pronouns such as “I” focus on the credibility of the author/speaker.
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logos - Appeals to the reasoning or logic of the argument; concession to the opposing
side of an argument typically followed by a counterargument. An effective argument
always addresses the opposing side in an effort to persuade because it demonstrates
thorough knowledge of the subject and increases the speaker/writer’s credibility with
the audience.
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pathos - Appeals to the emotions of the reader and needed if the purpose of the
speaker is to incite action. Remember, people are typically moved in the end by their
emotions but only after a strong logical argument has laid the foundation for their
change in attitude. A strictly emotional argument is a rant or a tirade and is not
effective.
tone –Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience,
or both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language.
Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author’s
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tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous,
formal, ornate, sardonic, somber, etc.
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pedantic – An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly
scholarly, academic, or bookish (language that might be described as “show-offy”;
using big words for the sake of using big words).
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homily – This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any
serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.
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invective – An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive
language. (For example, in Henry IV, Part I, Prince Hal calls the large character of
Falstaff “this sanguine coward, this bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge hill
of flesh.”)
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didactic – From the Greek, didactic literally means “teaching.” Didactic words have the
primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical
principles.
tone shift - Because tone radiates from the author, through a speaker(s) or narrator(s) and
then to the reader, a tone shift indicates a shift in attitude about the subject. A tone shift may
be the result of a change in speaker, subject, audience, or intention. The shift may indicate
irony, a deeper and more complex understanding of the topic, a new way of addressing the
topic, etc. Notice how and why the tone shift occurs and utilize two contrasting tone words to
express the change and its effect. This will tie to the argument or point of view perhaps
highlighting a change in position.
rhetorical modes - This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes
of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as
“modes of discourse”) are as follows:
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The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information
by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP
language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics.
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The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by
presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the
reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of
urging some form of action.
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The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place,
event or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an
author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be
sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective
or highly emotional an subjective.
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The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This
writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing.
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style - The consideration of style has two purposes:
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An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax,
figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors’ styles are so
idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author. We can analyze
and describe an author’s personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is
to the author’s purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling,
bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc.
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Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By
means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author’s style
reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the
Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental, or
realist movement.
thesis – In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that
directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is
usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven
the thesis.
inference/infer – To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a
multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct,
most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it’s
unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not
inferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation – negative or positive –
of the choices.
Literary Devices / Figurative Language
figurative language – Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is
usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.
figure of speech – A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar
things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron,
paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.
genre – The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are
prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries
exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be
divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies,
autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama
can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam,
expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography,
biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.
There may be fiction or poetry.
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prose – One of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including
all its forms. In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet
determines the length of the line.
satire – A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for
reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior,
satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized
by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole,
understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer’s
goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human
condition. Some modern satirists include Joseph Heller (Catch 22) and Kurt Vonnegut (Cat’s
Cradle, Player Piano).
parody – A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of
comic effect and/or ridicule. It exploits peculiarities of an author’s expression (propensity to
use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.) Well-written parody offers
enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation.
Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in
order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies
take on a life of their own and don’t require knowledge of the original.
point of view – In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general
divisions of point of view, and many subdivisions within those.
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first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character
in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an
observing character.
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third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,”
and “it.” There are two main subdivisions to be aware of:
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third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the
thoughts and actions of any or all characters
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third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and
thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining
characters.
In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries an additional meaning. When you are
asked to analyze the author’s point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the
author’s attitude.
juxtaposition: the placing of contrasting settings, characters, or other literary elements in
opposition between paragraphs or between sections of text to highlight an intended
disparity. Example: In Cold Blood is written not with typical chapter formation but as an
intended juxtaposition of the events in the Clutter home in juxtaposition to the activities of
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the two misfits. The effect is to highlight the disparity in an effort to heighten the sense of
terror, panic, and an ominous foreboding in the reader.
allegory – The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an
abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may
intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical
meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.
alliteration – The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more
neighboring words (as in “she sells seashells”). Although the term is not frequently in the
multiple choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can
reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the
passage.
allusion – An indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as
an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious,
topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use
multiple layers of allusion.
ambiguity – The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase,
sentence, or passage.
personification – A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts,
animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions.
Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to
the reader.
apostrophe – A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person
or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or
something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity.
William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes,
“Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee.” Another
example is Keats’ “Ode to a Grecian Urn,” in which Keats addresses the urn itself:
“Thou still unravished bride of quietness.” Many apostrophes imply a personification of
the object addressed.
aphorism – A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a
moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a
folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author’s point.
atmosphere – The emotional nod created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly
by the setting and partly by the author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such
elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently
atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.
mood – The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can
affect the mood. Mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.
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repetition – The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as
a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.
sarcasm – From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language
that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not
all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to ridicule). When well done, sarcasm
can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.
wit -- in modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty
statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious
and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement.
Historically, wit originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed
of understanding, and finally, it grew to mean quick perception
caricature – a verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic
effect, a person’s distinctive physical features or other characteristics.
hyperbole – A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal
Greek meaning is “overshoot.”) Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious
effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The opposite of hyperbole is
understatement.
irony/ironic – The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the
difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create
poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language:
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verbal irony – when the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s)
meaning
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situational irony – when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what
the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen
• dramatic irony – when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of
fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.
SPOTLIGHT
metaphor – A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike
things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity.
Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought
provoking, and meaningful.
extended metaphor – A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or
throughout a work.
analogy – A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship
between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing
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out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid,
imaginative, or intellectually engaging.
onomatopoeia – A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of
words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur.
If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.
symbol/symbolism – Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else.
Usually a symbol is something concrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene –
that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much
more complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories:
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natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas
commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose
symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge).
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conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group
(religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or
an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scale of
justice for lawyers).
• literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a
variety of works and are more generally recognized. However, a work’s symbols may
be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness. On the AP exam, try to
determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful
in representing that abstraction.
SPOTLIGHT
synecdoche – A figure of speech in which a part of something is used to
represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to represent a part.
Examples: To refer to a boat as a “sail”; to refer to a car as “wheels”; to refer to
the
violins, violas, etc. in an orchestra as “the strings.” **Different than metonymy, in which one
thing is represented by another thing that is commonly physically associated with it (but is
not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a monarch as “the crown” or the President as
“The White House.”
metonymy – (mĕtŏn′ ĭmē) A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute
name,” metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that
of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release that claims “the White
House declared” rather than “the President declared” is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses
it to signify the male and female sexes in As You Like It: “doublet and hose ought to show
itself courageous to petticoat.” The substituted term generally carries a more potent
emotional impact.
imagery – The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or
represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses:
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visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and deeper level, however,
one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual
imagery while also representing the color in a woman’s cheeks and/or symbolizing some
degree of perfection. An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing
other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to
the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an author
creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.
synesthesia – When one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of
another. Ex: The sight of red ants makes you itchy. In literature, synesthesia refers to the
practice of associating two or more different senses in the same image. Red Hot Chili
Peppers’ song title,“Taste the Pain,” is an example.
theme – The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is
unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly state, especially in
expository or argumentative writing.
Syntax
syntax – The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of
words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple choice section of the AP
exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the
essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.
clause – A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main,
clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or
subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an
independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the
author subordinates one element should also become aware of making effective use of
subordination in your own writing.
cumulative (loose) sentence – A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent
clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses.
If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete
sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or
conversational. Generally, loose sentences create loose style. The opposite of a loose
sentence is the periodic sentence.
Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays.
Could stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport.
periodic sentence – The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central
meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or
clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and
structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. (Example:
After a long, bumpy flight and multiple delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport.)
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subordinate clause – Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb
(plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the
subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a
dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause (or independent clause)
to complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these
clauses. For example: although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while,
who, when, where, how and that. Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the
West that is known for its geysers. underlined phrase = subordinate clause.
SPOTLIGHT
chiasmus - Grammatical structure when the first clause or phrase is reversed in
the second, sometimes repeating the same words. Reversing the syntactical
order emphasizes the reversal in meaning and thus reinforces the contrast. Such
a
device is useful in writing to emphasize differences or contrast in meaning: “And so, my
fellow Americans, ask now what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your
country.”
antithesis – The placing of opposing or contrasting ideas and/or words within the same
sentence or very close together to emphasize their disparity: “It was the best of times; it was
the worst of times.” the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite.
parallelism – Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes
from Greek roots meaning “beside one another.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical
framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can
involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or
verbal phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities is an example: “It was the
best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity....”) The effects of
parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the
reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.
anaphora – A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the
beginning of successive lines or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous “I Have a
Dream” speech (1963).
epistrophe - Forms the counterpart to anaphora, because the repetition of the same word or
words comes at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences:
“Where affections bear rule, there reason is subdued, honesty is subdued, good will is
subdued, and all things else that withstand evil, forever are subdued.” --Wilson
anadiplosis – Repeats the last word of one phrase, clause, or sentence at or very near the
beginning of the next. it can be generated in series for the sake of beauty or to give a sense
of logical progression:
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“Pleasure might cause her to read, reading might make her know. Knowledge might pity win,
and pity grace obtain . . . .” --Philip Sidney
paradox – A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense
but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning
of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times....”)
asyndeton - Conjunctions are omitted, producing fast-paced and rapid prose to speed up the
reader so as to have the reader experience the events along with the persona in a rapid
succession: “I woke up, got out of bed, pulled on my clothes, rushed out the door.”
polysyndeton - The use of many conjunctions has the opposite effect of asyndeton; it slows
the pace of the reader but the effect is to possibly overwhelm the reader with details thus
connecting the reader and the persona to the same experience – may also be called
cataloging: “My mother cooked roast turkey and cornbread stuffing and sweet potatoes and
peas and apple pie.”
declarative sentence - makes a statement
"Clothes make the man. Naked people have little or no influence on society." -- Mark
Twain
interrogative sentence - asks a question
"But what is the difference between literature and journalism? Journalism is
unreadable and literature is not read." -- Oscar Wilde
imperative sentence - a statement that shows strong emotion
"Be careful about reading health books. You may die of a misprint." -- Mark Twain
exclamatory sentence - gives a direction or a command
"To die for an idea; it is unquestionably noble. But how much nobler it would be if men
died for ideas that were true! -- H. L. Mencken
transition – A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not
exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from
one idea to another. A few commonly used transitional words or phrases are furthermore,
consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, on the contrary, etc.
More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition.
understatement – the ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less
significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is
the opposite of hyperbole. Example: Jonathan Swift’s A Tale of a Tub: “Last week I saw a
woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse.”
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litotes - (pronounced almost like “little tee”) – a form of understatement that involves
making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole.
Examples: “Not a bad idea,” “Not many,” “It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little
tumor on the brain” (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye).
conceit – A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising
analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a
result of the unusual comparison being made.
Diction
diction – Related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to
their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to
describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand
the ways in which diction can complement the author’s purpose. Diction, combined with
syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style.
connotation – The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested
meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.
denotation – The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion,
attitude, or color. (Example: the denotation of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the
connotation of a knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.)
semantics – The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and
psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.
antecedent – The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam
occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a
group of sentences. A question from the 2001 AP test as an example follows:
“But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that
it is never absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by way of germ of
latent principle, in the lowest as in the highest, needing to be developed but never to be
planted.” The antecedent of “it” (bolded) is...? [answer: “all truth”]
colloquial/colloquialism – The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing.
Colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone.
euphemism – From the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable or less
offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be
used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic
understatement. Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of euphemism.
oxymoron – A figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to
suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo shrimp” and “cruel kindness.” This term
does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might
find it in an essay. Take note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron.
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Argument
argument - A process of reasoning and advancing proof about issues on which conflicting
views may be held; also, a statement or statements providing support for a claim
claim - The conclusion of an argument; what the arguer is trying to prove
evidence - Facts or opinions that support an issue or claim; may consist of statistics, reports
of personal experience, or views of experts
credibility - The audience’s belief in the arguer’s trustworthiness; see also ethos
qualifier - A restriction placed on the claim to state that it may not always be true as stated
refutation - An attack on an opposing view in order to weaken it, invalidate it, or make it less
credible
support - Any material that serves to prove an issue or claim; in addition to evidence, it
includes appeals to the needs and values of the audience
induction - reasoning by which a general statement is reached on the basis of particular
examples
deduction - reasoning by which we establish that a conclusion must be true because the
statements on which it is based are true; see also syllogism
syllogism – From the Greek for “reckoning together,” a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or
syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first
one called “major” and the second called “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion.
A frequently cited example proceeds as follows:
major premise: All men are mortal.
minor premise: Socrates is a man.
conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.
A syllogism’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may
also present the specific idea first (“Socrates”) and the general second (“all men”).
Fallacies
rhetorical fallacies, or fallacies of argument, don’t allow for the open, two-way exchange of
ideas upon which meaningful conversations depend. Instead, they distract the reader with
various appeals instead of using sound reasoning. They can be divided into three categories:
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1. emotional fallacies unfairly appeal to the audience’s emotions.
2. ethical fallacies unreasonably advance the writer’s own authority or character.
3. logical fallacies depend upon faulty logic.
Keep in mind that rhetorical fallacies often overlap.
EMOTIONAL FALLACIES
sentimental appeals - Use emotion to distract the audience from the facts.
Example: The thousand baby seals killed in the Exxon Valdez oil spill have shown us
that oil is not a reliable energy source.
red herrings - Use misleading or unrelated evidence to support a conclusion.
Example: That painting is worthless because I don’t recognize the artist.
scare tactics - Try to frighten people into agreeing with the arguer by threatening them or
predicting unrealistically dire consequences.
Example: If you don’t support the party’s tax plan, you and your family will be reduced
to poverty.
bandwagon appeals - Encourage an audience to agree with the writer because everyone else
is doing so.
Example: Paris Hilton carries a small dog in her purse, so you should buy a hairless
Chihuahua and put it in your Louis Vuitton.
slippery slope - Arguments suggest that one thing will lead to another, oftentimes with
disastrous results.
Example: If you get a B in high school, you won’t get into the college of your choice,
and therefore will never have a meaningful career.
either/or choices - Reduce complicated issues to only two possible courses of action.
Example: The patent office can either approve my generator design immediately or say
goodbye forever to affordable energy.
false need - Arguments create an unnecessary desire for things.
ETHICAL FALLACIES
false authority - Asks audiences to agree with the assertion of a writer based simply on his or
her character or the authority of another person or institution who may not be fully qualified
to offer that assertion.
Example: My high school teacher said it, so it must be true.
using authority instead of evidence - Occurs when someone offers personal authority as
proof.
Example: Trust me – my best friend wouldn’t do that.
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guilt by association - Calls someone’s character into question by examining the character of
that person’s associates.
Example: Sara’s friend Amy robbed a bank; therefore, Sara is a delinquent.
dogmatism - Shuts down discussion by asserting that the writer’s beliefs are the only
acceptable ones.
Example: I’m sorry, but I think penguins are sea creatures and that’s that.
moral equivalence - Compares minor problems with much more serious crimes (or vice
versa).
Example: These mandatory seatbelt laws are fascist.
ad hominem - Arguments attack a person’s character rather than that person’s reasoning.
Example: Why should we think a candidate who recently divorced will keep her
campaign promises?
strawperson - Arguments set up and often dismantle easily refutable arguments in order to
misrepresent an opponent’s argument in order to defeat him or her
Example: A: We need to regulate access to handguns.
B: My opponent believes that we should ignore the rights guaranteed to us as citizens
of the United States by the Constitution. Unlike my opponent, I am a firm believer in the
Constitution, and a proponent of freedom.
LOGICAL FALLACIES
A hasty generalization - Draws conclusions from scanty evidence.
Example: I wouldn’t eat at that restaurant—the only time I ate there, my entree was
undercooked.
faulty causality (or Post Hoc) - Arguments confuse chronology with causation: one event can
occur after another without being caused by it.
Example: A year after the release of the violent shoot-’em-up video game Annihilator,
incidents of school violence tripled—surely not a coincidence.
non sequitur (Latin for “It doesn’t follow”) is a statement that does not logically relate to what
comes before it. An important logical step may be missing in such a claim.
Example: If those protesters really loved their country, they wouldn’t question the
government.
equivocation - Is a half-truth, or a statement that is partially correct but that purposefully
obscures the entire truth.
Example: “I did not have sexual relations with that woman.” – President Bill Clinton
begging the question - Occurs when a writer simply restates the claim in a different way;
such an argument is circular.
Example: His lies are evident from the untruthful nature of his statements.
faulty analogy - Is an inaccurate, inappropriate, or misleading comparison between two
things.
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Example: Letting prisoners out on early release is like absolving them of their crimes.
stacked evidence - Represents only one side of the issue, thus distorting the issue.
Example: Cats are superior to dogs because they are cleaner, cuter, and more
independent.
River City Science Academy
AP Language and Composition
Contract
Please Print
Name
Address
Home Phone
Cell Phone
e-mail Address
Course Description
AP English Language and Composition is a two semester course offered to advanced level juniors. It is intended to be the
equivalent of a college freshman composition course which will engage students in becoming skilled readers and writers.
All students enrolled in AP Language must remain in the course for the full academic year. Emphasis will be on
expository, analytical, and argumentative writing as a basis for academic and professional communication.
In the spring, students will take the AP Language and Composition test for possible college credit. However, the score on
the AP test does not impact the final grade for the course. Students are required to produce original essays and analyze
professional texts both in and out of class. Due to the depth and rigor of the course, students must be prepared for the
extra time and effort required to succeed academically.
Additionally, students are expected to complete a summer assignment, which will be collected one week after the start of
the fall semester. If students do not complete this summer assignment, they will not be allowed to stay enrolled in
the course.
Students who do not complete the following requirements during the first or subsequent quarters can and will be asked to
be removed from AP Language and Composition:
1. Failure to maintain a B
2. More than three unexcused absences in one quarter
3. Accumulating more than two missing assignments
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By the end of the course, “students should become aware of the interactions among a writer’s purposes, audience
expectations, and subjects as well as the way generic conventions and the resources of language contribute to
effectiveness in writing” (The College Board).
Course Expectations
According to The College Board, upon completing the AP English Language and Composition course, students should
be able to:
1. analyze and interpret samples of good writing, identifying and explaining an author’s use of rhetorical strategies
2. apply effective strategies and techniques in their own writing
3. create and sustain arguments based on readings, research, and/or personal experience
4. write for a variety of purposes
5. produce expository, analytical, and argumentative compositions that introduce and develop a complex central idea
6. demonstrate and understanding and mastery of standard written English as well as stylistic maturity
7. demonstrate understanding of the conventions of citing primary and secondary sources
8. move effectively through the stages of the writing process
9. write thoughtfully about their own process of composition
10. revise a work to make it suitable for a different audience
11. analyze image as text
12. evaluate and incorporate reference documents into research papers
Mrs. Ferrari’s AP Academic Integrity
The following actions will be deemed violations of Academic Integrity:
• When a student takes credit for work that is not their own or allows someone else to copy their work, this will be
deemed a violation of our Academic Integrity Standards.
• If a student looks at another student’s paper or sends or receives test data during or before a quiz or test or uses
materials on a test or quiz that have not been approved, this is a breach of Academic Integrity.
• If a student plagiarizes someone’s work, whether it is another student’s or reference material, this will be a
violation of Academic Integrity.
• Students must maintain at least a C average in the course in order to stay in the class. Decisions about student
removal will be made at the quarterly marking periods.
• Students must complete at least 80% of their classroom and homework assignments in order to remain in the
class.
The following consequences will be enacted if a violation occurs:
• The parents of the student who has been academically dishonest will be notified of the event
• The student will receive an automatic zero (failing grade) on the assignment or test; no make-up work will be
offered to compensate for the zero.
The following consequences may be enacted if a violation occurs:
• The student may be removed from the class for one day at the teacher’s discretion
• The student may face suspension from extra-curricular activities, including sports programs.
Information for Parents:
Although AP English Language and Composition is a rigorous class, students who complete it, regardless of their final
course grades, are far more prepared to succeed in college. For more information about the class, please visit the College
Board website at http://apcentral.collegeboard.com and follow the links to the AP English Language and Composition
course description page.
Contact Information:
Mrs. Ferrari
[email protected]
(904) 855-8010
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-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------AP English Language and Composition
Parent/Student Contract
I have read all of the accompanying information regarding AP English Language and Composition, I am
familiar with the expectations and consequences related to the successful completion of this course, and I
pledge to uphold my responsibilities associated with this difficult academic endeavor.
__________________________________________
Student’s Signature
Date
__________________________________________
Parent’s Signature
Date
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