The Vietnam War: Perceptions Through Literature, Film, and Television
Author(s): Peter C. Rollins
Reviewed work(s):
Source: American Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 3 (1984), pp. 419-432
Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press
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THE VIETNAM WAR: PERCEPTIONS
THROUGH LITERATURE, FILM, AND
TELEVISION
PETER C. ROLLINS
OklahomaState University
THE AMERICAN WAY OF WAR IN VIETNAM WAS DISTINCTIVELY
COSTLY
topropup a seriesoffriendly
from
andtraumatic.
Afterfailing
governments
the
1950 to 1961,theUnitedStatesbeganto senditsowntroopstoprevent
thesupport
Overan eleven-year
period,
collapseoftheRepublicofVietnam.
marine,
army,
toa commitment
ofregular
grewfrom
a cadreoffourhundred
air force,and navyunits.From1965 to 1972, over3,403,100American
servicepersonnel-among
them7,484 women-servedin the Southeast
cameclose to
Asian Theater,and over1,000,000at one timeor another
wereassuredspeedymedical
helicopter
war,troops
combat.InAmerica'
s first
Americancasualtieswerealarmingly
high.Some
attention;
nevertheless,
303,704 were
47,244 died as a resultof hostileactionand an additional
lists23,014ofthewoundedas 100
wounded.
(The Veterans
Administration
percent
disabled.)On April30, 1975, theRepublicofVietnamfell,when
NorthVietnamese
forcesenteredSaigon.'
regular
'Figures citedcome from"The VeteranFact Sheet," distributed
freebytheVietnamVeterans
LeadershipProgramof Houston(P. 0. Box 770791, Houston,TX, 77215). The mostpopular
overviewof the diplomaticand militaryaspects of Vietnamis George C. Herring'sAmerica's
Longest War: The UnitedStates and Vietnam,1950-1975 (New York:Wiley,1979), complete
withan annotatedbibliography.
ThreebibliographiessurveyVietnamfictionand nonfiction.
In
VietnamWarLiterature(Metuchen,N.J.: ScarecrowPress, 1982), JohnNewmaninventories
the war's fiction,poetry,and drama. More orientedto nonfictionis the Vietnam War
Bibliography(Lexington,Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1982) byJohnT. Hickeyand RobertCrispono.
War in Vietnam,2d ed. (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982) by R. D. Bums and MiltonLeitenberg
containsoverfivethousandannotateditems.Michael Cotter's Vietnam:A Guide to Reference
Sources(Boston: G. K. Hall, 1977) is an exhaustiveannotatedlistofbibliographies,
periodicals,
government
publications,and dissertationson Vietnamtopics.
Two anthologiescontainpapersfromconferenceson Vietnam:a 1983 conferenceheld at the
WoodrowWilson Centerforscholarsin Washingtonis represented
by Vietnamas History,ed.
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420
AmericanQuarterly
of
ofthepromise
Vietnamwastheantithesis
For manyonthehomefront,
wasrootedintheearly1960s,whenlarge
life.Thisdisenchantment
American
incivilrights
hadtraveledSouthtoparticipate
ofcollegestudents
numbers
and a fewwere
manywereradicalizedby theexperience
demonstrations;
on
at homeintheNorthsawtheconfrontations
killed.Thosewhoremained
thenotionofcivil
Once articulated,
andthey,too,werechanged.2
television
to thestatusofwomenandthe
seemedto havebroaderapplications
rights
tobetreated
deserved
peopleeverywhere
needsoftheThirdWorld:oppressed
hispolitical
WhileJohnKennedywas president,
andrespect.3
withdignity
style-if not his legislativerecord-convincedmanythatthe nation's
When
generation.
thegoalsofanidealistic
couldattain
established
institutions
seemed
thepowerstructure
createda Texaspresident,
a Dallas assassination
Despitehis excellentrecordin thearea ofCivil
to becomemoredistant.4
topursuewaragainst
image,andhisdetermination
LyndonJohnson's
Rights,
a ThirdWorldnation,alienatedmany.David Levine'sfamouscartoon,in
PeterBraestrup(Lanham, Md.: Univ. Press ofAmerica,1984); a 1983 conferenceheld at the
Universityof SouthernCaliforniais representedby VietnamReconsidered,ed. Harrison
Salisbury(New York:Harper,1984).
Officialhistories-manyof themof highquality-are listedforall militaryservicesin a free
publicationentitled"A Select Bibliographyof Departmentof Defense Publicationsof the
SoutheastAsia Conflict"(Writeto HistoriesDivision,U. S. ArmyCenterforMilitaryHistory,
has beengiventomilitary
materials;infact,the
D. C., 20314.) Not enoughattention
Washington,
onlyseriousbooks to utilizethemhave been GuenterLewy's Americain Vietnam(New York:
OxfordUniv. Press, 1978); and RobertPisor'sEnd of theLine. The Siege ofKhe Sanh (New
York:W, W. Norton,1982). The onlymotionpictureto tap thesesourceshas been Television's
Vietnam( Stillwater:OklahomaStateUniv.AudiovisualCenter,1983). Otherresourcesforstudy
D. C. forSoutheastAsian
in thenation'scapitalare surveyedinScholar's Guide to Washington
Press, 1983).
Studies (Washington,D.C.: The SmithsonianInstitution
inVietnambooksis reported
byNeil Baldwinin" Going
ofinterest
The nationwideresurgence
tellsoftherenewed
AftertheWar," Publisher'sWeekly,11 Feb. 1983, 34-38. Fox Butterfield
interest
on theacademicfrontin"The New VietnamScholarship,"New YorkTimesMagazine,
seriescalled The
13 Feb. 1983, 26-35. In 1983, TimeBooks beganto merchandisea multivolume
has had bothdefendersand critics.
VietnamExperience.This commercialundertaking
2A fascinatingstudyof the impact on northernviewersof televisionreportsof southern
Rights
at Selma:MartinLutherKing
and theVoting
isDavidGarrow,
Protest
demonstrations
Act(New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1965).
3For an overviewofthe women'smovementthatincludesits growthin connectionwithcivil
rightsand antiwaractivism,see Sarah J. Stage, "Women," American Quarterly,35 (1983),
169-90.
4The controversyover the firstversion of William Manchester'sDeath of a President:
November20-November 25, 1983 (New York: Harper and Row, 1967) reveals how much
bitterness
towardJohnsonwas linkedto theDallas assassination.Publisher'sWeeklywas one of
manymagazinesto followthe strugglebetweenauthorManchesterand thosewho wantedhis
account to be less vituperativetowardLyndonJohnson("Feud Over Death of a President
Intensifiesas ManchesterAttacksKennedyFamily and Staff,"30 Jan. 1967).
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The VietnamWar
421
visuallylinkedthe
scarshapedlikeVietnam,
whichLBJdisplaysa stomach
withhispolitics.5
forLBJ'spersonality
repulsion
widespread
SusanSontag,MaryMcCarthy,
to thewartookmanyforms.
Opposition
NorthVietnamand
andJaneFonda-justoffthesetofBarbarella-visited
highmoraleunderadverseconditions.
praiseda heroicpeopleformaintaining
dispatchesfromHanoi.6
HarrisonSalisburysent back controversial
scholarNoam Chonskyspokeformanyacademicswhenhe
Distinguished
his nationas "the greatestthreatto peace, to nationalselfcondemned
suchas the
7 C ampus
groups
cooperation."
andtointernational
determination,
Studentsfor a DemocraticSocietyproposedsweepingchangesin the
of thewargathered
Americaneconomicand politicalsystems.Criticism
The
throughnation-wideteach-insand demonstrations.8
momentum
intothe
theantiwarmovement
campaignofEugeneMcCarthyredirected
successin theNew Hampshire
surprising
McCarthy's
politicalmainstream.
process.For theearlydays,
5A numberofstudiesfocuson theWhiteHouse decision-making
see LarryBerman,Planning a Tragedy:The Americanizationof the War in Vietnam(New
York: W. W. Norton,1982). A workof greatersympathyforthe historicactorsis HerbertY.
Schandler,The Unmakingofa President:LyndonJohnsonand Vietnam(Princeton:Princeton
ofescalationcan be foundin manybooksbyretired
Univ.Press, 1977). Criticismofthestrategy
militaryleaders, but the most trenchantis Strategyfor Defeat: Vietnamin Retrospect(San
Rafael,Calif.: PresidioPress,1978) byAdmiralUlysses S. GrantSharp(Ret.). AdmiralSharp's
by
othernegativeportraits
distasteforcivilian"war managers"intheWhiteHouse supplements
such observersas David Halberstam,The Best and theBrightest(New York:RandomHouse,
1972); Paul M. Kattenberg,Vietnam:Trauma in AmericanForeignPolicy(New Brunswick,
N.J.: TransactionBooks, 1980); NormanPodhoretz,WhyWe WereIn Vietnam(New York:
Simon and Schuster,1982); and RobertGallucci, NeitherPeace Nor Honor: The Politics of
AmericanMilitaryPolicy in Vietnam(Baltimore:JohnsHopkins Univ. Press, 1975). For a
attackon themisusesofintellectbyexperts,see Noam Chomsky,AmericanPowerand
stinging
theNew Mandarins (New York: RandomHouse, 1969).
are recordedin Susan Sontag,Tripto Hanoi (New York:
6The Hanoi visitsand reflections
Farrar,Strausand Giroux,1967); MaryMcCarthy,Hanoi(Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1968);
and HarrisonSalisbury,Behind theLines: Hanoi, December23, 1966-January 7, 1967 (New
York:Harperand Row, 1967). For a critiquethatquestionsthevalidityofmanysuchpersonal
accounts, see Norman Podhoretz's conservative,revisionistWhy We Were in Vietnam
90-96, 117-19.
7Noam Chomsky,American Power, 399. For an excellentexaminationof Chomsky as
historianand moralist,see Robin Brooks, "Prophet WithoutHonor: Noam Chomsky as
Historian,"AmericanStudiesAssociationConvention,Philadelphia,5 Nov. 1983. (Brooksis a
Professorof History,CaliforniaState University,San Jose,CA 95114.) AlthoughChomskyis
ofthosewhodisagreewithhimandoftenmorea debaterthanan historian,
intolerant
consistently
his writingsare stillinvaluablecritiquesof theAmericanintellectualestablishment.
8Statements
by leadingantiwarleadersand scholarsare includedin Moral Argumentand the
War in Vietnam, ed. Paul T. Menzel (Nashville: Aurora Press, 1971). Somewhat more
accessible todayis the companionanthologyforthe PBS series.Edited by StevenCohen, it is
entitledVietnam:Anthologyand Guide to A TelevisionHistory (New York: Knopf,1983).
by leadersofthe
statements
Chapter11,"Homefront,USA" (349-89), includesrepresentative
closes the chapter.A collectionof originaldocuments,to
antiwarmovement.A bibliography
includeleaflets,handouts,occasionalessays,and otherephemerais G. Louis Heath,ed.,Mutiny
Does Not Happen Lightly:The Literatureof theAmericanResistance to the Vietnam War
(Metuchen,N. J.: ScarecrowPress, 1976).
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422
AmericanQuarterly
primary
election
in1968 signaled-orseemedtoatthetime-a shift
ofpublic
opinionagainstboththewarandLyndonJohnson's
leadership.9
Thisessaywillexplore
ina variety
howthewarhasbeentreated
ofnarrative
forms:
literature,
motion
andtelevision.
pictures,
Resourcesforfurther
study
willbe citedindiscussion
footnotes
anddescribed
intheconcluding
pages.
THE WARIN LITERATURE
In theforeword
tohiscollection
of Vietnamsketches,
RonaldJ.Glasser
speculatesaboutthedifficulties
posedbyVietnamas thestuff
forliterature:
" Ifthereis moretosayitwillhavetobe saidbyothers,
I wonder
how
though
theywilldo it.Thereis nonovelinNam,thereis notenoughfora plot,noris
If you survive365 dayswithout
therereallyanycharacter
development
getting
killedorwounded,
yousimplygohomeandtakeupagainwhereyou
leftoff."10Like filmmakers
andjournalists,
Vietnamfictionwriters
have
searchedforthepropermetaphor
togiveartistic
structure
andmeaning
toan
unconventional
war.
A numberof Vietnam-related
personalnarratives
and autobiographical
fictions
use themotifofa corruption
ofinnocence,
a traditional
staplefor
Americanauthors.The motif
in whichtheprotagonist
providesa formula
leaves a healthy,
civilianenvironment
to becomeimmersed
in a warthat
leaves himphysicallyor psychically
woundedBecause thisportrait
of
devastation
conforms
to mediaimagesoftheVietnamveteran,it is both
RonKovic'sBornon theFourth
traditional
andtimely.1'
ofJuly(1976)is a
9Astudy
oftheEugeneMcCarthy
isArthur
campaign
Herzog,McCarthyforPresident
(New
York:Viking
Press,1969).McCarthy
tellshisownstory
inTheYearofthePeople(GardenCity,
N.J.:Doubleday,1969).VotesforMcCarthy
inNewHampshire,
itturns
out,werecastbyhawks
as a gesture
againsta befuddled
commander-in-chief
rather
thanas peacevotes- as everyone
assumedatthetime.Foran ingenious
studyofthismisperception
ofpublicopinion
at a critical
inAmerican
juncture
history,
seeJohn
Mueller,
War,Presidents,
andPublicOpinion
(NewYork:
Wiley,1973); see also Mueller'scontribution
to theWoodrow
WilsonCenterConference
on
Vietnam
inan anthology
ofpapersentitled
Vietnam
as History
(Lanham,Md.: Univ.Pressof
America,1984).
'0RonaldJ.Glasser,365 Days(NewYork:GeorgeBraziller,
1980),xii Therearetwobooklength
worksthatsurvey
Vietnam
fiction,
poetry,
anddrama.In VietnaminProseand Film
(Jefferson,
N. C.: MacFarland,
1982),JamesC. Wilsontakesa crusader's
approach.
Thebook's
shrillmoralism
willrepelsome readers;still,the surveyhas the virtueof brevity
and is
supplemented
bya useful
bibliography.
PhilipBeidler's
American
Literature
andtheExperience
ofVietnam
(Athens:Univ.ofGeorgiaPress,1982) is a moredetached
overview
whichincludes
on poetry
chapters
anddrama,genresignored
byWilson.
"1Foranotherstudyof personalnarratives,
see Gordon0. Taylor,"AmericanPersonal
Narrative
oftheWarinVietnam,"
American
Literature,
52 (1980),294-308. Partpersonal
narrative,
partacidtrip,
andpartnewjournalism,
MichaelHerr'sDispatches
(NewYork.Alfred
A. Knopf,1977)is oneofthefinest
bookstocomeoutofthewar,initsownpsychedelic
way,it
takes a corruption-of-innocence
approachto the Vietnamexperience.Taylorspendsa
considerable
amount
oftimewithDispatches,
thereby
thisessaytoconsider
freeing
lesser-known
ormorerecentworks.
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The VietnamWar
423
powerfulpersonalnarrativethatcalled attentionto atrociousconditionsat
some VeteranAdministration
Hospitals. Kovic's book is also the storyof
innocencecorruptedFilms and televisionshape youngKovic's attitudes
toward war; after high school, the Marine Corps adds its perverting
influence.When combat experiencesfurther
degeneratethe spirit,Kovic
reaches a dead low: he kills a friendby accidentand participatesin the
shootingof Vietnamesechildren.His spinal woundcomes as a blessingof
sorts-throughit, he learnsto fightback againstthe officialauthorities"Them." 12 Philip Caputo's A Rumor of War (1977) applies the same
formula.While in college, Caputo is hypnotizedby presidentJohn F.
Kennedy'scall to nationalservice.WarpedbyMarineCorps officer
training
andtraumasofcombat,and setmorallyadrift,Caputo ordersthemurderofa
Vietnamesecivilian.At theconclusionofARumorofWar,Caputo seemsto
have no hope forregeneration-noteven throughanger.As a journalist,he
becomes a wanderingobserverof the globe's brutality."3
Innocentsencountervariationsofthiskindofdefilement
in a hostofother
fictionsand personalnarratives.RobertMason's Chickenhawk(1983) uses
the metaphorto explore the experiencesof a helicopterpilot. Like other
innocents,Mason begins with a boyish love of flyingand ends with a
confessionthathe is an alcoholic and a dope smuggler:"No one is more
shockedthanI." 14 The titleof W. D. Ehrhart'snovel Vietnam-Perkasie
(1978) emphasizesa contrastbetweenthe Eden of ruralPennsylvaniaand
the Asian battlefieldthat transformsan all-Americanboy into a crazed
killer.At theclimax of thebook, Ehrhartparticipatesin thebattleforHue
withthe kindof dementedfuryto be foundin all of the innocentnarrator
volumes:
I fought
backpassionately,
inblindrageandpain,without
remorse,
conscience
or
deliberation.
I fought
back . . . at thePentagon
GeneralsandtheCongressof
theUnitedStates,andtheNewYorkTimes;at thedraft-card
andthe
burners,
oftheAmerican
Daughters
Revolution. . . attheteachers
whotaught
methat
AmericaalwayshadGodonoursideandalwaysworewhitehatsandalwayswon;
at theMemorialDay paradesand thedailyPledgeofAllegiance. . . at the
moviesofJohnWayneandAudieMurphy,
andthesolemnstatements
ofDean
RuskandRobertMacNamara."5
UnlikeCaputo's better-knownA
RumorofWar,Ehrhart'sbookconvincesthe
readerthattheauthoris a manpurging
himselfofa horribleexperience,evenif
therevelationsprovetobe unflattering
Caputo's autobiographical
narrative
is
l2Ron Kovic, Born on theFourthofJuly(New York: PocketBooks, 1976).
'3PhilipCaputo,A Rumor of War(New York: Viking,1983).
14RobertMason, Chickenhawk(New York: Viking,1983).
15W.D. Ehrhart,Vietnam-Perkasie
(Jefferson,
N. C.: McFarland Press, 1983).
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424
AmericanQuarterly
butreadsmorelikean apologiathanan honestconfession.
better
written,
too
hasbeenexamined
innocence
andbenevolence
Themyth
ofAmerican
As Louis
discussion.
oftenon thelevelofnationalpolicyto needextended
Hartzand othershave warned,themythleads eitherto an irresponsible
("Make the
isolationism
("No MoreVietnams")ortoa callousmessianism
ofour
bothofwhichreflect
misunderstandings
WorldSafeforDemocracy"),
ina complexinternational
environment.'6
responsibilities
A fewnovelsexploreothermetaphors
and otherthemesto revealthe
experienceof Vietnam.Chickenhawkexploresa numberof themes
absentfromfootsoldier
reportsby Caputo,Kovic, or Ehrhart.Mason
shows thatAmericanpilots were competentprofessionalswho took
enemy
fire.Whileno
through
tothread
delicatemachines
prideintheirability
men
thereweregenuine
heroesintheconflict,
oneleftthestruggle
unscarred,
Theimageofthe
whorisked
their
nation,
units,
orco-pilots.
livestoservetheir
for
Hueyhelicopters
chopper-Masonwas a pilotwhoflewtroop-carrying
outgives
intodangerandthenflying
the1stAirCavalryDivision-moving
to thepace ofthewar."7
thatconforms
thebooka rhythm
IfI
a bookentitled
a memoir
ofhiscombatexperiences,
Aftercompleting
theissueofGI
Die ina CombatZone(1973),TimO'Briendecidedtoexplore
"I didnotwanttonaildownsightsandsounds
commitment
through
fiction:
I was moreconcerned
withwhatmighthavehappened."8 The
anymore.
novelfor1978, GoingAfter
resultwas a NationalBook Awardwinning
theshoresofthe
patrolwalkstoParisfrom
Cacciato,inwhichan imaginary
withwar
ofprotagonist
PaulBerlincontrasts
SouthChinaSea.9 Thefantasy
" realities":If the Vietnamwar lacked clear frontlines and a logical
direction
thepatrolinsearchofCacciatohasa definite
progression
ofbattles,
and purpose-toreachParis;ifVietnamwas an experience
of disjointed
Political
ofAmerican
inAmerica:AnInterpretation
l6LouisHartz,TheLiberalTradition
Brace,1955)284-312.
(New York:Harcourt
Thought
SincetheRevolution
inVietnam.
James
ofAmerican
troops
andprofessionalism
theheroism
17Other
novelsportray
of
1978)probesthecomplexity
Cliffs,
N. J.:Prentice-Hall,
Webb'sFieldsofFire(Englewood
ofmanymarine
tothecourageandcompetence
butalongthewaypaystribute
moraljudgment,
men.Tiger,theLurpDog (Boston:Little,Brown,1983)byKen Miller
officers
andenlisted
which-contrary
tostereotypemovedat
patrols
focusesontheworkofArmyreconnaissance
that
An upbeat,personalnarrative
strongholds.
willin Viet Cong and NorthVietnamese
A Vietnamese
isSoc Trang:
theworkofanAmerican
Odyssey
(Boulder,
field
hospital
documents
Col.:RockyMt.Writers
Likemost
Dr.Bartecchi
Guild,1980)byCarlE. Bartecchi.
Americans,
he met.Shortnarratives
thatshowtheeffectiveness
ofU. S.
genuinely
likedtheVietnamese
1966(NewYork:Arno
inVietnam,
Summer,
MarinesareinFrancisJ.West,SmallUnitAction
Seven
thearmyhas a similar
volumeentitled
bythemarines,
Press,1968).Notto be outdone
D. C.: GPO, 1970)byJohnAlbright.
(Washington,
Firefights
in Vietnam
18Tim
O'Brien,If I Die in a CombatZone,Box Me Up and ShipMe Home (New York:
is froman excellent
articlebyNeil Baldwinaboutthe
Delacorte,1973).O'Brien'scomment
Weekly,
theWar,"Publisher's
andnonfiction
("GoingAfter
fiction
renewed
appealofVietnam
11Feb. 1983,37-38).
19Tim
O'Brien,GoingAfter
Cacciato(New York:Delacorte,1978).
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The VietnamWar
425
American
usinganother
traumas,
thenovelprobesfordeepermeaning
factual
helpsthe
offlight
staple,theromance.O'Brien'suse ofthefantasy
literary
inthecorruption-of-innocence
motif.
inherent
difficulties
booktotranscend
in a warhe couldnotunderstand,
but,becausehe
Paul Berlinparticipated
hopefora betterlife,hisbasichumandecencysurvived.
retained
issues,butonlyThe13th
All Vietnamcombatnovelstouchon cultural
tobecalleda novelofideas.20
Valley( 1982)byJohnM. Del Vecchiodeserves
in longrap
participate
ofthe101stAirborne
members
Betweenoperations,
andthenatureofwar.Many
sessionsaboutthenatureofmenandnations,
exploitstherambling
readersbalkatthesebullsessions,inwhichtheauthor
Priorto his deathnearthe
of thenovelto containamplitudes.
structure
ina
conclusions
RufusJonessynthesizes
conclusion
ofthebook,Lieutenant
Conflict"
Racial,andInternational
"An Inquiry
IntoPersonal,
tractentitled
that
concluding
andparties,
His textpondersthepurposesofgovernments
the
alsoconsiders
Themanuscript
theindividual.
mostaredevicesforduping
andvalue
oncultures
structures
oflanguage
andtheimpact
ofhistory
meaning
Jonesalso exploresthe linksbetween
systems(the Whorfhypothesis).
culturalpressuresforboth
and contemporary
changingsexual attitudes
andhomefront
warfront
THE CELLULOID WAR
thecontroversy
filmshave reflected
America'srecentVietnam-related
Hollywoodauteurshave
spurredby the war. Like the fictionwriters,
to comprehend
thewar,mostof
ofmetaphors
witha variety
experimented
how
stilldebating
Withscholars
audiences.
critical
which
havefailedtosatisfy
thewarcouldhavebegunand- onceitbecameanobviousquagmire-pursued
have
ina popularmedium
thatartists
working
forso long,itis notsurprising
difficulties.21
encountered
to
sufficient
fiction
films
havegenerated
controversy
FourmajorVietnam
deservespecificattention.
EverymajorstudydeploresJohnWayne'sThe
GreenBerets(1968), a filmthatRenata Adler has describedas "so
detailthatitpassesthrough
andfalseinevery
so rotten
so stupid,
unspeakable,
The Green
beingfunny....It is vileandinsane.On topofthat,it is dull.22
paperhere
1982).Theposition
The13thValley(NewYork:Bantam,
20John
M. Del Vecchio,
thenarrative.
apartfrom
is on 556-65,butshouldnotbe considered
described
onAmerican
statements
motion
ofhowHollywood
valuesaffect
21Fora discussion
life,
picture
Film(July1976),60-64. Foran
American
ona Made-upWorld,"
seeRobertSklar,"Windows
As
documents,
seeHollywood
filmsas historical
"read"feature
exampleofhowAmericanists
Univ.Pressof
(Lexington:
ed.PeterC. Rollins
FilmIn a CulturalContext,
American
Historian:
1983).
Kentucky,
1968).Theexcoriating
Brothers,
Wayne,TheGreenBerets(Warner
22Ray
KelloggandJohn
New YorkTimesreviewbyRenataAdler("AttheMovies,"
an often-quoted
is from
criticism
20 June1968,49).
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426
AmericanQuarterly
most
repelled
andWorldWarIIfilms
westerns
ofclichesfrom
Beret'spastiche
inthe
especially
journalists,
in 1968.Wayne'ssmugness
bothered
reviewers
andcampusunrest
oftheTetoffensive
context
Two weeks afterJimmyCartertook office,Francis Ford Coppola
Now
withhisApocalypse
a pleatotheWhiteHouseforassistance
telegraphed
versionof The GreenBerets.
(1979), a filmthatplayslike a nightmare
Reversingthe standardHollywoodformula,Coppola's Viet Cong are
likeColonelKilgore(Robert
cowboys,whileUnitedStatescommanders
Thenarrator,
Captain
onhelicopters.
Indiansmounted
Duvall)arerapacious
JohnWaynefigure
whosevalueshavebeendestroyed
Willard,is aninverted
so thathecanforget
themoral
warandwhoacceptsa mission
byan immoral
settlement
ofstate-side
America.Insteadofhopefora constructive
confusion
of theconflict,
ApocalypseNow ends withmadnessand violence.Little
Coppola'srequests.23
wondertheWhiteHouse ignored
feature
which,like
homefront
ComingHome (1978) is a controversial
losesitsfocus.The
NowandTheDeerHunter(1979),
frequently
Apocalypse
withthenewmen
husbands
filmcontrast
traditional
ant'traditional
patriots
of
(JohnVoigt),attheconclusion
age;LukeMartin
andwomenofa liberated
thefilm,has losttheuseofhisbodybuthasbecomewise.SallyHyde(Jane
in
seeingnoplaceforhimself
identity;
Fonda)has founda new,independent
traditional
maleBob Hyde(BruceDern)commits
ofnarcissism,
theculture
about
Withthesecomments
bycharacterization
suicideintheCalifornia
surf.
theissuesofwarandpeace,therolesofmenandwomen,andthenatureof
thatthefilmtouchedoffconsiderable
debate.24
itis no surprise
patriotism,
Of all Vietnamfeature
films,The Deer Huntermostambitiously-and
versusnature,
Americanthemes:civilization
important
ambiguously-taps
23FrancisFordCoppola,ApocalypseNow(UnitedArtists,1979). Threebook-length
worksexploreVietnamfeaturefilms.VietnaminProseand Film (Jefferson,
N.C.: McFarlandPress,1982)
byJamesWilson takesa moralisticapproach.A moreobjectivestudyis Gutsand Glory:Great
AmericanMovies (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,1978) by Lawrence Suid. Suid is more
detachedand fairin his evaluations;hisbook standsas a modelforall filmresearchers.
Usingthe
resultsof nearlythreehundredinterviews
withproducers,directors,screenwriters,
and military
advisers,together
withtheresultsofhisstudyoffilesand correspondence,
Suid yieldsrareinsights
thatthisfinebookis nowout
aboutwhatbrought
particularwarimagestothescreen.It is shameful
of print(For detailsabout Coppola's plea to JimmyCarter,see Suid's Guts and Glory,313.)
Now(New York:
GilbertAdair'sVietnam
on Film:FromThe GreenBeretstoApocalypse
Proteus,1981) combinesthesuperficialty
ofa coffeetablebookwiththetoneofa late-night
signoffsermon.In thefuture,
LawrenceSuid hopestopublishan updateofhisbook.His newmaterial
is currently
available in dissertation
form:The Film Industryand the VietnamWar,Diss. Case
WesternReserveUniv. 1980.
24Hal Ashby, ComingHome(United Artists,1978).
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The VietnamWar
427
The
andsociety.
theindividual
thetension
between
identity,
sexualandethnic
abouttheseissues.25
Americanambivalence
a traditional
filmreflects
togivemeaning
alsohadtheir
placeinattempts
documentaries
Government
PeterDavis's SellingofthePentagon
However,
totheVietnamexperience.
the VietnamWar producednothinglike the
(1971) notwithstanding,
ofWorldWar II, inpartbecauseLyndonJohnson
filmefforts
government
The
fearedthat,oncearoused,publicopinioncouldnotbe easilyrestrained.
of
WhyVietnam(1965) is a didacticexplanation
government-sponsored
Dean
Johnson,
Lyndon
with
byinterviews
supported
commitments
American
Rusk,andRobertMcNamara.JohnFordandotherswereaskedto makea
valuesfortheUnitedStatesInformation
withgreater
production
documentary
(Viewing
wasneverreleased.
Vietnam!
film
Vietnam!
Agency.Theresulting
On
theother
in
Washington.)
the
National
Archives
copiesare availableat
were
movement
the
antiwar
and
unrest
campus
gap,
sideofthegeneration
interviews
of
retrospective
a
compilation
1980),
in
atHome(
The
War
revived
the campus
local televisionnews clips concerning
and long-forgotten
this
problems,
Despitetechnical
ofWisconsin.
at theUniversity
movement
evokesthecampusethosofthe1960s.
filmvividly
listof
Heartsand Minds(1975) byPeterDavis wouldheadanybody's
Vietnamantiwarfilms.Throughdeftediting,Davis contrastsofficial
andWalt
GeneralWilliamWestmoreland,
byLyndonJohnson,
statements
Award
oftheAcademy
"realities."The overalleffect
RostowwithVietnam
administration.
gap" oftheJohnson
is to dramatize
the"credibility
winner
ofthe
inHeartsandMinds:a closestudy
toobjectivity
Davis didnotpretend
crusading
Pentagon-the
film
revealsthat-as inthecaseofTheSellingofthe
As earlyas 1975,even
ofofficials.
filmmaker
waslessthanfairinhistreatment
ofthefilmtobe simplistic,
interpretation
thehistorical
TimeMagazinefound
strident.26
itsmoralrhetoric
thewarbackintoour
havebrought
fortelevision
Recentdocumentaries
wasaired
History
Vietnam:
A Television
rooms.A PBS seriesentitled
living
debateand
of 1983,reigniting
weeksduring
thefalland winter
forthirteen
ofresponses
25MichaelCimino,TheDeerHunter(Universal,1979). Thereis abroad spectrum
are describedby PeterMcInerneyin
to The Deer Hunter.A numberofpossibleinterpretations
33(1979), 30. Earnest
"ApocalypseThen:HollywoodLooks Back atVietnam,"Film Quarterly,
Callenbach throwsup his hands in exasperationat the confusionof the filmin "Phallic
Nightmare,"Film Quarterly,32 (1979), 18-22, concludingthatCimino'sfilm"obfuscatesand
mystifies
thesystematiccauses ofthewar" (22). A "New Left" approachto blue-collarthemes
and Americanimperialismin The Deer HunterpervadesArnoldAusterand Leonard Quart's
"Hollywood in Vietnam:The Triumphof theWill," Cineaste,9 (1979), 4-9.
26StefanKanfer,"War Town," TimeMagazine, 17 March 1975, 4. Scholarscontinueto tout
Hearts and Minds; themostrecentappearedin a ravereviewofthe1983 PBS Vietnamseriesin
whichMartinSherwin(TuftsUniversity)
recommended
theDavis filmas a perfect
companionfor
Vietnam:A TelevisionHistory("A Preview:'Vietnam:A TelevisionHistory,"'Organizationof
Aug.1983,30.
American
Historians
Newsletter,
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428
AmericanQuarterly
and
fortheHumanities
bytheNationalEndowment
Sponsored
discussion.
Radical
mixedreviews.
byWGBH-TV,Boston,theseriesreceived
produced
theseriesforitscool,detached-even
suchas PeterMarinfaulted
reviewers
thesame
it fornotapplying
uncaring-tone;otherradicalshavecriticized
onthe
toAmerican
involvement
thatitfocuses
critique
andpolitical
economic
thewisdom
theserieshavequestioned
reviewing
French.Academichistorians
of excessivedependenceupon on-camerareportsby NorthVietnamese
oftheprogram's
participant
onlyVietnamese
leaders.Thecredentials
political
of
Finally,students
-translatorNgo VinhLong-have been questioned.
havepointedoutthatexcessiveuse ofpropaganda
filmmaking
documentary
filmsand Communistfictionfeatures-a cardinalsin of compilation
In any case, A Television
claimsof objectivity.
filmmaking-undercuts
theVietnamexperience."To
Historyhas proddedAmericansto rethink
theseries,StanleyKarnowwroteVietnam:AHistory(1983),a
accompany
Duringthefall
scholarship.
existing
left-of-center
tomethatsummarizes
hefty
D.C.-basedorganization,
of1984,AccuracyinMedia,Inc.,a Washington,
program
ofthePBS series:thefirst
critical
programs
releasedtwohour-length
the secondwas a
focusedon specificerrorsof factand interpretation;
are
condensedversionof Television'sVietnam(1983). (Both programs
Center,OklahomaStateUniversity.)
availablefromtheAudiovisual
the
Vietnam
Television's
explores
Unlikeotherdocumentaries
mentioned,
with
a cameralens.Usinginterviews
ofperceiving
history
through
difficulties
raisesquestions
and television
viewers,theprogram
veterans,
journalists,
abouttheimpactof visualmediaon policymakersand thepublic.The
that
has suggested
ofAmericanHistorians
oftheOrganization
Newsletter
filmwithHeartsand
teachersuse Television'sVietnamas a companion
Minds.28
27PeterMarinreviewedtheseriesforMotherJones("RerunningtheWar,"Nov. 1983, 11-16);
thecomplaintabouttheinconsistency
ofeconomicinterpretation
is fromDavid Hunt,"Vietnam:
A TelevisionHistory- ReviewoftheFirstEpisodes," Radical HistoriansNewsletter(P. 0. Box
221, Somerville,Mass., 02143), 1,7. A scathingreviewbyDouglas Pike givessomesenseofhow
professionalIndochinawatchershave respondedto theseries,includingtheirsensitivity
to such
subtlemattersas thepoliticalorientation
ofthetranslator("Audiovisual,"
IndochinaChronology,
2 [1983], 23-25). Details ofcinematicinterpretation
are examinedby one ofthefewpracticing
historian-filmmakers
in Richard Raack's review of the series for the Newsletterof the
OrganizationofAmericanHistorians,"Caveat Spectator:Is Vietnam:A TelevisionHistoryYet
AnotherDebacle?" Feb. 1984, 25-26, 28. Many observersare perplexedthattheNational
Endowmentforthe Humanitiescould have fundedsuch a projectwithoutmore advice from
academic humanists.
Two volumesare linkedto the PBS series and have been verypopular as tie-ins:Stanley
Karnow, Vietnam:A History(New York. Viking,1983); and Steven Cohen, ed., Vietnam:
Anthologyand Guide to a TelevisionHistory(New York.Knopf,1983). The Karnow volume
oftenadds depthand complexityto the screenversion,but is stilllittlemorethana digestof
existinginformation
garnishedby quotationsfromthePBS programs.The Cohen anthologyhas
thevirtueof availability,
buthas beendescribedbyDouglas Pike as passingon "ignoranceinthe
formof an undigestedmass" (Indochina Chronology,2 [1983], 25).
28RobertB. Toplin,"HistoryThroughFilm. The Sixties,"OAH Newsletter,
Aug. 1982, 6-7.
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The VietnamWar
429
THE TELEVISION WAR
"television
was America'sfirst
Vietnam
As MichaelArlenhas observed,
war."29 Whatbothersmostscholarscan be putin theformofa question:
thewar?"
or weretheywatching
television
watching
"WereAmericans
accepted
enthusiastically
Cronkite
Walter
a visittoVietnam,
In 1965,after
directaccess to suchnetwork
approach.LyndonJohnson's
Washington's
CBS) andRobertKintner(president,
executivesasFrankStanton(president,
reachedAmerica's
perceptions
assuredthatWashington's
NBC) further
Popularculturescholarshave assertedthatmassivedoses of
livingrooms.
theimageofAmerica
hoursreinforced
entertainment
ColdWardramaduring
cop on thebeat.30
as an an international
1968)
(January-March,
Spectacularvisualstoriesof theTet offensive
"The
WalterCronkite.
including
manyAmericans,
shockedand surprised
his
andcamebackto deskin
mosttrusted
maninAmerica"touredVietnam
News.In a later
shownontheCBS Nightly
NewYorkwitha seriesofreports
not be won
the
war
could
that
special about Tet, Cronkitecautioned
the
decidedthat
special,
of
the
viewers
of
one
Johnson,
President
honorably.
like
coursechangeif he had lost a centrist
theremustbe an immediate
on
went
Johnson
of
the
broadcast,
Lyndon
Within
nineteen
days
Cronkite.
fromthe Democratic
nationaltelevisionto announcehis withdrawal
primary.3'
presidential
and its effectsare the focusof PeterBraestrup's
Vietnamreporting
29MichaelArlenis a reviewerforThe New Yorkerwhose collectedessays on televisionand
Vietnamhave been publishedundertitlessuchas L iving-RoomWar(New York:Viking,1969);
and The ViewFrom Highway] (New York:Farrar,Straus,and Giroux, 1976). The studyof
televisionwithinthecontextofhistoryhas gonebeyondthereviewstage.A veryrecentcollection
of essays by AmericanStudies specialistsis JohnO'Connor, ed.,AmericanHistory/American
Television:Interpreting
the Video Past (New York:Ungar,1983), a collectionthatconcludes
witha comprehensive
bibliography
byDaniel Leab. Scholarsnewto thefieldshouldbeginhere,
bothforthereferences
and fortheexcellentmodelessays thatuse televisionas a primarysource.
The most authoritative
narrativehistoryof televisionis Tube of Plenty:The Evolution of
AmericanTelevision(New York: OxfordUniv. Press, 1975) by Erik Barnouw.More recently,
David Halberstam'sThe Powers ThatBe (New York:Knopf,1979) providesan insidelook at
CBS.
30HowCold War era entertainment
conditionedviewersto acceptan aggressiveforeign
policy
is exploredbyJ. Fred MacDonald in a forthcoming
book entitledTelevisionand theCold War:
The VideoRoad to Vietnam(New York:Praeger,1985). The essenceofMacDonald's thesisis in
"The Cold Waras Entertainment
inFiftiesTelevision,"JournalofPopularFilmand Television,
7 (1978), 3-31. For an investigation
oftheinfluenceofprime-time
documentaries
on Cold War
audiences, see Peter C. Rollins,"Nightmarein Red: A Cold War View of the Communist
Revolution,"in O'Connor, ed., AmericanHistory/American
Television,134-58.
3'The reverberations
of Tet reporting
in theJohnsonWhiteHouse are studiedin HerbertY
TheUnmaking
Schandler,
ofa President:
LyndonJohnson
and Vietnam
(Princeton:
Princeton
Univ. Press, 1977).
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430
AmericanQuarterly
exhaustive- indeed,exhausting-twovolumesofBig Story(1977).32 While
war
applytotheentire
theimplications
focusesontheTetoffensive,
thestudy
examinessomeofthe
Braestrup
approach,
Usinga case-study
experience.
knowledge.
withourcurrent
thereportage
majorstoriesofTetandcompares
and
economic,
technical,
to structural,
themisreporting
The bookattributes
to getthe
thanto a consciousdecisionbyreporters
rather
factors
dramatic
onthe
influence
wasanimportant
s interpretation
Braestrup'
story
backwards.
Televison'sVietnam.33
documentary
RESOURCES, NEWSLETTERS, AND ORGANIZATIONS
of
sources,thereare threemajorcollections
In additionto government
The VietnamWar VeteranArchivesis an
relevanceto Americanists.
impressivecollectioncontainingveterans'letters,tapes, underground
The collectionis describedin the Cornell
newspapers,and artifacts.
The
LibrariesSoutheastAsia Catalog and its supplements.
University
after
published
Collectionspecializesin materials
VietnamWarLiterature
1955.CuratorJohnNewmanhas editeda guideto sources,VietnamWar
ofhisarchiveatthattime.
Literature
(1982),whichincludesa fullinventory
North
Studies
Projectcontains
Indochina
Studies,
ofEastAsian
TheInstitute
that
were
by
documents
preserved
Vietnameseand Viet Cong captured
of
the
the
Over
many
official.
years,
StateDepartment
DouglasPike,a former
intoEnglish.In addition,
Englishlanguage
havebeentranslated
documents
are
States
for
United
troops alsoavailable.
as propaganda
documents
designed
areinthe
historians
win
the
American
not
did
war,
SincetheUnitedStates
the
thus
making
to
access
materials,
enemy
not
of
possessing
unusualposition
Pike collectiona uniquesource.The Projectpublishesa gratisquarterly
IndochinaChronology.34
entitled
32Braestrup'sbook comes in two formats.The originalversion,Big Story(Boulder,Colo.:
WestviewPress, 1977), consistsoftwovolumes:thefirstis a summaryoffindings,
theseconda
miniarchiveoforiginaland secondarysourcessupporting
theconclusionsofthefirstvolume.A
paperbackedition,Big Story(GardenCity,N. Y: Doubleday,1978), printsthefirst
volumeonly.
Braestrup'sfindings
abouthow international
eventsreachAmerica'slivingrooms
are applicable
to morerecent"big stories"in Lebanon and CentralAmerica.
33PeterC.RollinsandDavid H. Cuthbert,Television'sVietnam:TheImpactofVisualImages
(Stillwater,Oklahoma State Univ. AudiovisualCenter,1983). A positionpaperdescribingthe
researchbehind the filmis Peter Rollins, "Television's Vietnam:The Visual Language of
TelevisionNews," Journalof American Culture,4 (1981), 114-35. This issue of JAC was
editedby VictorHoward and containsotheressays on Vietnamfiction,drama,and music.
34TheVietnamWar VeteranArchives,Dept. of Manuscriptsand Archives,Olin Library,
CornellUniv.,Ithaca,N.Y., 14853; CornellUniversity
LibrariesSoutheastAsia Catalog
(Boston: G. K. Hall, 1976); The VietnamWar Literature
Collection,Colorado StateUniv.,CSU
Libraries,FortCollins,Co., 80523; JohnNewman, VietnamWarLiterature(Metuchen,N.J.:
ofEast Asian Studies,IndochinaStudiesProject,Univ.of
ScarecrowPress, 1982); The Institute
California,Berkeley,Calif.,94720.
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The VietnamWar
431
involved
withVietnam
studiesis
mostdirectly
The academicorganization
Asia CouncilVietnamStudies
forAsianStudies,Southeast
theAssociation
Group,whichpublishesthe veryusefulVietnamStudiesBulletin.The
inthefieldof
andtrends
bookreviews,
Bulletincarriescoursedescriptions,
Recentlyformed,the VietnamArea of the Popular Culture
study.35
at the 1984 national
presentations
Associationhas scheduledoverthirty
shouldwriteto the
forfuture
conferences
participants
Interested
meeting.
Oklahoma
Dept.ofEnglish,
PeterC. Rollins,
AreaChair,Professor
Vietnam
OK 74078.
Stillwater,
StateUniversity,
ofveterans.
TheVietnam
oforganizations
workfortheinterests
A number
devotedto
across
thecountry
fifty
centers
Program
has
Leadership
Veterans
and imageproblemsof Vietnamveterans.
confronting
the employment
VietnamVeteransof Americalobbiesfor veterans'causes. The most
Veterans
AgainsttheWar,an
antiestablishment
grouphasbeentheVietnam
stillopposingthedraftand stillconcernedaboutAmerica's
organization
by the National
Black GI's are represented
proclivities.
interventionist
American
The
Disabled
Veterans,the
of
Black
Veterans.
Association
Warsallhaveactiveprograms
ofForeign
Legion,andtheVeterans
American
forthosewhoservedinVietnam.36
topics.The VietnamWar
A hostofspecialized
coverVietnam
newsletters
reviewsand updates.A
is a monthly
thatfeatures
publication
Newsletter
Bookstore
a convenient
titles
makestheVietnam
booklist
ofsomefivehundred
sourceforthepurchaseof essentialtexts.Deros is devotedto poetryby
stressesthe antiwar
veterans.From the left,the IndochinaNewsletter
the
itsperspective
from
Slanting
andUnitedStatesinterventions.
movement
in
developments
Reviewcoversrecent
right,
theNationalVietnamVeterans
A hostofperiodicals
aredescribed
issueeachmonth.
anambitious,
fifty-page
in KathrynOlneyand Lee Esbenshade's"Dealing WithIndochinaWar
Issues: A ResourceGuide" (1983).37 Vietnamstudiesin the 1980s have
ofmilitary
Theprospect
inresponse
pressures.
tocontemporary
proliferated
to
citizensandjournalists
in CentralAmericahas motivated
intervention
havestepped
Vietnam
veterans
"lessons."Concurrently,
snatchforVietnam
35 VietnamStudies Bulletin(Editor's address: Edwin E. Moise, Dept. of History,Clemson
Univ., Clemson, S.C., 29631).
36TheVietnamVeteransLeadershipProgram,M- 600 Action,806 ConnecticutAve., NW,
Washington,D.C., 20525; VietnamVeteransofAmerica,329 8thSt., NE, Washington,
D.C.,
20002; VietnamVeteransAgainstthe War, P.O. Box 25592, Chicago, Ill., 60625; National
Associationof Black Veterans,4185 NorthGreen Bay Ave., Milwaukee,Wis., 53209
37 Vietnam
WarNewsletter,
VietnamBookstore,Box 122, Collinsville,Conn.,06022; Deros,
6009 EdgewoodLane, Alexandria,Va., 22310; IndochinaNewsletter,
P.O. Box 19,Dorchester,
Mass., 02122; National VietnamVeteransReview,P.O. Box 35812, Fayetteville,
N.C., 28303;
KathrynOlneyand Lee Esbenshade,"Dealing withIndochinaWarIssues: A ResourceGuide,"
SoutheastAsia Chronicle(Oct. 1983), 23 - 26.
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432
American Quarterly
ofrestitution
fortheirdecade-long
painsas
to demanda modicum
forward
scapegoats.Whateverthe politicaland social pressuresinvolved,the
fiction,
autobiography,
history,
ofVietnamstudies-comprising
complexity
bent
poetry,and media-shouldinvitescholarsof an interdisciplinary
literature,
film,and television
through
the current
perceptions
Certainly,
relatedto one another-andtranscended.*
needto be interpreted,
ofthis
scholarsfortheirassistanceinthepreparation
*The authorwishestothankthefollowing
essay: LawrenceCobb, Owen Gilman,WilliamJayne,LeonardLeff,J.Fred MacDonald, John
O'Connor, WilliamPixton,Bruce Southard,Lawrence Suid, and Gordon Weaver.
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