266-267-0311co
10/11/02
3:52 PM
Page 266
Page 1 of 3
Byzantines, Russians,
and Turks Interact, 500–1500
Connect History and Geography
Between the 6th and 12th centuries, Christian and Muslim
empires battled in the eastern Mediterranean region. At the
same time, Russia emerged as a powerful force to the north.
The map to the right shows these various empires at their
height. Use the map to answer the questions below.
1. What three empires are shown on the map and in what
time periods?
2. Why might the Dnieper River have been important to
Kievan Russia?
3. What lands did the Seljuk Turks occupy?
4. How does the map indicate that there was
probably conflict between the Byzantine
and Seljuk empires?
For more information about Byzantines,
Slavs, and Turks . . .
CLASSZONE.COM
Yaroslav the Wise was a prince of Kievan
Russia who created an important legal code.
527
Justinian becomes ruler
of Byzantine Empire.
266
850s
Byzantine culture
spreads to Russia.
266-267-0311co
10/11/02
3:52 PM
Page 267
Page 2 of 3
Three Empires: Byzantine, Russian, Seljuk, 565–1100
0°
SC
A
Arctic Cirlce
VIA
NA
I
D
N
Sea
60°N
SWEDEN
U ral
B l a ck S e a
ea
an S
Constantinople
Sardinia
Ti
Sicily
Crete
d i t e r ra
Cyprus
Eu
Me
s R.
gri
Balearic
Is.
Rome
Riv e
ph
Alexandria
Jerusalem
EGYPT
Ri
PERSIA
v er
ARABIA
In
G u lf
r
Re
ea
d S
Nile Rive
A F R I C A
Byzantine Empire c. 565
an
rsi
Pe
Cairo
30°N
Bukhara
Baghdad
ra
tes
n e a n S eDamascus
a
A S I A
spi
Toledo
Cordoba
nube
r
Ca
Corsica
SPAIN
Da
ver
er
Riv
s River
Venice
ive
r
FRANCE
Ri
Do n R
Kiev
GERMANY
Dniepe r
ENGLAND
ATLANT IC
O CEAN
r
Rive
E U R O P E
du
ti c
Volga
Bal
Novgorod
INDIA
Medina
Tropic of Cancer
Mecca
Kievan Russia c. 1100
Arabian
Sea
Seljuk Empire c. 1100
0
0
500
500
1000 Miles
1000 Kilometers
Winkel II Projection
N
Equator
0°
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
INDIAN OCEAN
0°
1054
Christianity splits into Roman
Catholic and Orthodox branches.
0°
60°E
1240
Kiev destroyed
by Mongols.
1480
Ivan III ends Mongol
control of Russia.
268-0311s1
10/11/02
3:53 PM
Page 269
Page 3 of 3
Interact with History
Y
ou are a Byzantine diplomat working to serve the best
interests of your emperor and your empire. Byzantium is
threatened by a rampaging army moving from the north down
to Constantinople. You know that diplomacy, or clever
negotiating with foreign powers, has been important in
preserving Byzantium from destruction.
Your mission is to convince the invading chief to stop
advancing on the city. Will you threaten the chief with military
retaliation, try to buy him off, or arrange a marriage between
him and a Byzantine noblewoman to form an alliance?
How will you save
the empire?
EXAMINING
As the Byzantine ambassador, you may be
proposing to pay yearly tribute to the invading
chief if he will just leave the empire alone.
the
If shrewdness and good
sense fail, a display of
Byzantine military forces
might scare the enemy away.
ISSUES
You may also be offering the chief a lavish, all-expense-paid trip
to Constantinople. Such visits could impress potential invaders
with Byzantine hospitality, wealth, and (above all) power.
EXAMINING
As you weigh your options, consider
• the advantages of diplomacy
over war
• new diplomatic strategies to stop
the coming attack
the
ISSUES
Which option(s) will you choose?
Explain your choice(s).
As you read this chapter, think about
how empires keep themselves alive over
long periods of time.
• circumstances that might convince
you to recommend war
title 269
269-273-0311s1
10/11/02
1
3:53 PM
Page 269
Page 1 of 5
Byzantium Becomes
the New Rome
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Constantinople ruled an eastern empire
that survived for over a thousand years.
Byzantine culture deeply influenced
Orthodox Christianity, a major branch
of modern Christianity.
TERMS & NAMES
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Justinian Code
Hagia Sophia
patriarch
icon
iconoclast
excommunication
schism
Cyrillic alphabet
SETTING THE STAGE The western Roman Empire crumbled in the 5th century as it
was overrun by invading Germanic tribes. (See Chapter 6.) The threat to the empire,
however, was already apparent in the 4th century. Emperor Constantine rebuilt the
old port city of Byzantium on the Bosporus strait for two reasons. In Byzantium, he
could respond to the danger of the Germanic tribes. He could also be close to his rich
eastern provinces. He renamed the city Constantinople and in the year 330, he made
it the capital of the empire.
A New Rome in a New Setting
Constantine planned Constantinople as the new capital of the empire—the New
Rome. As a result of his decision, the empire’s center of power moved eastward. The
eastern provinces then began to develop independently of the declining West. An
eastern empire would gradually come into being.
Justinian: A New Line of Caesars Because of the difficulties of communication
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Drawing
Conclusions How
could a historian like
Procopius give two
such different
accounts of the same
person? Which do you
believe?
A. Possible
Answers Procopius
may have been biased
in both cases: to
please the emperor
with the favorable
account; to express
his dislike of the
emperor with the
unfavorable one.
There may be some
truth in both descriptions.
between the eastern and troubled western parts of the empire, they were officially
divided in two in 395. Despite this separation, Constantine’s successors in the East
continued to see themselves as Roman emperors. In 527, a high-ranking Byzantine
nobleman named Justinian succeeded his uncle to the throne of the eastern empire.
In his official writings, court historian Procopius (pruh KOH pee uhs)
described Justinian as a serious, even-tempered ruler who worked from dawn to
midnight. But in The Secret History (a book of gossip published after Justinian’s
death), Procopius portrays Justinian as “deceitful, devious, false, hypocritical,
two-faced, cruel, skilled in dissembling his thought, never moved to tears by
either joy or pain . . . a liar always.”
Whatever his true character, the new emperor quickly decided to
make good on his claim to be the head of the whole Roman Empire—
of both eastern and western parts. In 533, he sent his best general
Belisarius (behl uh SAIR ee uhs) to recover North Africa from the
Vandals. Belisarius got the job done in a few months. Two years later,
Belisarius attacked Rome and took it from the Ostrogoths. But the city
was repeatedly attacked by other Germanic tribes. In the next 16 years,
Rome changed hands six times. After numerous campaigns, Justinian’s
armies won nearly all of Italy and parts of Spain. Justinian now ruled almost
all the territory that Rome had ever ruled. He could honestly call himself a new Caesar.
•
•
•
•
•
Both sides of this
gold medallion
display Emperor
Justinian as a
military commander.
But the coin really
celebrates a victory
by General
Belisarius. The
emperor often
feared that the
general’s popularity
would outshine his
own.
•
•
The Absolute Power of the Emperors Like the last of the old Caesars, the
Byzantine emperors ruled with absolute power. They headed not just the state but
the Church as well. They appointed and dismissed bishops at will. The politics, however, were brutal, not spiritual. Emperors lived under constant risk of assassination.
Of the 88 Byzantine emperors, 29 died violently, and 13 abandoned the throne to
live in monasteries.
Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 269
269-273-0311s1
10/11/02
3:53 PM
Page 270
Page 2 of 5
Building the New Rome
A separate government and difficult communications with the West gave the
Byzantine Empire its own character—different from that of the western empire. The
citizens thought of themselves as sharing in the Roman tradition, but few spoke Latin
anymore. Most Byzantines spoke Greek. They also belonged to the eastern branch of
the Christian Church.
To regulate a complex society, Justinian set up a panel of ten legal experts. Between
528 and 533, they combed through 400 years of Roman law and legal opinions. Some
of those laws had become outdated. Some repeated or even contradicted other laws.
The panel’s task was to create a single, uniform code for Justinian’s New Rome.
The result of the panel’s work was a body of civil law known as the Justinian
Code. After its completion, the code consisted of four works.
1. The Code contained nearly 5,000 Roman laws, which the experts still
considered useful for the Byzantine Empire.
Background
Ethnically, the empire
was extremely
diverse. Copts,
Syrians, Thracians,
Armenians, Germans,
Huns, and many other
groups made up its
population.
Vocabulary
code: a general system of laws, from the
Latin codex, meaning
“book.”
2. The Digest quoted and summarized the opinions of Rome’s greatest legal
thinkers about the laws. This massive work ran to a total of 50 volumes.
3. The Institutes was a textbook that told law students how to use the laws.
4. The Novellae (New Laws) presented legislation passed after 534.
The Justinian Code decided legal questions that regulated whole areas of Byzantine
life. Marriage, slavery, property, inheritance, women’s rights, and crimes were just
some of those areas. Although Justinian himself died in 565, his code served the
Byzantine Empire for 900 years.
Creating the Imperial Capital While his scholars were creating the legal code,
Justinian launched into the most ambitious public building program ever seen in the
Roman world. He rebuilt the crumbling fortifications of Constantinople. The city’s
coasts were ringed by a 14-mile stone wall. The city was also protected on its only land
approach by a deep moat and three walls. The innermost of these was 25 feet thick and
had towers 70 feet tall. Justinian saw to it that these massive fortifications were repaired.
Church building was the emperor’s greatest passion. His beautiful churches also
helped him show the close connection between church and state in his empire. The
crowning glory of his reign was Hagia Sophia (HAY ee uh soh FEE uh), which means
“Holy Wisdom” in Greek. A church of the
Constantinople, A.D. 550
same name had been destroyed in riots that
swept Constantinople in 532. When
BALKAN
Bl ack
Justinian rebuilt Hagia Sophia, he resolved
PENINSULA S ea
Church of
Gate of
to make it the most splendid church in the
St.
Salvator
Charisius
G
in Chora
Christian world. Down through the cenANATOLIA
Cistern
turies, rich mosaics glittered in the light of a
Cistern
H
thousand lamps and candles. In fact, more
or
Church of
rL
n
Harbor of
the Apostles
than 400 years after Justinian built his catheycu
Phosphorion
s
Aq
ued
dral, the beauty of Hagia Sophia helped
uct
convince visiting Russian nobles that their
Forum of
Forum of
the Ox
Hagia
Cistern
Constantine
country should adopt Byzantine Christianity.
Sophia
Me
Forum of
se
Theodosius
As part of his building program,
Augusteum
Forum of
Hippodrome
Justinian
enlarged his palace into a vast
se Arcadius
Me
Great
complex.
He also built baths, aqueducts,
Harbor of Palace
Harbor of
Julian
Theodosius
law courts, schools, and hospitals. By the
Golden
Sea Wall
time the emperor was finished with his
Gate
projects, the city teemed with an excite.5 Mile
Sea of Marmara 0
ment unmatched anywhere in the eastern
0
1 Kilometer
and western empires.
•
•
•
•
Th
eo
do
siu
s
n
nti
ne
st a
Wall
of
Moat
C on
Wa
ll
of
ve
Mo
de
at
ol
Ri
270 Chapter 11
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Analyzing
Motives Why do you
think governments so
often build magnificent buildings like
Hagia Sophia?
B. Possible Answer
Possibly to impress or
intimidate those they
govern; to impress
foreign powers.
269-273-0311s1
10/11/02
3:53 PM
Page 271
Page 3 of 5
Constantinople’s Hectic Pace The main street running
through Constantinople was the Mese (MEHS ee) or “Middle
Way.” It ran from the imperial complex through a series of public squares and then in two branches to the outer walls.
Merchant stalls lined the main street and filled the side streets.
A stone roof sheltered the crowds shopping in this giant open-air
market. Products from the most distant corners of Asia, Africa,
and Europe passed through these stalls. Shoppers could buy tin
from England, wine from France, cork from Spain, and ivory
and gold from Africa. Fur, honey, and timber came from Russia,
spices from India, and silk from China. Everywhere food stands
filled the air with the smell of their delicacies, while acrobats
and street musicians performed.
Meanwhile, citizens could enjoy free entertainment at the
Hippodrome, which offered wild chariot races and circus acts.
The Hippodrome (from Greek words meaning “horse” and
“racecourse”) held 60,000 spectators. Fans of the different teams
formed rowdy gangs named for the colors worn by their heroes.
In 532, two such factions, the Blues and the Greens, sparked
citywide riots called the Nika Rebellion (because the mob cried
“Nika!” or “Victory!”). Both sides were angry at
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
the government. They felt the city prefect
■HISTORY
■ ■ ■ ■MAKERS
■ ■ ■ ■
(mayor) had been too severe in putting down a ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
previous riot of Hippodrome fans. Even
though Justinian dismissed the prefect, the
mobs were not satisfied. They packed the
Hippodrome and proclaimed a new emperor.
Belisarius, however, broke in with his troops and slaughtered about
30,000 rebels.
Much credit for saving the day must go to Justinian’s wife,
Theodora. As her husband’s steely adviser, Theodora had immense
power. During the Nika Rebellion, when Justinian considered fleeing
the city, Theodora rallied him with a fiery speech:
•
The emperor often
presided over wild
chariot races at the
Hippodrome, as this
fourth-century ivory
carving shows.
When he dropped a
white handkerchief,
the races began.
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
My opinion is that now is a poor time for flight, even though it bring
safety. For any man who has seen the light of day will also die, but one
who has been an emperor cannot endure to be a fugitive. If now you
wish to go, Emperor, nothing prevents you. There is the sea, there are
the steps to the boats. But take care that after you are safe, you do not
find that you would gladly exchange that safety for death.
THEODORA, quoted by Procopius in History of the Wars
Byzantium Preserves Learning
Vocabulary
rhetoric: the study
of how to use spoken
or written language
effectively.
Byzantine families valued education and sent their children to
monastic or public schools or hired private tutors. Basic courses
focused on Greek and Latin grammar, philosophy, and rhetoric. The
classics of Greek and Roman literature served as textbooks. Students
memorized Homer. They learned geometry from Euclid, history
from Herodotus, and medicine from Galen. The modern world owes
Byzantine scholars a huge debt for preserving many of the great
works of Greece and Rome.
Empress Theodora
500–548
The most powerful woman in
Byzantine history rose from deep
poverty. Theodora’s father was a
bear-keeper. Early in life, Theodora
herself was an actress, a despised
profession in Byzantium. But she
caught Justinian’s eye, and in 525,
they married.
As empress, Theodora became
a power in her own right. She met
with foreign envoys, wrote to
foreign leaders, passed laws, and
built churches. During a political
crisis, Theodora even confiscated
the property of the general
Belisarius. After she died in 548,
Justinian was so depressed that he
passed no major laws for the rest
of his reign—a sign of Theodora’s
political influence.
Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 271
269-273-0311s1
10/11/02
3:53 PM
Page 272
Page 4 of 5
The Empire Confronts Its Enemies
Constantinople remained rich and powerful for centuries. After Justinian’s death in
565, however, the empire suffered countless setbacks. There were street riots, religious quarrels, palace intrigues, and foreign dangers. Each time the empire moved to
the edge of collapse, it found some way to revive—only to face another crisis.
The Mysterious Plague of Justinian The first crisis actually began before Justinian’s
death. It was a disease that resembled what we now know as the bubonic plague. This
horrifying illness hit Constantinople in the later years of Justinian’s reign. The plague
probably arrived from India on ships infested with rats. In 542, at its peak, it is estimated
that 10,000 people were dying every day. The illness broke out every 8 to 12 years until
around 700, when it finally faded out. By that time, it had destroyed a huge percentage of
the Byzantine population. The smaller population left the empire exposed to its enemies.
Attacks from East and West Byzantium’s enemies pressed in on all sides.
Lombards overran Justinian’s conquests in the west. Avars, Slavs, and Bulgars made
frequent raids on the northern borders. The powerful Sassanid Persians attacked
relentlessly in the east. The Persians and Avars struck against Constantinople itself in
626. With the rise of Islam, Arab armies attacked the city in 674 and once again in
717. Russians attempted invasions of the city three times between 860 and 1043. In
the 11th century, the Turks took over the Muslim world and fought their way slowly
into Anatolia. The Crusades brought armies of knights from Western Europe who pillaged Constantinople in 1204 on their way to fight the Turks.
As their first line of defense, the Byzantines used bribes, diplomacy, and political
marriages to prop up their shaky empire. These strategies, however, were not enough.
So, in the 7th century, Emperor Heraclius reorganized the empire along military
lines. Provinces became themes, or military districts. Each theme was run by a general
who reported directly to the emperor.
In spite of these measures, the Byzantine Empire slowly shrank under the impact
of foreign attacks. By 1350, it was reduced to the tip of Anatolia and a strip of the
Balkans. Yet thanks to its walls, its fleet, and its strategic location, the city held out for
another 100 years. Finally, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
CONNECT to TODAY
The Orthodox and Roman
Catholic Churches Today
Today, the Orthodox Church has
about 214 million members worldwide. Roman Catholics number about
1 billion. In 1965, the two churches
met to discuss their differences and
explore the possibilities of reunion.
Statements issued in the late
1980s outlined areas of agreement.
Both churches believe that Jesus
established seven sacraments, or
ceremonies, for Christian worship.
Of these sacraments, they consider
Holy Communion the most
important.
They also agree on the need for
priests in the Church. However, as
in the 11th century, they still disagree on the role of the pope, on
the issue of divorce, and on
whether priests may marry.
272 Chapter 11
Background
Except during
Justinian’s reign, the
Byzantine Empire was
relatively small for
most of its 1,000-year
history. The empire
generally included
most of Anatolia,
Greece, and some of
present-day Bulgaria
and the former
Yugoslavia.
The Church Divides
During those many centuries, the Eastern Church in Constantinople
continued to flourish. At the same time, however, distance and lack
of contact slowly caused the doctrines and rituals of Western and
Eastern Christianity to diverge. The Church would eventually split
into the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches.
A Split Between Rome and Constantinople Eastern
Christianity built its heritage on the works of early church fathers.
One was Saint Basil, who, around 357, wrote rules for the life of
monks. Another key figure was Saint John Chrysostom
(KRIHS uhs tuhm). As bishop of Constantinople from 398 to 404,
Chrysostom was the patriarch (PAY tree AHRK), or leading bishop of
the East. But even the patriarch bowed to the emperor.
A controversy that tested the emperor’s authority over religious
matters broke out in the 8th century. In 730, Emperor Leo III
banned the use of icons, religious images used by eastern Christians
to aid their devotions. The emperor thought the use of icons
amounted to idol worship. The army supported the emperor’s view,
and enthusiastic iconoclasts (eye KAHN uh KLASTS), or “icon-breakers,” broke into churches to destroy images. But the people rioted,
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Background
Today, iconoclast
means “someone who
overthrows respected
ideas and traditions.”
269-273-0311s1
10/11/02
Background
Catholic comes from a
Greek word meaning
“universal.” Orthodox
comes from two
Greek words meaning
“right belief.”
3:53 PM
Page 273
Page 5 of 5
The 11th Century: Differences Between Two Christian Traditions
Roman Catholic
Eastern Orthodox
• Services are conducted in Latin.
• Services are conducted in Greek or local
languages.
• The pope has authority over all other bishops.
• The patriarch and other bishops head the
church as a group.
• The pope claims authority over all kings and
emperors.
• The emperor claims authority over the
patriarch and other bishops of the empire.
• Priests may not marry.
• Priests may be married.
• Divorce is not permitted.
• Divorce is allowed under certain conditions.
S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Charts
1. Which church seemed to allow for greater diversity among its members? Why?
2. Who would have more political power: the pope or the patriarch?
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Recognizing
Effects How do you
think the schism in
the Church might
affect political relations between the
Byzantine Empire and
Western Europe?
C. Possible Answer
The schism might
increase distrust and
hostility between the
empire and the West.
It could increase the
isolation of both East
and West.
and the clergy rebelled. In the West, the pope became involved in this eastern dispute
and supported the use of icons. One pope even ordered the excommunication of a
Byzantine emperor—that is, he declared that the emperor was an outcast from the
Church. In 843, more than a hundred years after the controversy began, an order
from an empress named Theodora restored icons to Eastern churches.
Differences between the Eastern and Western churches, however, continued to grow. (See the chart above.) In 1054, matters came to a head
when the pope and the patriarch excommunicated each other in a
dispute over religious doctrine. After this schism (SIHZ uhm), or
split, Christianity was permanently divided between the Roman
Catholic Church in the West and the Orthodox Church in the
East.
A reliquary is a
decorated
container that holds
the remains of holy
persons, called
saints. This tin
reliquary, produced
in the 12th century,
contains pieces of
the bones of Saints
Cyril and
Methodius.
•
Byzantine Missionaries Convert the Slavs As West and
East grew apart, the two traditions of Christianity competed for
souls. Missionaries from the Orthodox Church, for example, took
their form of Christianity north to the Slavs. Two of the most successful eastern missionaries, Saint Methodius and Saint Cyril
(SEER uhl), worked among the Slavs in the 9th century. Cyril and
Methodius invented an alphabet for the Slavic languages. With an
alphabet, Slavs would be able to read the Bible in their own tongues.
Many Slavic languages, including Russian, are now written in what is
called the Cyrillic (suh RIHL ihk) alphabet.
The Orthodox missionaries opened up highways for Byzantine influence in Slavic lands. As these missionaries were carrying out their work
among the Slavs, an important new Slavic nation was forming.
•
•
•
Section 1 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• Justinian Code
• Hagia Sophia
• patriarch
• icon
• iconoclast
• excommunication
• schism
• Cyrillic alphabet
2. TAKING NOTES
Using a cluster like the one below,
show Justinian’s accomplishments
as emperor of the New Rome.
3. ANALYZING MOTIVES
Why do you think Justinian
decided in the late 520s that it
was the right time to reform
Roman law?
THINK ABOUT
Justinian
In your opinion, was Justinian a
great leader? Explain.
• the situation of the empire
• the role of laws in societies
• the state of Roman laws before
reform
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Religious and Ethical
Systems Do you think the
differences between the Eastern
and Western churches could have
been reconciled before the Church
split? Why? Working in small
teams, brainstorm several reasons
why the Church separated. For
each reason, list two or three
ways in which the problems might
have been resolved.
Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 273
274-278-0311s2
10/11/02
2
3:54 PM
Page 274
Page 1 of 5
TERMS & NAMES
Russians Adapt
Byzantine Culture
•
•
•
•
•
•
Slavs
boyars
Olga
Vladimir
Yaroslav the Wise
Alexander
Nevsky
• czar
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Russia grew out of a blending of Slavic
and Byzantine cultures with Eastern
Orthodox traditions.
The early history of Russia separated it
from the West, causing mutual misunderstandings that still exist today.
SETTING THE STAGE At the beginning of the 9th century, the Byzantines regarded
the forests north of the Black Sea as a wilderness. In their minds, those forests were
inhabited only by “barbarians,” who sometimes made trouble along their borders.
They would soon consider these Slavic peoples as fellow Byzantine Christians.
Both Slavic and Greek
Midway through the 9th century, the Slavs—the people from the forests north of
the Black Sea—began trading with Constantinople. As they traded, they began
absorbing Greek Byzantine ideas. Russian culture grew out of this blending of Slavic
and Greek traditions.
The Land of Russia’s Birth Russia’s first unified territory originated west of the Ural
Mountains in the region that runs from the Black Sea to the Baltic. Hilly grasslands
are found in the extreme south of that area. The north, however, is densely forested,
flat, and swampy. Slow-moving, interconnecting rivers allow boat travel across these
plains in almost any direction. Three great rivers, the Dnieper (NEE puhr), the Don,
and the Volga, run from the heart of the forests to the Black Sea or the Caspian Sea.
In the early days of the Byzantine Empire, these forests were inhabited by tribes of
Slavic farmers and traders. They spoke similar languages but had no political unity.
Sometime in the 800s, small bands of adventurers came down among them from the
north. These Varangians, or Rus as they were also called, were most likely Vikings.
Eventually, the Vikings built forts along the rivers and settled among the Slavs.
•
Slavs and Vikings Russian legends say the Slavs invited the Viking chief Rurik to be
their king. So in 862, he founded Novgorod (NAHV guh rahd), Russia’s first important
city. That account is given in The Primary Chronicle, a history of Russia written by monks
•
Many rivers in
Russia are full of
rocks and dangerous rapids. Vikings
like the ones in this
woodcut would lift
up their boats and
carry them past
those dangers. Even
so, many Vikings
died in Russian
rivers.
274 Chapter 11
•
Background
Like the Greeks, the
Byzantines labeled
anyone who did not
speak Greek as a
“barbarian.”
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Making
Inferences Why
might a territory with
plains and rivers be
difficult to defend
against invaders?
A. Answer Plains
would offer few
natural obstacles to
invaders. Rivers
could actually help
invaders to move into
the territory.
274-278-0311s2
10/11/02
3:54 PM
Page 275
Page 2 of 5
66°N
8°E
48 °
40°E
32°E
E
ic Sea
Balt
vina
Moscow
R.
RUSSIA
ist
V
SAXONY
Od u l a R .
er
Kiev 882
D n ie
per R
.
R.
50°N
BAVARIA
LO
42°N
Y
iat
Da
Rome
ic
Sea
n u b e R.
Black
Sea
Constantinople
Thessalonica
Aegean
Sea
Athens
0
866 90
7 941
Odessa
r
B. Analyzing
Motives Why do you
think Vladimir thought
it was important that
all his subjects
become Christian?
820
W. D
Neman R.
Ad
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
a R.
Volg
Novgorod
500 Miles
Crete
Area of Viking control
Viking invasions
882 Year of invasion
Cyprus
0
1,000 Kilometers
a member of the Kievan nobility paid
a visit to Constantinople and publicly
G E O G R A P H Y S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Maps
converted to Christianity. Her name
1. Human-Environment Interaction Which geographical feature of
was Princess Olga. From 945 to 955,
Russia did Vikings use to further their invasions?
she governed Kiev until her son was
2. Human-Environment Interaction Besides east, what is the other
old enough to rule. Her son resisted
basic direction taken by Vikings in their Eastern European
Christianity. However, soon after Olga’s
invasions? Why do you think they chose to attack in that direction?
grandson Vladimir (VLAD uh meer) came
to the throne about 980, he considered conversion to Christianity. The Primary
Chronicle reports that Vladimir sent out teams to observe the major religions of the
times. Three of the teams returned with lukewarm accounts of Islam, Judaism, and
Western Christianity. But the team from Byzantium told quite a different story:
•
B. Answer
Uniformity in religion
might make people
easier to govern; one
important source of
dissent would be
eliminated. Vladimir
may have wanted to
extend his power
even over his subject's deepest beliefs.
859–878
.
eR
E lb
Kiev Becomes Orthodox In 957,
58°N
BA
M
Background
Vikings could dominate the Slavs partly
because of superior
weaponry. They used
two-edged swords
and battle axes.
Vikings
24°E
•
16°E
The Viking Invasions of
Eastern Europe, 820–941
RD
in the early 1100s. Around 880, a
nobleman from Novgorod named
Oleg moved south to Kiev (KEE ehf),
a city on the Dnieper River. From
Kiev, the Vikings could sail by river
and sea to Constantinople. There
they could trade for the products
from distant lands.
The merchandise they brought to
Constantinople included timber, fur,
wax, honey, and their Slavic subjects
whom they sold as slaves. In fact,
the word slave originates from Slav.
Kiev grew into a principality, a
small state ruled by a prince. As it
did, the Viking nobles intermarried
with their Slavic subjects. They also
adopted Slavic culture. The society
remained strictly divided between
peasant masses and the nobles, or
boyars. Gradually, however, the line
between Slavs and Vikings vanished.
•
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
. . . the Greeks led us to the buildings where they worship their God, and we knew not
whether we were in heaven or on earth. For on earth there is no such splendor or such
beauty, and we are at a loss how to describe it. We only know that God dwells there
among men and . . . we cannot forget that beauty.
from The Primary Chronicle
This report convinced Vladimir to convert to Byzantine Christianity and to make all
his subjects convert, too. In 989, a baptism of all the citizens of Kiev was held in the
Dnieper River. Kiev, already linked to Byzantium by trade, now looked to
Constantinople for religious guidance. Vladimir imported teachers to instruct the people in the new faith. All the beliefs and traditions of Orthodox Christianity flourished
in Kiev. Vladimir appreciated the Byzantine idea of the emperor as supreme ruler of
the church. So the close link between Church and state took root in Russia as well.
Kiev’s Power and Decline
Thanks to its Byzantine ties, Kiev grew from a cluster of crude wooden forts to the
glittering capital of prosperous and educated people. The rise of Kiev marks the
appearance of Russia’s first important unified territory.
Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 275
274-278-0311s2
10/11/02
3:54 PM
Page 276
Page 3 of 5
Kievan Russia Vladimir led the way in establishing Kiev’s power. He expanded his
state west into Poland and north almost to the Baltic Sea. He also fought off troublesome nomads from the steppes to the south.
In 1019, Vladimir’s son Yaroslav the Wise came to the throne and led Kiev to
even greater glory. Like the rulers of Byzantium, Yaroslav skillfully married off his
daughters and sisters to the kings and princes of Western Europe. Those marriages
helped him to forge important trading alliances. At the same time, he created a legal
code tailored to Kiev’s commercial culture. Many of its rules dealt with crimes against
property. For example, Yaroslav’s code called for a fine of three grivnas for cutting off
a person’s finger, but 12 grivnas for plowing over a property line. Yaroslav also built
the first library in Kiev. Under his rule, Christianity prospered. By the 12th century,
Kiev could even boast of having 400 churches. However, the wooden churches proved
to be as temporary as Kiev’s glory.
Power Struggles Bring on Kiev’s Decline The decline of the Kievan state started
with the death of Yaroslav in 1054. Yaroslav had made a crucial error. Yaroslav divided
his realm among his sons—instead of following the custom of passing on the throne to
the eldest son. His sons tore the state apart fighting for the choicest territories. And
because this system of dividing among sons continued, each generation saw new
struggles. The Crusades added to Kiev’s troubles by disrupting trade. Then, just when
it seemed that things could not get worse, they got far worse.
Background
Under Yaroslav’s system, younger brothers
were supposed to
move up to better
properties as their
elders died. However,
the brothers didn’t
always die in the right
order!
Mongol Invasions Favor the Rise of Moscow
In the middle 1200s, a ferocious group of horsemen from central Asia slashed their
way into Russia. These nomads were the Mongols. (See Chapter 12.) They had
exploded onto the world scene at the beginning of the 1200s under Genghis Khan
(JEHNG gihs KAHN), one of the most feared warriors of all time.
Mongols may have been forced to move out by economic or military pressures.
They may have been lured by the wealth of cities to the west. Whatever their reasons
for leaving, Mongols rode their swift horses across the steppes of Asia and on into
•
HISTORY THROUGH ART: Fine Ar t
Christian religious art in the West strives
to show the holy in realistic situations.
Eastern Orthodox icons depict a spiritual
world that is far removed from what
some consider the “real” world. In
Western art, the divine seems near and
familiar. In the East, the divine looks far
from our human level, but like windows,
icons can help believers glimpse heaven.
Connect
to History
Contrast What are the differences between the styles of these
two paintings? Consider the
mother, the child, and the background.
SEE SKILLBUILDER
HANDBOOK, PAGE R20
Connect
Madonna with Child and Angels (about 1463),
Fra Filippo Lippi (Italy)
276 Chapter 11
to Today
Analyzing Go to a house of
worship near you. See if and how
the spiritual is portrayed there.
The Mother of God of Vladimir (12th century), icon commissioned by the grand duke of Kiev
274-278-0311s2
10/11/02
Background
The Mongols may
have been related to
the Huns, who had
helped topple the
Roman Empire. (See
Chapter 6, page 161.)
3:54 PM
Page 277
Page 4 of 5
Europe. Their savage killing and burning won them a reputation for ruthless brutality.
When Genghis Khan died in 1227, his successors continued the conquering that he
had begun. At its fullest extent, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Yellow Sea to
the Baltic Sea and from the Himalayas to northern Russia.
In 1240, the Mongols attacked and demolished Kiev. They rode under the leadership of Batu Khan, Genghis’s grandson. So many inhabitants were slaughtered, a
Russian historian reported, that “no eye remained to weep.” A Roman Catholic bishop
traveling through Kiev five years later wrote, “When we passed through that land, we
found lying in the field countless heads and bones of dead people.” After the fall of
Kiev, Mongols ruled all of southern Russia. For over 200 years, the Mongol Empire in
Russia held power. The empire’s official name was the“Khanate of the Golden
Horde”: Khanate, from the Mongol word for “kingdom”; Golden, because gold was
the royal color of the Mongols; Horde, from the Mongol word for “camp.”
Mongol Rule in Russia Under Mongol rule, the Russians could follow all their
C. Possible
Answers Practical:
Nevsky’s policy preserved Russians from
further violence;
Cowardly: Nevsky
cooperated in the
oppression of the
Russian people.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Analyzing
Motives Do you
approve of Nevsky’s
cooperation with the
Mongols? Was his
policy practical or
cowardly?
usual customs, as long as they made no sign of rebellion. As fierce as they were, the
Mongols tolerated all the religions in their realms. The Church acted as a mediator
between the people and the Mongols. It also pacified the oppressors by praying for
them. Church leaders found a religious meaning in the Mongol occupation of the
country. They explained it as a punishment for the people’s sins.
Icons gained importance at this time, and Russians used the images ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
■HISTORY
■ ■ ■ ■MAKERS
■ ■ ■ ■
to help escape their painful political realities.
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
The Mongols demanded just two things from Russians: slavish obedience and massive amounts of tribute. The Mongols themselves made
sure Russians remained obedient. However, they made local nobles
collect the tribute. As long as the money was delivered, the nobles
could keep their titles. Novgorod’s prince and military hero Alexander
Nevsky, for example, advised his fellow princes to cooperate with the
Mongols. The Russian nobles crushed revolts against the Mongols and
collected oppressive taxes for the foreign rulers. At his death, Nevsky
willed the principality of Moscow to his son Daniel. Daniel founded a
line of princes there that in 200 years would rise to great prominence.
Alexander Nevsky
Mongol rule isolated the Russians more than ever from their
1220?–1263
neighbors in Western Europe, cutting them off from many new ideas
Alexander of Novgorod was about
and inventions. However, during this period, forces were at work that
20 when he carved his name on
would eventually lead to Russia’s liberation and to the rise of a new
Russian history. In 1240, the
Swedes attacked the principality of
center of power: Moscow.
Mongol Rule Serves Moscow’s Interests In some ways, the
Vocabulary
Khan: the Mongol
word for “ruler.”
Mongols actually helped to unite Russia. Kievan Russia had been a
collection of small independent principalities. Mongol rulers looked
upon Russia as their unified empire, and all Russian principalities
had to pay tribute to the Mongol Khan.
The rise of Moscow also began under the Mongols. The city was
first founded in the 1100s. By 1156, it was a crude village protected
by a log wall. Nonetheless, Moscow was located near three rivers: the
Volga, Dnieper, and Don. From that strategic position, a prince of
Moscow who could gain control of the three rivers could eventually
control nearly all of European Russia.
That opportunity for expansion would not arise until the 14th century. In the late 1320s, Moscow’s Prince Ivan I had earned the gratitude of the Mongols by helping to crush a Russian revolt against
Mongol rule. For his services, the Mongols appointed Ivan I as tax
collector of all the Slavic lands they had conquered. They also gave
him the title of “Great Prince.” Ivan had now become without any
Novgorod to stop its expansion.
Alexander soundly defeated the
invading Swedes at the Neva River.
Grateful Russians called him
Nevsky (“of the Neva”) in honor of
his victory.
In 1242, his fame grew even
greater. In that year, the Teutonic
Knights, a brotherhood of Germanic
warriors, invaded the Baltics and
Russia to convert them to
Catholicism. Alexander cut the
German armies to pieces on a
frozen channel between two
lakes—his famous “Battle on the
Ice.” For this victory and for his
long protection of the Russian
church, Alexander was declared a
saint of the Russian Orthodox
Church in 1547.
Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 277
274-278-0311s2
10/11/02
3:54 PM
Page 278
Page 5 of 5
R.
ga
l
Vo
.
60 ° E
.
Sy
Lake
Balkhash
ar ya
.
n Sea
Jerusalem
aspia
s R.
Ti g r i R
es
hrat
Eup
Tabriz
Aral
Sea
rD
C
S
S AIN
SU NT
U
UC
M A
O
hR
Bl ac
k Sea
Sarai (old)
(1242)
Constantinople CA
.
Ir
KHANATE OF THE
GOLDEN HORDE
Sarai (new)
Seljuk
Turks
Ob
R
ty s
rR
Do n R
D n i e pe
RUSSIAN
PRINCIPALITIES
URAL M
OUN
TAIN
S
40°
E
20
°E
Vladimir
(1238)
Moscow
Kiev
(1240)
doubt the most powerful of all Russian
princes. He also became the wealthiest
and was known as “Ivan Moneybags.”
Ivan was also able to convince the
Patriarch of Kiev, the leading bishop of
Eastern Europe, to move to Moscow.
The move enhanced the city’s prestige
and gave Moscow’s princes a powerful
ally: the Church. Ivan I and his successors used numerous strategies to
enlarge their territory: land purchases,
wars, trickery, shrewd marriages. From
generation to generation, they
schemed to gain control over the small
states around Moscow.
80° E
The Khanate of the
Golden Horde, 1294
CHAGATAI
KHANATE
Maragheh
Baghdad I L K H A N A T E
(PERSIA)
(1258)
HI
Vocabulary
enhanced: improved
An Empire Emerges The Russian
state would become a genuine empire
during the long, 43-year reign of Ivan
III (1462–1505). This prince was only a
Khanate of the Golden Horde
at its greatest extent
boy of 13 when Constantinople fell to
d
Capital
In D E L H I
the Turkish Empire in 1453. In 1472,
SULTANATE
(1258) Year of Mongol conquest
0
500 Miles
Ivan III managed to marry the niece of
the last Byzantine emperor. He then
0
1,000 Kilometers
began calling himself czar (zahr), the
G E O G R A P H Y S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Maps
Russian version of Caesar. (The title
1. About how many miles did the Khanate of the Golden Horde
became official only during the reign of
stretch from east to west?
Ivan IV.) By calling himself czar, how2. What people controlled most of the kingdoms surrounding
ever, Ivan III openly claimed to make
Mongol Russia?
Russia the “Third Rome.”
In 1480, Ivan made the final break with the Mongols. He refused to pay their tribute. Following his refusal, Russian and Mongol armies faced each other on either side
of the Ugra River, about 150 miles southwest of Moscow. However, neither side
wanted to fight. So, after a time, both armies turned around and marched home.
Russians have traditionally considered this bloodless standoff as marking Russia’s liberation from Mongol rule. After that liberation, the czars could openly pursue an empire.
The Mongols were not the only conquering people to emerge from central Asia. As
you will learn in Section 3, Turks would begin establishing an empire in Southwest
Asia. In one form or another, their empire would last from the 11th century to the
20th century.
AL
AY
AS
us
R.
M
Background
Rome itself was first;
Constantinople was
the Second Rome; the
third was Russia,
according to Ivan.
Section 2 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• Slavs
• boyars
• Olga
• Vladimir
• Yaroslav the Wise
• Alexander Nevsky
• czar
2. TAKING NOTES
3. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS
Make a chart like the one below
to show the effects of Mongol rule
in Russia.
Nobles
Church
People
Moscow
Princes
How did Vladimir’s conversion to
Christianity affect the citizens,
society, and government of Kiev?
THINK ABOUT
• the laws he passed
• the customs he encouraged
• the policies he followed
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Empire Building The Mongols
were fierce conquerors, and their
rule cut Russia off from the rest of
the world. Even so, their policies
helped to pull Russia together as a
territory. How? Give reasons and
examples from the text to support
your opinion.
THINK ABOUT
• Mongol policies in Russia
• the Church’s attitude toward the
Mongols
• the role and power of the nobility
278 Chapter 11